Master of Business Administration- MBA Semester 3 MB0050 Research Methodology - 4 Credits (Book ID: B1700) Q1.

. Explain the process of problem identification with an example (Process 7 marks, Example 3 marks) Answer : The Process of Problem Identification Many times we face a common problem like, deployed our best team to resolve a problem and have the team execute flawlessly, only to find that the problem that was solved did not address the customers real need? This common situation cause customer and is all too prevalent in todays nonprofit business environment. Creative Problem Solving Buffalo(CPPSB)-Accurately framing the problem is the most important step of the Creative Problem Solving Buffalo (CPSB) process. it provides a structure, language, and tools for targeting opportunities. The problem identification framework under the CPSB model begins with the Task Appraisal Process given here. The Task Appraisal Process has following elements: People Are the right people working on the tasks; do they have the authority and responsibility to take action; what level of sponsorship is being provided; do the people have the necessary knowledge and skill to address the problem? Method How familiar are the people with the problem solving tools/methods that will be used?

The Task Appraisal Process can be applied in a wide range of scenarios. Here are a few examples: Interviewing clients to evaluate and determine which problems to address and more effectively position services. Leading a group of cross functional leaders to develop a consensus on the important issue to solve and streamline the engagement. Improving or repairing relationships with a previous client or organization.

Identifying the Problem and example The selection of appropriate tools and techniques to facilitate the process will depend on the specificity of the issue.

Are they broad challenges or opportunities? (e.g. My grant process takes too long.) Do they need to close the gap between current and future state?(e.g. How can we better understand the grant approval process?) Do they understand their current state? (e.g. "Can we articulate the current cycle time, how much does it cost today? Do we have the data to support our current assumptions?") Tools and Techniques This approach provides users with a variety of tools ranging from idea generation to action planning and these tools used in conjunction with the process guidelines allow the user to achieve the desired result. The power is in the execution and the tools for executing the process are categorized into three areas:

Generating ideas Incremental change or step change will determine the appropriate and most productive use of the nine available tools. Focusing - There are eight tools that can compress a large quantity of options or others that are suited for in-depth analysis and development.

Facilitation It is a leadership role. They need to know how to use a range of creativity methods, tools, and techniques as well as manage group dynamics and move the group toward the desired outcome. Q2.Interview method involves a dialogue between the Interviewee and the Interviewer. Explain the interview method of data collection. What are the uses of this technique? What are the different types of interviews? (Explanation 4 marks, Uses 3 marks, Types 3 marks) Answer : The interview method of data collection : Interview is verbal questioning. In research, Lindzey Gardner has defined interview as a two-person conversation, initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose of obtaining research-relevant information and focused by him on the content specified by the research objectives of description and explanation. Functions of interview: Two major functions of the interview techniques are described as under: Description Exploration Description: The information received from the respondent provides insight into the nature of social reality. Since the interviewer spends some time with the respondents, he can understand their feelings and attitudes more clearly, and seek additional information wherever necessary and make information meaningful for him. Exploration: Interview provides insight into unexplored dimensions of the problem. Characteristics of interview: Black and Champion have pointed out the following characteristics of an interview: Personal communication. Equal status: The status of the interviewer and the interviewee is equal. Instant response. Temporary relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee. Considerable flexibility in the format of the interview. Conditions for a successful interview: Collecting data through the interview technique may be easy, yet its adequacy, reliability and validity pose important problems. Interviewers differ in interest and skill; respondents differ in ability and motivation. Gardner has pointed out three conditions for successful interviewing: Accessibility Understanding Motivations

Uses of interviews The main purposes of the interview for the interviewer are to gather relevant information about the candidates: Interview preparation - interest in and knowledge of the industry, the position and the organization Communication skills - oral presentation skills and the ability to interact with others Qualifications - academic, work, volunteer and other experience Leadership potential and teamwork - demonstrated ability to work with others and to get others to work together Clear and realistic career goals - future plans and awareness of career paths Self awareness - realistic appraisal of self Motivation and success potential - enthusiasm for the position; demonstrated patterns of accomplishment Work ethic - acceptance of responsibility, ability to keep commitments and attitude of the importance of work

Types of interviews: Unstructured: The structure of the interview is flexible. Structured: Is based on the structured interview-guide which is little different from the questionnaire

