The History of Indonesia

Year 100 - 1500 1500 - 1670 1670 - 1800 1800 - 1830 1830 - 1910 1910 - 1940 1940 - 1945 1945 - 1950 1950 - 1965 1965 - 1998 Era Ancient Kingdoms and the Coming of Islam Great Kings and Trade Empires Court Intrigues and the Dutch Chaos and Resistance Dutch Imperialisme New Nationalism Perang Dunia II War of Independence The Sukarno years The Suharto years

100 - 1500 (Ancient Kingdoms and the Coming of Islam)

about 100 "Dvipantara" or "Jawa Dwipa" kingdom is reported by Indian scholars to be in Java and Hinduism, one of Indonesia's five religions. Sumatra. Early civilization in Java and Sumatra was heavily Prince Aji Saka introduces writing system to influenced by India. Today's cultures in Indonesia, Java based on scripts of southern India. and even the language, still show influences from the Hindu kings rule the area around Kutai on Sanskrit language and literature. Kalimantan. (The first thousand years or so of this timeline are not "Langasuka" kingdom founded around Kedah well-documented. Dates are approximate.) in Malaya. about 400 Taruma kingdom flourishes in West Java. about 425 Records from these days in Indonesia are scarce, but we do know that sophisticated cultures already existed. The kings and cities of Sumatra and Java are mentioned in records from China, because ambassadors were sent there. Arabs and Persians knew about the area from traders, and even the Greeks and Romans had very distant reports. Buddhism reaches Sumatra. Records from inside Indonesia are very few, though, since writing was done on palm leaves and other materials that did not survive well. Much of our knowledge comes from stone buildings and inscriptions. By the time we start to get a clear history of Java and Sumatra, there are already great buildings in stone, fine sculptures, classical music and dance, much as we know them today. In these early days, many new plants were introduced into Indonesia, including pepper and teak.

about 500 Beginning of Srivijaya Palembang, in Sumatra. about 600 Settlers from India arrive in the area of Prambanan in central Java. Melayu kingdom flourishes around present-day Jambi on Sumatra. about 650 Taruma kingdom in West Java is taken by Srivijaya. about 670 kingdom near

Chinese traveller I Ching visits Palembang, capital of Srivijaya. Hindu temples built in the high Dieng plateau of central Java. 686 Srivijaya sends expedition against kingdoms in By now, Srivijaya had also conquered Kedah, on the Java. Malay peninsula. about 700 Suwawa kingdom Sulawesi. about 770 Sailendra King Borobudur. Vishnu begins building flourishes in North

Beginning of building activity on the plain of Buddhism, one of Indonesia's five religions. Prambanan. about 790 Sailendra kingdom attacks and defeats Chenla The Sailendra kings remembered that their ancestors (today Cambodia); rules over Chenla for about came from what is now Thailand or Cambodia. 12 years. about 825 Borobudur Borobudur is a huge Buddhist monument covering a volcanic hill a few miles between present-day Sailendra King Samaratunga, grandson of Magelang and Yogyakarta. It is in levels representing Vishnu, finishes Borobudur. the stages to enlightenment. The large central stupa is empty. The many beautiful relief sculptures may have been used to educate young monks. about 835 Patapan of Sanjaya takes Sailendra throne, By this time, Buddhist culture had spread as far east replaces Buddhism on Java with Hinduism. as Lombok. King Balitung rules in central Java. about 850 Balaputra, claimant to Sailendra throne, takes From about this time we have a version of the power in Srivijaya. Ramayana epic in the Old Javanese language. The New Sanjaya king Daksa in central Java begins work is sophisticated, and there were probably many building Hindu temples at Prambanan. earlier such works in Old Javanese that have not survived. King Warmadewa rules on Bali. 929 A major eruption of Mount Merapi in 928 or 929 may Sanjaya King Mpu Sindok moves court from have been the reason that the king of Mataram and Mataram to East Java (near Jombang). many of his subjects moved east. about 947

Sri Isana Tunggawijaya, daughter of Mpu Sindok, succeeds Mpu Sindok as ruler in East Java. about 975 King Udayana of Bali, father of Airlangga, is born. 985 Dharmavamsa becomes king of Mataram. He Dharmavamsa is also remembered for ordering the conquers Bali and founds a settlement in translation of the Mahabharata into Javanese. western Kalimantan. 990 Dharmavamsa and Mataram send an army overseas to attack Srivijaya and take Palembang, but fail. 1006 Srivijaya attacks and destroys the capital of Mataram. The palace is burned, and Dharmavamsa is killed. Airlangga (then 15 years old) escapes the destruction. 1017 Rajendra Chola, king of Coromandel in India, attacks Srivijaya. 1019 Airlangga takes rule in eastern Java, founds Kahuripan kingdom, makes peace with Airlangga is remembered in today's Indonesia as a Srivijaya, protects both Hindus and Buddhists. model of religious tolerance. He spent his early years He extends his rule over central Java, eastern living in the forests as an ascetic. Java, and Bali. 1025 Around this time, Tumasik was a small kingdom on Rajendra Chola of southern India takes Malay the site of today's Singapore. It may have been peninsula from Srivijaya for twenty years. influenced by the newcomers from southern India. Airlangga extends the power and influence of Also around this time, the Panai kingdom was Kahuripan as Srivijaya is weakened. flourishing in the Batak areas of northern Sumatra. 1045 Airlangga divides Kahuripan into two kingdoms, Janggala (around today's Malang) and Kediri, for his two sons, and abdicates to live the life of an ascetic. He passes away a year later. 1068 Vira Rajendra, king of Coromandel, conquers Kedah from Srivijaya.

1135 Joyoboyo is remembered for a prophecy that Indonesia would be ruled by a white race for a long King Joyoboyo takes rule in Kediri until 1157. time, then a yellow race for a short time, then be independent. 1221 Ken Angrok, local ruler of Tumapel, defeats the forces of Kediri (Battle of Genter). 1222 Putri Dedes was the wife of Ken Angrok. She was the daughter of a Buddhist priest who was stolen away by the governor of Tumapel on Java. Ken Angrok himself stole Putri Dedes away from her first husband to be his wife, but she was already pregnant, and her son (later King Anusapati) was actually the son of the governor, Tunggul Ametung. Eventually Ken Angrok conspired to have Tunggul Ametung killed so that he could become ruler of Tumapel. Tumapel paid tribute to Kediri until Ken Angrok became powerful enough to conquer Kediri for himself in 1222. The last ruler of Kediri, Kertajaya, was considered cruel and overbearing. Putri Dedes was long remembered as the mother of the royal line of Singhasari, and later Majapahit, Mataram, Yogya and Solo. 1227 Ken Angrok dies, and is succeeded by By now, Jambi was an independent kingdom on Anusapati. Sumatra. 1247 Tradition says that the kings of Singhasari during this Anusapati dies after a peaceful 20-year reign. period were all murdered by their successors, as part Tohjaya, son of Ken Angrok by a concubine, of the feud arising from Ken Angrok stealing away becomes king of Singhasari. Putri Dedes. 1250 Tohjaya is killed in a rebellion and replaced as king by by Wisnuwardhana, son of Anusapati. 1268 King Wisnuwardhana of Singhasari dies, and is succeeded by Kertanegara. Kertanegara promotes a mixture of Hinduism and Buddhism. 1275 Kertanegara conquers the Melayu kingdom around Jambi on Sumatra.

Ken Angrok founds the Singhasari kingdom.

