3. 3.1.

IN-SERVICE TESTING OF CT-METERED INSTALLATIONS Introduction

Electrical utilities have significant concerns about revenue loss due to inaccuracies from metering. Metering inaccuracies are caused by installation errors, aging and environmental failures, and theft. Studies have consistently shown that the majority of revenue loss in their system comes from their CT-metered installations. This occurs because these are the larger customers of the utility such that an error will create obviously a much larger loss and because CT installations are more complex and comprise more components resulting in a higher probability of failures. The attached Table presents the 32 different failure modes that you can have in a CT-metered installation. In nearly all cases these failure modes result in errors in favor of the customer resulting in under-billing of the customer. To protect against this revenue loss, utilities have implemented in-service testing of their CT-metered installations. These test programs may consist of ratio testing, burden testing, ratio/burden testing, and wire verification testing. 3.2. Ratio Testing

Ratio testing involves simultaneously measuring the primary current and the secondary current in order to calculate the operating ratio of the circuit. This ratio value is compared to the rated ratio to determine the percent error for that CT. Ratio values greater than the rated ratio result in under-billing and ratio values less than the rated ratio result in over-billing. As presented in the Table, ratio errors can be caused by manufacturer error, shorting bar left connected at the CT, shorted primary turns, shorted secondary turns, magnetization, etc. Most utilities use an error threshold of plus or minus 2 percent to determine adequate ratio performance of installed CTs. Others choose to have an error threshold of 1 percent for their large CT customers and 2 percent for their smaller CT customers. 3.3. Burden Testing

Burden testing of CT-metered installations involves measuring the secondary current of the CT circuit while introducing additional burden in graduated steps, usually up to the rated burden of the CT, into the circuit and assuming constant customer load during the duration of the test. If the measured secondary current remains constant during the duration of the test then the CT is deemed to have passed the burden test as rated. This allows the determination of the performance of the CT under the build up of additional burden in order to evaluate future performance if such additional burden does occur. If the customer load does change sometime during the burden test then the secondary current will correspondingly change giving a false indication of burden error. This is a major limitation of burden testing. As presented in the Table, burden errors can be caused by excessively long secondary wires, wrong wire gauge, loose connections, corroded connections, etc. In a majority of cases, burden errors are caused by loose or corroded connections in the secondary circuit. Hence when a burden error is detected a tightening of the screws in that circuit will usually correct the error. Otherwise, a search for and elimination of the high burden component will be necessary.

3.4.

Ratio/Burden Testing

The dependence on constant customer load during the duration of the test is a major limitation for burden testing. To overcome this limitation, a technique called ratio/burden testing is recommended. Ratio/burden testing involves measuring the CT ratio while imposing a series of additional burdens into the secondary circuit usually up to the rated burden of the CT. In this test any customer load change will create a corresponding change in both the primary current and the secondary current so that the ratio should be unaffected. Hence any change in the ratio value during the test will unquestionably be due to burden error.

3.5.

Wire Verification

Wiring errors in CT-metered installations are detected through use of phase angle analysis of the primary current signal, secondary current signal, and secondary voltage signal. For a particular meter type and secondary wiring network there will be an appropriate phase angle relationship among these signals. Errors in wiring such as CT reversal, CT cross phasing, or CT-PT cross phasing will introduce particular additional phase shifts that are readily identifiable indicating the presence of a wiring error. 3.6 Comprehensive CT-System Testing

To assure the absence of all of the possible 32 failure modes that can occur in a CT-metered installation (see Table) a comprehensive in-service test is required that comprises ratio testing, ratio/burden testing, and wire verification testing in tandem. Passing a comprehensive test assures accurate CT and secondary circuit performance at that site. 4. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 EXAMPLES OF CT CIRCUIT FAILURES CT with Shorted Turns Wrong Selection of Dual Ratio CT Magnetized CT Burden Failure in Secondary Circuit Wiring Error