Standardized: In standardized interviews, answer to each question is standardized as it is determined by a set of response categories given for this purpose. Unstandardized: Is one in which the responses are left open to the respondent. This is used mainly in qualitative research. Individual: Where the interviewer interviews only one respondent at a time. Group interview: More than one respondent are interviewed simultaneously. Panel interviews: The interviewer collects information from the same group of respondents two or more times at regular intervals. Soft interview: Here the interviewer guides the respondents without putting any pressure on them. Personal interviews: There is face to face contact between the interviewer and the interviewee. Non-personal interviews: No face-to-face contact, but the information is collected through telephone, computer or some other medium. Q3.A study of different sampling methods is necessary because precision, accuracy, and efficiency of the sample results depend on the method employed for selecting the sample. Explain the different types of Probability and NonProbability sampling designs. (Probability sampling designs 5 marks, Non- probability designs 5 marks) Answer. Probability Sampling A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must set up some process or procedure that assures that the different units in your population have equal probabilities of being chosen. Humans have long practiced various forms of random selection, such as picking a name out of a hat, or choosing the short straw. These days, we tend to use computers as the mechanism for generating random numbers as the basis for random selection. Some Definitions Before I can explain the various probability methods we have to define some basic terms. These are: N = the number of cases in the sampling frame n = the number of cases in the sample NCn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N f = n/N = the sampling fraction That's it. With those terms defined we can begin to define the different probability sampling methods. Nonprobability Sampling The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. Does that mean that nonprobability samples aren't representative of the population? Not necessarily. But it does mean that nonprobability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have represented the population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. With nonprobability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard for us to know how well we've done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random sampling methods over nonprobabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling. Here, we consider a wide range of nonprobabilistic alternatives. We can divide nonprobability sampling methods into two broad types: accidental or purposive. Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach the sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important distinctions among these types of sampling methods are the ones between the different types of purposive sampling approach Q4. a. Differentiate between descriptive and inferential analysis of data. (Differences 5 marks) Answer : Descriptive and inferential analysis of data

Descriptive analysis of data Descriptive statistics includes statistical procedures that we use to describe the population we are studying. The data could be collected from either a sample or a population, but the results help us organize and describe data. Descriptive statistics can only be used to describe the group that is being studying. That is, the results cannot be generalized to any larger group. Descriptive statistics are useful and serviceable if you do not need to extend your results to any larger group. However, much of social sciences tend to include studies that give us universal truths about segments of the population, such as all parents, all women, all victims, etc. Frequency distributions, measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode), and graphs like pie charts and bar charts that describe the data are all examples of descriptive statistics. Inferential analysis of data Inferential statistics is concerned with making predictions or inferences about a population from observations and analyses of a sample. That is, we can take the results of an analysis using a sample and can generalize it to the larger population that the sample represents. In order to do this, however, it is imperative that the sample is representative of the group to which it is being generalized. To address this issue of generalization, we have tests of significance. A Chisquare or T-test, for example, can tell us the probability that the results of our analysis on the sample are representative of the population that the sample represents. In other words, these tests of significance tell us the probability that the results of the analysis could have occurred by chance when there is no relationship at all between the variables we studied in the population we studied. b. Explain with examples various measures of Central Tendency. (Differences 5 marks) Answer: Measures of Central Tendency The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but under different conditions, some measures of central tendency become more appropriate to use than others. In the following sections, we will look at the mean, mode and median, and learn how to calculate them and under what conditions they are most appropriate to be used. Mean (Arithmetic) The mean (or average) is the most popular and well known measure of central tendency. The mean is equal to the sum of all the values in the data set divided by the number of values in the data set. So, if we have n values in a data set and they have values x1, x2, ..., xn, the sample mean, usually denoted by (pronounced x bar), is:

When not to use the mean For example, consider the wages of staff at a factory below: Staff Salary 1 15k 2 18k 3 16k 4 14k 5 15k 6 15k 7 12k 8 17k 9 90k 10 95k

The mean salary for these ten staff is $30.7k. Median The median is the middle score for a set of data that has been arranged in order of magnitude. The median is less affected by outliers and skewed data. In order to calculate the median, suppose we have the data below: 65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92 We first need to rearrange that data into order of magnitude (smallest first):