1280 A group of Javanese from Kediri, unhappy with Kertanegara, settle around Kutai in Kalimantan. 1281 Muslims from Jambi send an embassy to Kublai Khan. 1284 Kertanegara takes Bali for Singhasari. 1289 Kublai Khan sends messengers to Singhasari to demand tribute; Kertanegara slashes their faces and sends them home. 1290 Kertanegara conquers Srivijaya. 1292 Marco Polo visits Sumatra and Java. Kublai Khan prepares invasion fleet of 1000 ships to take Java. Majapahit was one of the few countries of that time to defeat a Mongol invasion, along with Japan and Egypt. However, the Mongol fleet was hit by a typhoon along the way, and was refused permission to land in Champa (in today's Vietnam) to take on supplies. By the time the fleet reached Tuban, the Bali breaks away from Singhasari under Pejeng army was sickened and weak. kings at Ubud. Kertanegara killed in court rebellion; son-inlaw Vijaya retreats and founds new court at Majapahit (today Trowulan), with the help of Arya Wiraraja, local ruler of Madura. November Mongol fleet leaves for Java; lands at Tuban. 1293 Vijaya forms alliance with Mongol forces against remainder of Singhasari in Kediri, led by Jayakatwang. March Combined force of Mongol/Chinese Vijaya being crowned the king of Majapahit, in a soldiers and Majapahit takes Kediri. sculpture from that time. Vijaya returns to Trowulan, then attacks Mongols in a surprise attack. Mongols retreat Vijaya married all four daughters of the former king Kertanegara. and leave Java. November Vijaya is enthroned as king Kertarajasa Jayawardhana of new Majapahit. 1297 Pasai in Sumatra converts to Islam. Sultan Malek Saleh is the first Muslim ruler in what is now Indonesia.

1309 Jayanegara becomes king of Majapahit. 1328 Jayanegara is assassinated, possibly with the Around this time, Odoric of Pordonone, a Franciscan help of Gajah Mada. Tribhuwana Wijayatungga monk from Italy, visited Java, Sumatra, and Dewi (or Queen Suhita), daughter of Vijaya, is Kalimantan. titular head until 1350. 1331 Gajah Madah becomes patih or chief minister of Majapahit, rules as regent. 1333 One of the few areas that were not conquered by Majapahit was the Sundanese area of West Java, the Kingdom of Pajajaran is founded, with its Kingdom of Pajajaran. It occasionally paid tribute to capital at Pakuan near today's Bogor. Majapahit, but was known for its independent behavior. 1334 Hayam Wuruk is born to Tribhuwana Wijayatungga Dewi; heir to line of Majapahit. 1343

Gajah Madah in a statue from the 1300s. Force under Gajah Madah defeats the Pejeng With Gajah Madah as chief minister, the kingdom of king of Bali, Daiem Bedaulu, and takes Bali Majapahit gained control or collected tribute from most of what is now Indonesia. He is remembered for for Majapahit. the "Palapa Oath", saying that he would refuse to eat spices in his food (palapa) until all the islands around were united under one rule. Today in Yogyakarta, the university is named for him. 1344 Arab traveller and writer Ibn Battuta visits Pasai on Sumatra. 1347 Adityavarman had been kept at the court of Majapahit Adityavarman, king of Melayu or Jambi, rules as a boy. When he came of age, he ruled over Melayu Minangkabau for Majapahit. as a vassal of Majapahit, and extended the influence of Majapahit into the Minangkabau areas of Sumatra. 1350 Rajasanegara becomes King of Majapahit. The poet Mpu Tantular of Majapahit, who lived about this time, is remembered for coining the motto Majapahit conquers the Islamic kingdoms of "Bhinneka Tunggal Eka", which is Indonesia's Pasai and Aru (later Deli, near Medan) in national motto today. (The meaning is very similar to northern Sumatra. the United States' "E Pluribus Unum": "Unity in

Diversity".) 1364 Gajah Madah passes away. The many responsibilities that he handled are considered to be too burdensome for one normal person, so his duties are divided between four new government posts. Hayam Wuruk becomes King of Majapahit. 1377 The King of Palembang sent a courier to China, offering his kingdom to the emperor in exchange for Majapahit sends a navy against Palembang, a protection. The Emperor of China accepted the offer, remnant of Srivijaya, and conquers it. and sent officials in return, but by the time the officials got to Palembang, it had already been conquered by Majapahit, and they were executed. 1387 Empu Jamatka founds Banjarmasin. 1389 Hayam Wuruk passes away; beginning of decline of Majapahit. 1400 Aceh converts to Islam. 1401 War of succession begins in Majapahit, lasting About this time, the kings of Gelgel began to rule as four years. The power of Majapahit begins to "dewa agung", or chief king, in Bali. lessen. 1402 Melaka founded by Parameshwara, rebel prince from Palembang. 1404 Parameshwara sends an embassy to Beijing, receives promise of protection from China. 1405 Chinese Admiral Cheng Ho visits Semarang. 1409 Cheng Ho visits Melaka. 1411 Parameshwara visits Beijing on a state visit. 1414

Islam, one of Indonesia's five religions. The Islamic religion had been common among traders in Sumatra and Java for some time. The Singhasari Parameshwara converts to Islam, takes name and Majapahit kingdoms probably had a few Muslims Iskandar Syah. Melaka is now an Islamic involved in their courts. Large-scale conversions to sultanate. Islam began when local kings adopted the new religion. Aceh and Melaka were among the first. Most of Java did not become Muslims until the early 1500s. (Today, over 85% of Indonesians are Muslims.) See also Notes on Islam in Modern Indonesia. 1414 First masjid founded on Ambon island. 1427 Queen Suhita inherits the Majapahit kingdom from Wikramawardhana. 1445 Hindu revolt in Melaka against Islam is suppressed. Thai attack on Melaka is driven back. 1447 Kertawijaya, brother of Suhita, becomes King of Majapahit. He converts to Islam on the advice of his wife, Darawati, a princess of Sunan Ampel in a traditional portrait. Sunan Ampel was the first notable member of the Nine Walis or Champa (in what is now Vietnam). Walisongo, Islamic teachers who worked to spread Sunan Ampel, nephew of Kertawijaya, works Islam around Java in the late 1400s and early 1500s. to spread Islam around Surabaya. See also the separate page on the Walisongo. 1451 King Kertawijaya is murdered and replaced by Rajasawardhana, who hinders the spread of Islam in Majapahit. 1456 Thai attack on Melaka by sea is driven back. Bhre Wengker becomes king of Majapahit after Around this time, Palembang converted to Islam. three years of chaos. 1459 Raja Abdullah of Melaka conquers Kedah and Pahang from the Thais. 1460 Kingdom of Aru (near Deli) on Sumatra becomes independent.

1466 Suraprabhawa becomes king of Majapahit. Kyai Demung founds Sumenep on Madura; breaks away from Majapahit control. 1468 Court rebellion in Majapahit: Bhre Kertabhumi drives Suraprabhawa out of his court at Around this time, many Hindus from Majapahit left Tumapel. Suraprabhawa moves his seat to Java for Bali. Daha, near Kediri. 1475 Ternate and Tidore convert to Islam. 1478 Daha region under Girindrawardhana, a greatgrandson of Kertawijaya, revolts. Majapahit kingdom falls into chaos. Bhre Kertabumi, King of Majapahit at Tumapel, flees to Demak. Girindrawardhana sets himself up as ruler in Majapahit.

By the 1490s, the Portuguese had sailed around the Islamic Kingdom of Demak founded by Raden southern tip of Africa and had landed in India. Patah (or Fattah), a prince of Majapahit (son of King Kertawijaya by a Chinese wife). Masjid founded at Demak. Islamic Sultanate founded at Cirebon, formerly a possession of the Pajajaran King Siliwangi. 1486 Zainal Abidin becomes Sultan of Ternate (until 1500). Court of Majapahit moves to Kediri.

1500 - 1670 (Great Kings and Trade Empires)

1500 Palembang converts to Islam. 1505 Local powers on Java around 1500 included: Demak which was the chief power in Java in the early 1500s. Nearby Jepara participated in many naval expeditions.

Trenggono, grandson of Raden Patah, becomes Surabaya. Some powers that later came under prince of Demak. Surabaya include Gresik, home of Sunan Giri, and Pasuruan. Banten, which was a Hindu power under Pajajaran until the arrival of Sunan Gunungjati. 1509 The goal of the Portuguese was to take control of trade. Later trade empires would include Gowa, Banten, and the Dutch VOC or East India Company. The original goal of all of them was money before political power, but they did not always stick to their original goal.

Portuguese visit Melaka for the first time.

1511 April Portuguese Admiral Albuquerque sets sail from Goa to Melaka. August 10 Albuquerque's forces take Melaka.

The gate to the Portuguese fortress at Melaka. Melaka was the center of the Portuguese trade empire in the Indies in the 1500s. The Sultan of Melaka escapes to Riau. Portuguese in Melaka were attacked every few Portuguese in Melaka destroy a "Javanese" fleet. years by the Sultans of Malaya and Sumatra, Their ship sinks with treasure on way back to Goa. especially Aceh and Johore. Sometimes alliances December Albuquerque sends three ships under da would be formed with powers on Java to attack Breu from Melaka to explore eastwards. the Portuguese. 1512 Da Breu expedition travels from Melaka to Madura, Bali, Lombok, Aru and Banda. Two ships are wrecked at Banda. Da Breu returns to Melaka; Francisco Serro repairs ship and continues to Ambon, Ternate, and Tidore. Serro offers support to Ternate in a dispute with Tidore--his men build a Portuguese post at Ternate. 1513 A force from Jepara and Palembang attacks the Powers on Sumatra included: Portuguese in Melaka, but is repulsed. Aceh, the first major Islamic power in what is March Portuguese send an envoy to King of now Indonesia. It was founded by local rulers of Pajajaran. Portuguese are allowed to build a fort at Lamuri, around today's Banda Aceh, after they Serro wrote to Magellan at this time (who formerly served under Albuquerque, but pledged allegiance to Spain after being refused a promotion) telling Magellan about the riches of the Indies.

Sunda Kelapa (now Jakarta). Portuguese make contact with King Udara, son of were expelled from Pedir (around today's Sigli). Girindrawardhana and ruler over the remnant of After the fall of Melaka to the Portuguese, many Majapahit. Muslim merchants moved their business operations to Aceh, and this caused Aceh to grow Portuguese build factories at Ternate and Bacan. as a trading power. Udara attacks Demak with the help of the King of Palembang where sultans still ruled long after Klungkung on Bali. Majapahit forces are driven the fall of Srivijaya. back, but Sunan Ngudung falls in battle. Many more supporters of Majapahit flee to Bali. 1514 Ali Mughayat Syah is first Sultan of Aceh. 1515 First Portuguese visit Timor. 1518 Sultan Mahmud of Melaka takes power at Johore. The Sultanate of Johore was attacked by the Raden Patah passes away; Yunus becomes Sultan of Portuguese all through the 1520s. Demak. 1520 Aceh begins taking northeast coast of Sumatra. Balinese attack on Lombok. Portuguese traders begin visiting Flores and Solor. Banjar on Kalimantan converts to Islam. 1521 Yunus leads fleet from Demak and Cirebon against the Portuguese in Melaka. Yunus is killed in battle. Trenggono becomes Sultan of Demak. Sultan Trenggono is remembered as a ruler who Portuguese take Pasai in Sumatra; Gunungjati did much to spread Islam throughout East and leaves Pasai for Mecca. Central Java. Last ship of Magellan expedition around the world sails between Lembata and Pantar islands in Nusa Tenggara. 1522 February Portuguese expedition under De Brito Only 18 men survived Magellan's expedition, but arrives on Banda. they returned to Spain with about a ton of cloves, enough to make them wealthy for life. May De Brito expedition arrives at Ternate, builds a Portuguese fort. The arrival of Spanish ships was worrisome to the Portuguese, however, who now had to deal Banten, still Hindu, asks for Portuguese help against with a European competitor in the heart of the Muslim Demak. Spice Islands. Survivors of Magellan's expedition around the world visit Timor. On Bali the King of Gelgel (near today's Klungkung) was the most powerful king in the 1500s.

Portuguese build fort at Hitu on Ambon. 1523 Gunungjati returns from Mecca and settles at Demak, marries sister of Sultan Trenggono. 1524 Gunungjati and son Hasanuddin do both covert and overt missionary work in West Java to weaken the kingdom of Pajajaran and its alliance with the About this time much of Java began to convert to Portuguese. Local ruler of Banten, formerly Islam, including Banten, Mataram and Central dependent on Pajajaran, converts to Islam and joins Java, and Surabaya. Demak's side. Aceh takes Pasai and Pedir in northern Sumatra. 1526 Portuguese build first fort on Timor. 1527 Demak conquers Kediri, Hindu remnant of Majapahit state; Sultans of Demak claims to be successors to Majapahit claims; Sunan Kudus takes part. Demark takes Tuban. Demak, with help from Banten, takes Sunda Kelapa from Pajajaran; renames it Jayakerta. (Credit is given to a "Fatahillah"--or after the Portuguese mispronounciation, "Falatehan"-- but this might be a name given to Sunan Gunungjati.) Pajajaran Kingdom is pushed away from the sea. Kingdom of Palakaran on Madura, based at Arosbaya (now Bangkalan), converts to Islam under Kyai Pratanu. Expeditions from Spain and Mexico try to drive the Portuguese from Maluku. 1529 Spain and Portugal had divided the entire world between themselves in 1494. They continued to Kings of Spain and Portugal agree that Maluku argue for years over the exact position of the should belong to Portugal, and the Philippines dividing circle. A 1524 conference sponsored by should belong to Spain. the Pope did not settle matters. Demak conquers Madiun. 1530 Salahuddin is Sultan of Aceh. Surabaya and Pasuruan submit to Demak. Demak takes Balambangan, the last Hindu state in easternmost Java. Gowa begins expanding from Makassar. Banten extends influence over Lampung. Masjid at Kudus, from the early 1500s. Among the notable figures of this period are the Wali Songo or Nine Walis. See also Notes on Islam in Modern Indonesia.

1536 Major Portuguese attack on Johore. Antonio da Galvo becomes governor of Portuguese post at Ternate; founds Portuguese post at Ambon. Portuguese take Sultan Tabariji of Ternate to Goa due to suspicions of anti-Portuguese activity, replace him with his brother. 1537 Acehnese attack on Melaka fails. Salahuddin of Aceh is replaced by Alaudin Riayat Syah I. 1539 Aceh attacks the Bataks to their south. 1540 Portuguese in contact with Gowa. Sultanate of Butung founded. 1545 Demak conquers Malang. Gowa builds fort at Ujung Pandang. 1546 Demak invades Balambangan without success. Trenggono of Demak dies and is succeeded by Catholicism (Katolik), one of Indonesia's five Prawata. His son-in-law Joko Tingkir expands religions. power from Pajang (near present Sukoharjo). Around this time Portuguese missionaries began St. Francis Xavier travels to Morotai, Ambon, and to spread the Catholic religion in Indonesia, especially in the east. Today Catholicism is one Ternate. of Indonesia's recognized religions. 1547 Aceh attacks Melaka. 1550 Portuguese begin building forts on Flores. 1551 Johore attacks Portuguese Melaka with help from Jepara. Force from Ternate takes control of Sultanate of Jailolo on Halmahera with Portuguese help. 1552 Hasanuddin breaks away from Demak and founds Sultanate of Banten, then takes Lampung for the new Sultanate.

Aceh sends embassy to the Ottoman sultan in Istanbul. 1558 Leiliato leads a force from Ternate to attack the Portuguese at Hitu. Portuguese build a fortress on Bacan. Ki Ageng Pemanahan receives Mataram district from Joko Tinggir, ruling at Pajang. Smallpox epidemic at Ternate. 1559 Sultan Khairun was friendly to St. Francis Xavier, and was known to be a skillful politician who manipulated the Portuguese into doing what he wanted while claiming to be a Portuguese ally. However, in the end the Portuguese threw him in prison and tried to poison him when he would not yield lands to them.

Portuguese missionaries land at Timor. Khairun becomes Sultan of Ternate.