14

35

45

55

55

56

56

65

87

89

92

Our median mark is the middle mark - in this case, 56 (highlighted in bold). It is the middle mark because there are 5 scores before it and 5 scores after it. Mode The mode is the most frequent score in our data set. On a histogram it represents the highest bar in a bar chart or histogram. You can, therefore, sometimes consider the mode as being the most popular option. An example of a mode is presented below:

Q5. The chi-square test is widely used in research. Discuss the various applications of chi-square test. Under what conditions is this test applicable? (Meaning 3 marks, Applications 4 marks, Conditions 3 marks) 10 marks Answer : Chi-Square Test meaning Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data with data we would expect to obtain according to a specific hypothesis. For example, if, according to Mendel's laws, you expected 10 of 20 offspring from a cross to be male and the actual observed number was 8 males, then you might want to know about the "goodness to fit" between the observed and expected. Were the deviations (differences between observed and expected) the result of chance, or were they due to other factors. How much deviation can occur before you, the investigator, must conclude that something other than chance is at work, causing the observed to differ from the expected. The chi-square test is always testing what scientists call the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the expected and observed result. The formula for calculating chi-square is: (o-e)2/e That is, chi-square is the sum of the squared difference between observed (o) and the expected (e) data (or the deviation, d), divided by the expected data in all possible categories. Application There are two applications that you will be asked to learn. The first tests if two (or more) proportions are all the same. A typical application would be to test if 6 sided die has each part turn up with equal likelihood. Here the expected values for each side is one sixth of the number of roles, and the degrees of freedom is 5, one less than the number of categoriesl. The test statistic for the general case that has k possible outcomes is:

where the Expi = ( 1k )Total, and degrees of freedom = k1 Example (Comparing multiple proportions) A university has open house three times in the spring, and attendance is as follows. March - 55 visitors, April - 73 visitors and in May 52 visitors. Test if each month had about a third of the visitors. i. ii. Set up null hypothesis: Ho: Each month had 1/3 of the visitors. Get data and determine the expected number of visitors per month if each month had a third of the total. Total visitors = 55 + 73 + 52 = 180. Thus the expected number per month = (1/3)180 = 60 visitors

iii. iv.

v.

Choose test: Decide on the chi-square test with 2 degrees of freedoml. Calculate the test statistic and p-value: o = (5560)60 + (7360)60 +(5260)60 = 4.3. o p-value = P( > 4.3) = 0.116 State Conclusion: the data does not show that the one month is prefered over another.

Note even though I use the word "proportions", we actually only use the tallies or count values. A more common application of this statistical test is to determine if two groups have the same set of proportions for a set of a categorical variable. In other words, this test can be used to determine if one trait (say a person's gender) has bearing on the outcome of another trait (how that person voted.) The process for this test is similar to the previous one except that the expected values require you to adjust the number of representatives from each group. Thus:

where the Expi, j = (Total in group "i")(Total in category "j") (Grand Total), and degrees of freedom = # of categories 1 Example (Comparing two distributions) Is there a difference in how people vote depending on their gender? Here is a typical exit poll result from the 2008 election. Of the 200 male voters 85 voted democratic, 90 voted republican, and the rest for another party. Of the 300 women voters polled, 165 voted democratic and 130 republican. Set up a contigency table and test if the two groups voted differently. i. ii. Set up null hypothesis: Ho: The two groups voted in a similar distribution.. Get data and determine the expected number of votes if the two groups were identical. Observed Values Dem Male Female Total 85 165 250 Rep 100 130 230 Other 15 5 20 Total 200 300 500 Dem 200(.5) = 100 300(.5) = 150 250 (50%) Expected Values Rep 200(.46) = 92 300(.46) =138 230 (46%) Other 200(.04) = 8 300(.04) = 12 20 (4%) Total 200 300 500

iii. iv.

v.

Choose test: Decide on the chi-square test with 2 degrees of freedom. Calculate the test statistic and p-value: o = (85100) 100 + (10092) 92 +(158) 8 + + (165150) 150 + (130138) 138 +(512) 12 = 15.1. o p-value = P( > 15.1) = 0.0005 State Conclusion: the data shows that there is a difference between the voting patterns of men and women.