1560 Portuguese found mission and trading post at Panarukan, in easternmost Java. Spanish establish a presence at Manado. 1561 Sultan Prawata of Demak passes away. Portuguese Dominican mission founded on Solor. 1564 Smallpox epidemic at Ambon. 1565 Aceh sacks Johore. Kutai on Kalimantan converts to Islam. 1566 Portuguese Dominican mission on Solor builds a stone fortress. 1568 Unsuccessful attack by Aceh on Portuguese Melaka. 1569 Portuguese build wooden fortress on Ambon island. 1570 Aceh attacks Johore again, but fails. Sultan Khairun of Ternate signs a treaty of

friendship with the Portuguese, but is found poisoned the next day. Portuguese agents are suspected. Babullah becomes Sultan (until 1583), and vows to drive the Portuguese out of their fortress. Maulana Yusup becomes Sultan of Banten. 1571 Alaudin Riayet Shah dies, disorder in Aceh until 1607. 1574 Jepara leads unsuccessful attack on Melaka. 1575 The Portuguese in Ternate were under siege in Sultan Babullah expels the Portuguese from their fortress for five years, and never received Ternate. Portuguese build a fort on Tidore instead. help from Melaka or Goa in India. 1576 Portuguese build fort at the present site of the city of Ambon. 1577 Ki Ageng Pemanahan founds Kota Gede (near today's Yogya). 1579 Banten takes the remaining part of Pajajaran, converts it to Islam. November Sir Francis Drake of England, after raiding Spanish ships and ports in America, arrives at Ternate. Sultan Babullah, who also hated the Spanish, pledges friendship to England. 1580 In the 1500s, the Netherlands were an important business center for Europe, where products from Russia, Scandinavia, Africa, Asia and America Maulana Muhammad becomes Sultan of Banten. were bought and sold. The Netherlands during Portugal falls under Spanish crown; Portuguese that time was ruled by Spain. By 1581, the Netherlands had rebelled against the King of colonial enterprises are disregarded. Spain and had begun to govern themselves. But Drake visits Sulawesi and Java, on the way back to since Spain now had control of the Portuguese England. colonies, the Spanish could prevent Dutch businessmen from easy access to spices from the Ternate takes control of Butung. Indies. This was one reason that Dutch ships began to make their own voyages direct to the Indies in the 1590s. 1581 About this time, Kyai Ageng Pemanahan takes over

A Portuguese map from the late 1500s showing the Indies in rough outlines. This information was kept secret by the Spanish and Portuguese until Dutch and English ships started to make trips to the Indies just before 1600.

Mataram district (which had been promised to him by Joko Tingkir, who delayed until Sunan Kalijaga of the Nine Walis pressed him), changes name to Kyai Gedhe Mataram. 1584 Sutawijaya succeeds his father Kyai Gedhe Mataram as local ruler of Mataram, ruling from Kota Gede. 1585 Sultan of Aceh sends a letter to Elizabeth I of England. 1587 Sutawijaya defeats Pajang and Joko Tingkir dies; lineage passes definitely to Sutawijaya. Mount Merapi erupts. Portuguese in Melaka attack Johore. Portuguese sign a truce with the Sultan of Aceh. Sir Thomas Cavendish of England visits Java. 1588

Senopati in a traditional portrait. From Senopati one can easily trace the lineage of today's Sultan of Yogya and Susuhunan of Sutawijaya changes name to Senopati; takes Pajang Surakarta. Traditionally, the line is traced back and Demak. all the way to the kings of Majapahit. After this point, the power in central Java was definitely in the Mataram district, around today's Yogyakarta and Surakarta, rather than around Demak. 1590 Original village of Medan founded. 1591 Senopati takes Madiun, then Kediri. Sir James Lancaster of England reaches Aceh and Penang, but his mission is a failure. Ternate attacks Portuguese in Ambon. 1593 Ternate lays siege to the Portuguese in Ambon again. 1595 April 2 Dutch expedition under De Houtman leaves Many Dutch sailors had worked on Spanish and

for Indies. Portuguese ships. When De Houtman's Dutch Suriansyah makes Banjar on Kalimantan a Sultanate expedition set sail, there were experienced (later Banjarmasin). crewmen available to guide them to the Indies. Portuguese build fort at Ende, Flores. 1596 June 5 De Houtman expedition reaches Sumatra. June 23 De Houtman expedition reaches Banten. The initial reception is friendly, but after some rough behavior by the Dutch, the Sultan of Banten, along with the Portuguese stationed in Banten, shell the Dutch ships. The De Houtman expedition continues along north coast of Java. A ship is lost to pirates. More bad behavior leads to misunderstandings and violence on Madura. Abul Mufakir becomes Sultan of Banten. 1597 Some members of De Houtman expedition settle on Bali and refuse to leave. A Portuguese fleet under Lourenzo de Brito decides, contrary to instructions, to seek retribution from the Sultan of Banten for doing business with Dutch Title page from the published account of the de traders. The fleet is defeated by Banten and forced Houtman expedition. The Spanish and Portuguese had maintained secrecy about the to retreat. results of their explorations. The Dutch broke Remnants of the De Houtman expedition (89 of an their monopoly on information. original 248 sailors) return to Holland with spices. Senopati attacks Banten, but is driven back. 1598 22 Dutch ships in five expeditions set out for the east. The Netherlands States-General suggests that competing companies should merge. De Houtman's second expedition includes John Davis, an English spy. Van Noort sets off to sail around the southern tip of America to the Indies. Senopati attacks western territories of Surabaya. 1599 Dutch expedition under Van Neck reaches Maluku, begins successful trading on Banda, Ambon and Ternate. June De Houtman is killed in conflict with Sultan of Aceh. Dutch churches begin calls for missionary work in the Indies. 1600 The De Houtman voyage was actually not profitable, (partly due to de Houtman's own poor judgment and general recklessness) but the businessmen of the Netherlands could see the future potential in the spice trade, and dozens of new voyages were planned to follow its path. This period of is sometimes called the "wilde vaart".

Van Noort expedition attacks Spanish at Guam. Portuguese establish trading post at Jepara. September Dutch Admiral Van den Haghen makes an alliance with the Hitu against the Portuguese in Ambon. December 31 Elizabeth I of England charters East India Company. 1601 Senopati succeeded by Krapyak in Mataram. Portuguese send a fleet from Goa, India, to drive the Dutch from the Indies. English set up fort at Banda. Aceh sends two ambassadors to Europe to observe and report on the situation to the Sultan. December 25-27 Five Dutch ships defeat the Portuguese fleet of 30 ships in battle in Banten harbor. 1602 March 20 Dutch companies combine to form Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC); led by Heeren XVII representing different regions of the Netherlands; States-General gives VOC power to raise armies, build forts, negotiate treaties and wage war in Asia.

The Dutch East India Company was given most of the powers of a sovereign state, partly because communication between the Netherlands and Asia was so slow that colonial activities simply VOC begins sending large, well-armed ships to the could not be directed from Amsterdam. Indies (38 in the first three years). (Until 1800 in this time-line, Dutch activities VOC establishes post at Gresik. are marked with a VOC for East India Sir James Lancaster leads an (English) East India Company.) Company expedition, reaches Aceh, and builds a trading post at Banten. 1603 Official VOC trading post founded at Banten. 1604 English East India Company expedition under Sir Henry Middleton visits Ternate, Tidore, Ambon, and Banda. 1605 Portuguese at Ambon surrender to ships under The chief minister to the King of Gowa in these days was named Matoaya. Besides presiding VOC. over the conversion of Gowa and Makassar to King of Gowa converts to Islam, but other kings of Islam, he encouraged the establishment of the area refuse invitation to convert. Gowa attacks Makassar as a free port opposed to Portuguese its neighbors and converts them to Islam. or Dutch control, and started a local industry to VOC sends expeditions to Banda, Irian Jaya, manufacture firearms, to maintain Gowa's northern Australia. strength against outside forces.

1606 Spanish take Ternate and Tidore. VOC makes unsuccessful attack on Portuguese Melaka. VOC begins trading at Banjarmasin. 1607 Iskandar Muda is Sultan of Aceh. Aceh under Iskandar Muda and his successor, May Sultan of Ternate appeals to the VOC for help Iskandar Thani, was a center of Islamic scholarship and debate. against the Spanish. 1608 Gowa begins three years of war against the neighboring Kingdom of Bone. 1609 Portuguese fortress on Bacan falls to VOC. 1610 Krapyak of Mataram starts period of heavy attacks on Surabaya. Post of Governor-General is created for VOC in Asia, advised by Raad van Indie (Council of the Indies). 1611 English begin setting up many posts in the Indies, including at Makassar, Jepara, Aceh and Jambi. Dutch set up post at Jayakerta. Gowa conquers Bone, converts it to Islam. 1613 April 18 Dutch take Solor from Portuguese. Portuguese Dominicans move headquarters to Larantuka, Flores. Iskandar Muda of Aceh defeats Johore, burns down the city, carries away the Sultan of Johore and VOC representatives. Mataram forces burn down Gresik; Krapyak asks VOC in Maluku for help against Surabaya. VOC sets up post at Jepara. VOC sets up first post on Timor. Krapyak succeeded by Sultan Agung. 1614 Johore throws out Aceh forces, creates alliance Palembang, Jambi, and other Sultanates against Aceh