Additional Applications The chi-square test has other applications. Two common ones are: 1. A test to analyze the sample variance and to evaluate its confidence interval, and 2. A test to compare an observed distribution to a theoretical one. You will not be held responsible for either of these procedures. conditions is this test applicable: Chi-square test is an approximate test for large values of n. for the validity of chi square test of goodness of fit between theory and experiment, the following conditions must be satisfied: 1. The sample observations should be independent.

2. Constraints on the cell frequencies, if any , should be linear, eg., ni = i or Oi = Ei. 3. N, the total frequency should be reasonably large, say, greater than 50. 4. No theoretical cell frequency should be less than 5. Distribution is essentially a continuous distribution but it cannot maintain its character of continuity if cell frequency is less than5, then for the application of chi square test, it is pooled with the preceding or succeeding frequency so that the pooled frequency is more than 5 and finally adjust for the degrees of freedom lost in pooling. Q6. What is analysis of variance? What are the assumptions of the technique? Give a few examples where this technique could be used. (Meaning 3 marks, Assumptions 4 marks, Examples 3 marks) 10 marks Answer : 'Analysis Of Variance - ANOVA' A statistical analysis tool that separates the total variability found within a data set into two components: random and systematic factors. The random factors do not have any statistical influence on the given data set, while the systematic factors do. The ANOVA test is used to determine the impact independent variables have on the dependent variable in a regression analysis. Assumption of Technique The Assumption Technique is the simplest and most easily performed economic base analysis technique. Recalling that our goal is to allocate all local employment to basic or non-basic sectors, the assumption technique literally "assumes" that certain industries are inherently basic sector jobs and others are non-basic sector jobs. When utilizing this technique, it is common practice to assume that ALL manufacturing, mining, agriculture, and federal and state governments are basic sector activities because (it is assumed) they rely largely upon non-local conditions. In contrast, all other industries are assumed to be non-basic, or entirely dependent upon local conditions. From these very rudimentary assumptions, estimates as to the Total Basic and Total Non-Basic Employment for an area can be made. Then, using the formula for the Base Multiplier presented on the Economic Base Page, a multiplier can be calculated for your local area. Assumption Technique (Example: King County) Example Using SIC Code data for King County in 1994, we can illustrate the Assumption Technique. In Table 1 are presented the employment figures for the Major Industrial Sectors. Table 1: King County Employment by Major Industrial Sector, 1994 Industrial Sector Agriculture Mining Construction Manufacturing TPU Wholesale Trade Retail Trade FIRE Services Unclassified Total Employment Employment 7,847 697 55,146 179,691 61,430 67,643 153,268 72,523 239,308 2,744 840,297

In Table 2 we can begin to apply our Assumption Technique. We have assumed that King County's Agriculture, Mining, and Manufacturing sectors are basic and all other sectors are non-basic. This is the most basic application of this Technique. Table 2: Assumption Technique Applied Industrial Sector Agriculture Mining Construction Manufacturing TPU Wholesale Trade Retail Trade FIRE Services Unclassified Totals Employment 7,847 697 55,146 179,691 61,430 67,643 153,268 72,523 239,308 2,744 840,297 Basic or Non-Basic Basic Basic Non-Basic Basic Non-Basic Non-Basic Non-Basic Non-Basic Non-Basic Non-Basic 188,235 179,691 61,430 67,643 153,268 72,523 239,308 2,744 652,062 Basic Non-Basic Employment Employment 7,847 697 55,146

In Table 2 we have also calculated totals for our Basic and Non-Basic Sectors so that we can then calculate our Base Multiplier. In Table 2 we see that Basic employment totals 188,235 and Non-basic employment totals 652,062. Using the Base Multiplier formula: Base Multiplier = Total Employment Year i =840,297 =4.46 Basic Employment Year i =188,235 Example Results

In this example, King County has a Base Multiplier of 4.46 when calculated using the Assumption Technique. This multiplier estimates that for every one Basic Sector job created, 3.46 Non-basic Sector jobs are created.

Discussion Questions

Would an employer like Boeing be pleased with these results? Would this finding help or hinder their argument that they deserve special tax consideration by the county? What problems/limitations do you see with this technique? In the King County example above, data from the Major Industrial Sectors was used. What would happen if the assumption technique were applied at a finer level of data, say, the Three-Digit level? Would some of your assumptions change? How so? Give two examples of how your assumptions would change if you were to use the Assumption Technique for King County at the Three-Digit Level.