Aceh wins naval battle against Portuguese at Bintan, continues on to attack Melaka. Sultan Agung in a traditional portrait. Agung was the greatest ruler of Mataram. At one Agung attacks Surabayan territories. point, all of Java except for Banten and Batavia VOC sends ambassador to Agung. was under his rule. Bandung founded. 1615

Protestantism (Kristen), one of Indonesia's five VOC closes post at Gowa, hostilities drag on for religions. years. The Dutch introduced the fifth of Indonesia's First Dutch Reformed church in the east founded at recognized religions: Protestant Christianity. Beside the missionary work on Java, there were Ambon. soon many "orang Kristen" around Manado on English build warehouse at Jayakerta. Sulawesi, in Ambon, and around Kupang on Timor and nearby Roti. Dutch abandon Solor after just two years. The VOC, being mostly a business, had very little interest in spreading religion. However, it banned to practice of Catholicism wherever it could. 1616 VOC military expedition against Banda. 1617 "Monopolies" and "smuggling" in these days were sometimes defined by contracts and treaties, but at other times a "monopoly" was simply declared unilaterally. Some of the "smuggling" that occurred would just be called "competition" today. In 1615-1616, the Schouten expedition became the first to sail around Cape Horn at the the southern tip of South America, then made the first visit by Europeans to many south Pacific islands. By the time they arrived in Batavia (Jakarta), Coen had them jailed for violating the V.O.C.'s monopoly, and confiscated their ships. (Years later, in 1722, the Dutch explorer Roggeveen would run into the same trouble after discovering Easter Island.) 1618 Jan Pieterzoon Coen becomes Governor-General of VOC. English merchants attack Chinese ships in Banten in a dispute over the price of pepper. Coen begins secretly fortifying the VOC warehouses at Jayakerta to the east. December Sultan of Banten encourages English to

Aceh takes Pahang. Agung defeats Surabaya at Pasuruan, defeats Surabayan expedition to his rear; Pajang rebels, Agung destroys Pajang and moves inhabitants to Mataram. Gowa extends control over Sumbawa.

drive Dutch out of Jayakerta. Coen leaves for Maluku to muster ships and soldiers. Agung bans sale of rice to VOC. Agung's governor of Jepara attacks VOC post there; Dutch burn down much of Jepara in retaliation. Dutch reoccupy Solor. 1619 January English force Dutch surrender at Jayakerta, but Banten forces take over from English in surprise move. The English and the Pangeran of Jayakerta retreat. March 12 Dutch rename post at Jayakerta to Batavia (today's Jakarta). Agung was not pleased with the Dutch taking May Coen passes through Jepara, and burns down Jayakerta, since he had intended to take it the city again, including the English trading post. himself. Likewise, the Sultan of Banten did not want the English to take it, for the same reason. May 28 Coen arrives at Jayakerta, and burns down the original town of Jayakerta, leaving only the Dutch post of Batavia remaining to become VOC headquarters. Agung takes Tuban from Surabaya, destroying the city. 1620

Jan Pieterszoon Coen The most aggressive Governor-General of the V.O.C. One of Coen's goals was to make the VOC strong enough on its own that it did not have to depend VOC under Coen almost exterminates population of on the goodwill of neighboring rulers. He Banda to prevent "smuggling". Survivors settle on intended to do this by changing the VOC from a trade empire to an empire that ruled actual small islands near Seram. territories, then settling those territories with Aceh takes Kedah. colonists from the Netherlands. Military strength was important, both for maintaining a position of Gowa extends influence over Sumbawa. power among the local kings and sultans, and for Rahmatullah becomes Sultan of Banjar on keeping the Spanish, Portuguese and English Kalimantan. away. For Coen, the VOC was more than a business, but for neighboring rulers, such as Sultan Agung, and even for government officials in China, the VOC were mere merchants, and they refused to give VOC officials the same standing in protocol that they gave the representatives of other kings or sultans. 1621 British found trading post at Ambon. 1622

Mataram navy defeats Sukadana (an ally of Surabaya in West Kalimantan), and destroy the city. Agung and VOC make overtures to each other. 1623 VOC agents in Ambon arrest, torture and execute English agents on charges of conspiracy. Aceh sacks Johore. Carstenz expedition for VOC explores southern coast of Irian Jaya. Coen returns to the Netherlands. Carpentier is new Governor-General of the VOC. VOC takes nominal claim to Aru Islands. 1624 Aceh takes Nias. Sultan Agung conquers Madura, and takes 40,000 prisoners. Raden Praseno, a grandson of Pratanu, is named Pangeran Cakraningrat I of Madura by Agung. 1625 In 1625 the first "hongi" raids took place in Maluku. These were attacks, usually by local allies of the VOC, against anyone who was growing cloves without authorization of the Agung dams Brantas River to cut off water supply VOC. from Surabaya, which finally surrenders. By this time, the VOC was probably the largest business enterprise anywhere in the world, with Cirebon is an ally of Agung. tens of thousands of employees. The territories Epidemics and ruin of war spread through Java. controlled by the VOC were not only in Abul Fath becomes Sultan of Banten. Indonesia: in the mid-1600s, they also included Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and the Cape area in what is now South Africa. The VOC also had "factories", warehouses and offices in Thailand, Japan, Iran, Yemen, and Canton in China. 1627 Coen returns from the Netherlands to serve as Around this time, Sultan Agung forced the Governor-General of the V.O.C. again. removal of the entire population of many villages December 25 Soldiers from Banten infiltrate the in the Priangan (around today's Bandung) for fortress of Batavia, kill some guards, and escape, disobedience. Around 1200 men were sent back to Mataram from these villages, and executed. but do little damage. 1628 Agung sends army against VOC in Batavia; dams Ciliwung River in attempt to deny fresh water to the VOC. He fails to oust the Dutch, who prevent his army from receiving supplies by sea. Commanders of the Mataram army are executed for failure.

Last of the English leave Banda. 1629 Agung attacks Batavia again. He is defeated, although Coen dies during the siege. Banten, fearing Agung now more than the VOC, pleads for peace with the VOC. Iskandar Muda sends navy of Aceh against Portuguese Melaka, but the Aceh navy is destroyed. September 20 Coen passes away. Introduction of sugar cultivation in Banten. 1630 Dutch abandon Solor, which is retaken by the Portuguese. 1631 Agung suppresses rebellion at Sumedang. 1633 Agung raids east Java; the Hindu kingdom of Balambangan asks for VOC help and is refused. Balambangan then asks the King of Gelgel in Bali for help. War between VOC and Banten. Aceh takes the Indrapura area of Minangkabau. 1634 This was the "mercantilist" age of trade empires. There were many powers that wanted to create trade empires: the Dutch through the VOC, the Dutch arrest Kakiali, leader of Hitu in Maluku, on English, Banten, and Gowa were among them. charges of smuggling. There was no such thing as "free trade" under these empires. The VOC especially wanted total control of trade, and any selling to anyone outside the VOC was considered "smuggling". 1635 Agung tries to take Balambangan, but is defeated by Balinese forces. VOC signs treaty with Kutai on Kalimantan. 1636 Iskandar Thani becomes Sultan of Aceh; supports Islamic learning. Agung begins conquest of easternmost Java. Agung suppresses a revolt in Giri. Agung, realizing that he cannot defeat Dutch, makes overtures towards VOC.

Van Diemen becomes Governor-General of VOC. Portuguese abandon posts on Solor after six years. VOC bans all private correspondence (until 1701). 1637 VOC attacks Ternate. VOC releases Kakiali, who pledges friendship to VOC but makes anti-Dutch alliance between Hitu, Ternate, and Gowa. Around this time the VOC started pushing the Local Muslims overcome Portuguese fortress at Portuguese out of many of their posts in Nusa Tenggara. Ende on Flores. Agung gives permission for Portuguese and Ar-Raniri was a great writer and scholar in Catholic refugees from Batavia to settle around Aceh's golden age. Among other things, he wrote "Garden of Kings", a book about Islam and the Jepara. scientific knowledge of the day. However, he was Agung finally takes Balambangan in easternmost also a controversial figure in Aceh, and he Java. The area is devastated by warfare. returned to India in 1644. Palembang and Banjarmasin send ambassadors to make homage to Agung. Ar-Raniri arrives in Aceh from Gujarat in India. 1639 Unlike his father, Pattingalloang did not Chief minister Matoaya of Gowa is succeeded by maintain good relations with the Bugis. The bad his son Pattingalloang. feeling would eventually lead some Bugis to side with the VOC against Gowa and Makassar. 1640 Bima on Sumbawa converts to Islam and becomes a Sultanate. Portugal regains independent crown from Spain. Portuguese abandon trading post at Jepara. Cirebon becomes a dependency of Mataram 1641 The VOC takeover of Melaka was the real end of Portuguese importance in the region. But after losing Melaka, some Portuguese started trading Taj ul-Alam becomes Sultana of Aceh, starts period with Gowa on Sulawesi. of female rulers; Johore and Aceh settle differences. After Taj ul-Alam became ruler of Aceh, the January 14 VOC takes Melaka from Portuguese, centralized power in Aceh lessened, regional with help from the Sultan of Johore. ruler gained more power, and Aceh's tributaries Sultan of Johore opens ports in Riau to all traders. began to show their independence. Kakiali and Hitu attack VOC on Ambon. With the English and Portuguese almost gone, and Batavia and Ambon relatively secure from neighboring rulers, this was the most profitable time for the VOC.

1642

VOC gets monopoly on trade with Palembang by treaty. Hidayatullah Kalimantan. becomes Sultan of Banjar on

Tasman explores coasts of Irian Jaya for VOC on voyage back from New Zealand. "Statutes of Batavia", based on Roman law, are introduced as a legal code for VOC territories. 1643 VOC has Kakiali murdered, continue drive to take Hitu. 1645 Agung begins building royal tombs at Imogiri, (near today's Yogya). Mandarsyah becomes Sultan of Ternate with VOC help. VOC established outpost at Perak. 1646 Sultan Agung dies, and is succeeded by Susuhunan Amangkurat I. Mataram controls all Java, more or less, except Banten and Batavia. Relations between Amangkurat I and the VOC are good in the beginning. VOC finally takes Hitu. Dutch arrive again on Solor, abandoned by the Portuguese ten years earlier. Portuguese begin building settlement at the present site of Kupang on western Timor. VOC builds trading post in the Tanimbar Islands. 1647 Amangkurat I moves court to Plered near Karta. Mataram kingdom loses Balambangan easternmost Java to Balinese forces. 1648 Cakraningrat II takes power in Madura, under Mataram. 1650 VOC intervenes in uprising against Mandarsyah of Ternate, sparking civil war. Sultan in

Amangkurat I orders Cirebon to attack Banten. Musta'in Billah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan.

1651 VOC reopens post at Jepara; Amangkurat I begins interfering in coastal trade. Sultan Ageng begins rule at Banten (not to be confused with Sultan Agung of Mataram). VOC takes Kupang on western Timor; Portuguese move to Lifau, in what is now East Timor. VOC outpost at Perak is destroyed. 1652 VOC takes Sultan Mandarsyah of Ternate to Batavia, makes him sign agreement not to grow cloves, starts military moves against opposing faction in Ternate. Amangkurat I bans the export of rice or timber. Hongi raids destroy clove cultivation on Buru. Tensions grow between the VOC and Gowa. 1655 Amangkurat I orders that no boats of any kind shall set sail from his ports. 1656 VOC deports population of Hoamoal near Ternate to Ambon. 1657 Amangkurat I attacks Banten again. VOC forces population of Buru to relocate to Kaleji Bay. 1658 VOC sets up post at Manado. War between VOC and Palembang. 1659 VOC forces burn down Palembang, and reestablish the VOC post. Amangkurat I has several family members murdered, including the mother of the future Amangkurat II. VOC builds fort in the Aru Islands, but soon abandons it. 1660 VOC attacks Gowa, destroys Portuguese ships in Formerly Bali had answered to the King at harbor, and forces peace treaty on Sultan Gelgel. Around this time, the kingdom split into Hasanuddin of Gowa. nine states:

Badung Arung Palakka of Bone rebels against Gowa; Bangli retreats with supporters to Butung. Buleleng Buleleng begins drive to become power on Bali; Gianyar King of Klungkung remains as "Dewa Agung" or Jembrana chief king. Karangasem Klungkung Amangkurat I closes ports again; VOC leaves Mengwi Jepara. Tabanan 1661 Amangkurat I had a reputation for being cruel and unpredictable. Besides his disastrous Court rebellion against Amangkurat I. interference in the economy, at one time he had Banten takes diamond-bearing area of Landak on many of the Islamic scholars in Mataram killed, Kalimantan. then took their former judicial powers for himself, turning himself into an absolute ruler. 1662 Portuguese headquarters in the east is moved from Larantuka, Flores to Lifau (today Oecussi or Pantemakassar) in what is now East Timor. VOC signs treaty with chiefs on Roti. 1663 Spanish abandon post at Tidore. By the end of the 1660s, Banten was trading VOC allows Arung Palakka and followers to settle directly with China, Japan, Thailand, India and at Batavia. Arabia, using its own ships to compete with English, French, Danish and VOC traders. Banten begins direct trade with Manila. Sultan Ageng of Banten was a strong opponent of July 6 Treaty of Painan: coastal areas of the VOC monopoly who insisted on promoting Minangkabau, including Padang, become a trade with other European, Arab and Asian protectorate of the VOC, which guarantees them traders as he pleased. security against raids from Aceh. 1666 VOC sends out a fleet under Admiral Cornelis Speelman, with Bugis soldiers under Arung Palakka and Ambonese soldiers under "Captain Jonker", to settle issues in Gowa and Maluku. 1667 VOC expedition under Speelman lands at Butung, and clears the island of Gowa forces. Speelman expedition forces the Sultan of Tidore (now free of Spanish presence) to submit to the VOC. A peace treaty is signed between Ternate and Tidore, now both under VOC control. The future Amangkurat II begins seeking VOC help against his father. English give up claims to Banda in exchange for Manhattan Island in America.

1668 Arung Palakka returns to Bone, sparking a popular revolt against the Sultan of Gowa. Speelman expedition finally defeats Gowa. November 18 Treaty of Bungaya: Gowa submits to VOC control, and Sultan Hasanuddin has no influence outside the general area of the city of By this time, the Portuguese in Makassar and Gowa had fled to Flores, or even to Macao or Makassar. Thailand. VOC extends claims to Sumbawa and Flores after the defeat of Gowa. Bugis leaving the confusion on Sulawesi found Samarinda on Kalimantan. VOC builds a fort at Menggala in Lampung. 1669 Sultan Hasanuddin of Gowa passes away; continuing troubles against the VOC in Gowa finally end. VOC traders at Banjarmasin are massacred.

1670 - 1800 (Court Intrigues and the Dutch)

1670 VOC establishes outposts at Bengkalis (across the straits from Melaka) and Perak, both for controlling the trade in tin. Balambangan in easternmost independent of Balinese rule. 1671 (Note: throughout this page, VOC stands for Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or the Trunojoyo unites Madura under his control, drives out Dutch East India Company. The VOC had been Mataram forces. granted many of the powers of a sovereign state by the government of the Netherlands.) 1672 In 1672, Louis XIV of France invaded the Netherlands with 100,000 soldiers. The Dutch had to open the dikes and flood the fields to prevent Amsterdam from falling to the French. However, since travel and communication were so slow in the 1600s and 1700s, these events had little effect on the activities of the VOC, which had the power to govern itself in any case. Java becomes

Gunung Merapi erupts in Mataram. VOC recognizes Arung Palakka as King of Bone.

1674 Famine in Mataram. Bugis under Arung Palakka attack Toraja. Makassarese unhappy with Arung Palakka settle in East Java. 1675 Rebellion in Mataram, with help from Trunojoyo. Makassarese exiles attack ports on north coast of Java. Trunojoyo of Madura takes Surabaya. Rebels appeal to Islamic sentiments among the common people against both the court of Mataram and the VOC. 1676 Trunojoyo defeats Mataram army at Gogodog. 1677 February VOC promises help to Amangkurat I. May VOC pushes Trunojoyo out of Surabaya, but Trunojoyo moves on to loot the court of Mataram at Plered. Both loyal and rebellious members of the family of Amangkurat I flee. Trunojoyo takes the

royal treasury and retreats to Kediri. Banten forces occupy Cirebon and the Priangan. July Amangkurat I dies. The crown of Mataram (which was recovered by a VOC officer) goes to Amangkurat II. Amangkurat II seeks VOC help against the rebels. Balinese from Karangasem drive Makassarese off of Lombok. VOC occupies Sangir islands. 1678 Amangkurat II, without money to pay his debts to the VOC, promises to give up Semarang, his claims to Throughout this period, the rulers of Mataram the Priangan, and fees from coastal ports until debts borrowed money from the VOC, which turned are paid. out to be a bad deal for both. The rulers of VOC and Amangkurat II march on Kediri and destroy Mataram lost power and sovereignty, but the Trunojoyo. Arung Palakka and his supporters fight for debts to the VOC were never fully repaid, and the BOC as mercenaries. the VOC lost money year after year. Inayatullah becomes Sultan of Banjar on Kalimantan. 1679 Trunojoyo is captured and executed. VOC and Arung Palakka drive the remaining Makassarese out of East Java. Banten retreats from Cirebon and the Priangan. VOC makes an alliance with Minahasans at Manado. 1680 VOC forces attack rebel areas in Mataram. Pangeran Puger continues to run a court at Plered against Amangkurat II. Amangkurat II founds a new court at Kartasura (guarded by VOC troops), then drives Puger out of Plered. Banten declares war on VOC. Sultan Ageng is replaced in coup by his son, Sultan Haji, who seeks help from the VOC. VOC forces invade Madura, supposedly on behalf of Mataram. Cakraningrat II, uncle of Trunojoyo, takes power in West Madura. VOC retains control of East Madura. 1681 Pangeran Puger builds new force and retakes center of Mataram, but not Kartasura. VOC forces push him back and defeat him. VOC intervenes in Roti, puts allies in power. Karangasem begins trying to take Lombok.

1682 Sultan Ageng's supporters, including much of the population, retake Banten against his son. VOC reacts by taking Banten with superior firepower. VOC expels English and other European traders from Banten, and begins to control Cirebon, the Priangan, and Lampung. Syekh Waliyullah, Islamic scholar and enemy of the Dutch, is exiled to the VOC post in Ceylon. 1684 Surapati, a former slave and outlaw, now employed as a VOC soldier, attacks a VOC column, escapes, and is given refuge by anti-VOC members of the court of Mataram at Kartasura. VOC takes monopoly on pepper from Lampung. 1685 Post is founded at Bengkulu by English traders who had been forced to leave Banten. VOC forces treaty on Sultan of Riau. Sa'dillah becomes Sultan of Banjar. 1686 VOC sends an embassy to the Mataram court at Kartasura. Amangkurat II stages a fake attack on Surapati's residence, then turns to cut down VOC representatives and soldiers. The remaining VOC presence at court leaves for Jepara. Surapati leaves Kartasura for Pasuruan; begins building new kingdom. Amangkurat II sends secret letters to Johore, Minangkabau, English East India Co, even Siam trying to find help against VOC. 1688 Local leader on Bangka (claimed by Palembang) asks for VOC protection. 1689 Plot against VOC in Batavia fails; rebels flee to Kartasura. 1690 Amangkurat II attacks Surapati, but fails. VOC abandons outpost at Perak. 1694 VOC begins contacts with Bataks around Lake Toba, Sumatra.

1695 Sultanate of Asahan is founded on Sumatra, as a dependency of Siak. 1696 Arung Palakka, King of Bone, passes away. Sultan Muhammad Syah of Indrapura abdicates. VOC gains influence in the absence of a ruler there. 1697 King of Buleleng in Bali takes Balambangan on Java and returns it to Balinese rule. 1699 Surapati takes areas around Madiun. VOC introduces coffee cultivation to Java. VOC increases Kalimantan. influence around Kutai on

Sultan Mahmud II of Riau is assassinated; civil war breaks out. 1700 Tahlilillah becomes Sultan of Banjar. 1701 Three years of confusion in the VOC ensue over the post of Governor-General. Sultan of Banjar tries to eject the British post there by force, but fails. 1702 Amangkurat II sends secret representative to VOC, During the 1700s, the Portuguese on Timor hoping for help in the face of court intrigues. were limited to outposts along the northern Antonio Coelho Guerreiro arrives as the first official coast only. governor of Portuguese Timor. 1703 Amangkurat II dies. Amangkurat III faces opposition from Pangeran Puger. 1704 Puger leaves the court of Mataram at Kartasura for Semarang, seeking VOC help. Puger gets support from Cakraningrat II of Madura. VOC accepts Puger as Susuhunan Pakubuwono I; their army takes Demak, other coastal areas. 1705 October 5 Pakubuwono I makes deal with VOC:

Mataram debts to VOC are wiped out; East Madura goes to VOC control; Semarang is officially a VOC city after years of occupation; Cirebon is officially a VOC protectorate; VOC gets extensive trade rights; Javanese sailors must stick to their home waters; Mataram must deliver rice on demand to the VOC at VOC warehouse and docks in the Netherlands, from an old engraving. a price set by the VOC. Army of Pakubuwono I with VOC help takes the court of Mataram at Kartasura. Amangkurat III flees to Surapati with the pusaka (emblems or heirlooms of the house of Mataram). Four years of warfare begin. 1706 Surapati is killed, but the war on Java continues. Muhammad Mansur Jayo Ing Lago becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1707 VOC and Pakubuwono I of Mataram take Pasuruan; Amangkurat III flees to Malang. Cakraningrat III takes power in West Madura. Banjar finally throws out the British. 1708 Amangkurat III surrenders and is sent into exile by Dutch. 1710 Dewa Agung (high king) on Bali moves court from Around this time, many Bugis, who had been wandering as mercenaries or refugees due to Gelgel to Klungkung. the wars involving Makassar and Bone, began VOC opens tin mines on Bangka. to settle on and around the Malay peninsula. 1714 After this time (especially after the Treaty of British begin building Fort Marlborough at Bengkulu. Utrecht in 1713, which ended 13 years of war between the European powers and their Sultan of Tidore cedes claim on Irian Jaya to VOC. colonies) the Dutch and the VOC began to lose Komaruddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. prominence, and Britain became the dominant colonial and naval power in the world. 1717 King of Mengwi becomes most powerful king on Bali. Surabaya rebels against Mataram with help from Bali. 1718 VOC takes Surabaya from rebels. Some rebellions continue in east Java. Cakraningrat III of Madura is killed by VOC soldiers while travelling to talks; Cakraningrat IV takes

power. 1719 Amangkurat IV takes rule in Mataram. Court rebellion breaks out almost immediately; rebel princes flee eastward. Several more years of war continue. 1721 Rumors of a conspiracy against the VOC spread. Peter Erberfelt and several others are tried and executed. 1722 Bugis take over Riau and the entire Sultanate of Johore. Johore remains under Bugis influence for many years. VOC receives a monopoly on tin from Bangka and Belitung from the Sultan of Palembang. 1723 Rebel princes and Surapati's descendants in East Java are subdued by VOC forces. For the next century, coffee from Java would VOC begins compulsory coffee production in dominate the world market. Priangan. 1724 Badaruddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1726 Pakubuwono II takes power in Mataram. Bugis prince Arung Singkang takes Pasir and Kutai in Kalimantan. 1728 Court intrigues in Kartasura result in Pangeran Mangkunegara being sent into exile by Dutch. 1729 King of Roti becomes a Christian. 1731 Gov.-Gen. Durven and several other high officials are ordered to return to the Netherlands by the Heeren XVII for financial misdeeds. 1732 Malaria epidemic sweeps Batavia. 1733 Arung Singkang attacks Banjar.

Mengwi defeats forces of Buleleng on Bali. Pakubuwono II agrees to heavier debt service payments to VOC; has minister Danureja sent into Dutch exile. 1734 Pakubuwono II transfers his claim to Balambangan to VOC. Balambangan, however, remains under Balinese influence. Official VOC archives in Batavia are founded. 1735 Plague in Batavia. Official VOC archives in Batavia are founded. 1738 VOC tells Pakubuwono II to exile Pangeran Purbaya. 1739 Arung Singkang attacks Bone and Makassar, but VOC drives him back. 1740 VOC begins a campaign to have "superfluous Chinese" deported to Sri Lanka or South Africa. Rumors spread that the Chinese, once aboard ship, will be killed at sea. Some Chinese begin arming themselves to resist. Anti-Chinese riots break out in Batavia in response to the perceived rebellion. 10,000 or more Chinese are killed, and the Chinese district is burnt down. Kingdom of Karangasem on Bali takes Lombok. 1741 Escaping Chinese from Batavia attack Semarang and Rembang; the VOC leaves Demak. Pakubuwono II changes sides, sends a force to attack VOC at Semarang, and destroys the VOC garrison at Kartasura. Cakraningrat IV declares allegiance with the VOC, starts taking East Java. Rival Governor-Generals of the VOC struggle in Batavia: Valckenier arrests Van Imhoff and sends him back to Europe. The Heeren XVII in the Netherlands names Van Imhoff as Governor-General. Valckenier is himself eventually arrested and jailed. 1742 Negotiations begin between VOC and Pakubuwono II as VOC and Cakraningrat IV spread their power. A

popular rebellion under Sunan Kuning against VOC and Mataram takes hold in the countryside, then takes Kartasura. Cakraningrat IV retakes Kartasura from the rebels. VOC is suspicious, and orders Pakubuwono II to be put back on throne. 1743 Rebellion continues under Pangeran Mangkubumi, Pangeran Singasari, and Pangeran Mas Said. November 11 Pakubuwono II gives VOC Surabaya, Rembang, Jepara and claims to easternmost Java and West Madura. VOC receives a say in court appointments. Mixed-Portuguese locals attack VOC post at Kupang on Timor; VOC solidifies control of western part of Timor. VOC takes Bawean island. 1745 February 17 Pakubuwono II moves into the Kraton Surakarta. Cakraningrat IV wages war with the VOC and retakes much of Madura and East Java. He is eventually defeated by VOC, caught and exiled. Cakraningrat V takes title in West Madura. Gov-Gen Van Imhoff founds Buitenzorg (today's Bogor). Tamjidillah becomes Sultan of Banjar. 1746 Pangeran Mangkubumi, disgusted with capitulations to the VOC, announces full-scale rebellion. He is joined by Pangeran Mas Said. August 26 First VOC Post Office opened in Jakarta. VOC reestablishes presence in Perak. VOC receives Siak (across the straits from Melaka) from the Sultan of Johore. Bank van Leening founded by VOC to support trade. 1747 Bugis internal war begins over dissatisfaction with Arung Singkang. VOC decress that native law ("adat") will be in force in areas under its control outside of Batavia. 1748 Mangkubumi's rebel forces attack Surakarta.

VOC sends Sultan of Banten into exile, makes his wife Ratu Sarifa regent but take direct control. 1749 December Pakubuwono II becomes sick, signs treaty giving full sovereignty in all Mataram to VOC. (Treaty is widely ignored.) VOC declares Pakubuwono III as heir to throne. Mangkubumi claims title for himself, rules from Yogya. Pakubuwono II dies. 1750 Mas Said attacks Surakarta for Mangkubumi. Rebellion in Banten against Ratu Sarifa and VOC. The rebels threaten Batavia and Lampung. Berau in east Kalimantan becomes independent. 1751 VOC forces destroy Banten rebellion; guerilla attacks continue against VOC plantations around Batavia. VOC extends control over Lampung. 1754 Mangkubumi considers negotiating with VOC, worries about possible disloyalty from Mas Said. Arung Singkang abdicates from power, continues guerilla attacks. 1755 Mangkubumi changes title from Susuhunan to Sultan, takes name Hamengkubuwono, is now Sultan Hamengkubuwono I. February 13 Treaty of Gijanti: Sultan Hamengkubuwono gets VOC recognition of title and Keraton The famous Kraton of lands. construction in the 1750s. Hamengkubuwono I builds the Kraton at Yogyakarta. Mas Said, now without allies, attacks VOC force. 1756 VOC signs treaty with chiefs on Savu. Mas Said attacks the new court at Yogyakarta. October Bugis begin a siege of VOC at Melaka. October 7 Hamengkubuwono I officially moves into the Kraton Ngayogyakarta. VOC sends a special ambassador to Banjarmasin. A trade agreement is reached. Ngayogyakarta Yogya began

VOC makes agreements with local chieftains on Timor. 1757 The Courts of central Java as they were founded in the mid-1700s have continued down February Reinforcements from Batavia force Bugis to the present day. There is still a Sultan of to end siege of Melaka. Yogya today, a Susuhunan of Surakarta, and a Mas Said agrees to negotiations. Overt hostilities end; Pangeran Mangkunegara. The Sultan of Yogya Mas Said becomes Pangeran Mangkunegara I with still has special powers within the Daerah Istimewa or Special Area of Yogyakarta; the his court also at Surakarta. others retain their palaces and titles, but no special powers. 1758 January 1 VOC signs treaty with the Bugis. Najamuddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1759 VOC abandons fort at Linggi, near Melaka. 1765 VOC abandons fort at Siak. Kingdom of Karangasem on Bali defeats Buleleng. 1768 VOC expedition to Malang against descendants of Surapati captures Pangeran Singasari, who dies in custody. 1769 French expedition steals clove and nutmeg plants from Ambon, breaking the VOC monopoly. 1770 Chinese laborers in the Sambas area of Kalimantan revolt against the local Sultan and their Dayak overseers. English Captain James Cook visits Batavia. 1771 Last of Surapati's line is captured by VOC forces in Malang. Malang now falls under VOC control. VOC forces work to push Balinese out of Balambangan. Syarif Abdurrahman from Arabia founds Pontianak, becomes its first Sultan. 1773 Division of lands between Yogyakarta and Surakarta is formalized.

1776 Bahauddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1778 Tahmidillah becomes Sultan of Banjar. Gunung Api on Banda erupts. The Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen is founded. (Its collections would later form the basis of the National Museum and National Library.) Sultan of Pontianak accepts VOC protectorate in exchange for recognition by the VOC as a Sultan. 1780 War breaks out between the Netherlands and Britain. Extra troops are sent to Java. Plague in Batavia. Smallpox epidemic on Sumatra. Islamic reform movement grows in Minangkabau. 1781 British take the Dutch outpost at Perak. 1783 The VOC, short of cash, asks the Netherlands StatesGeneral for financial assistance. 1784 VOC attacks Riau to prevent the British from taking over. October 29 VOC defeats Bugis forces in Riau. Sultan of Riau dies without a successor; VOC takes complete control of Johore and Riau by treaty. VOC builds fort on Bintan. Treaty of Paris ends the war with Britain, and opens the VOC controlled Indies to free trade. 1785 Future Hamengkubuwono II of Yogya fortifications around the Kraton. 1786 British found Penang in Malaya. Sultan of Banjar cedes sovereignty to VOC. 1788 Pakubuwono III is succeeded by Pakubuwono IV. 1790 builds

Rumors spread that Pakubuwono IV is planning a massacre of Dutch in Java, and takeovers of the Yogya and Mangkunegara courts. Forces from Yogya and VOC surround Surakarta. Pakubuwono IV orders his advisors to leave court; VOC sends them into exile. Gold rush begins in West Kalimantan. 1791 VOC withdraws from Pontianak. 1792 Hamengkubuwono I dies and is succeeded by Hamengkubuwono II. VOC declares that Mangkunegara possessions are hereditary. 1795 January Dutch revolutionaries and French troops declare the Batavian Republic in the Netherlands. The Stadhouder of the Netherlands flees to London. The new Republic finds itself in a state of war with Britain. In 1795, the Netherlands were remade into the February 7 The Prince of Orange, stadhouder-in- Batavian Republic under the control of exile of the Netherlands, issues a letter to all colonial revolutionary France. From this time, Britain governors telling them to surrender to the British. started to take temporary or permanent control of many Dutch colonies. (The VOC in Batavia do not comply.) August VOC surrenders Melaka to the British East India Company. First census on Java. 1796 March 1 Heeren XVII transfer administration of the VOC to a government Committee for East Indian Affairs. Mangkunegara II inherits court, but much of the treasury is stolen by the VOC resident at Surakarta. British occupy Padang. British occupy Ambon. Riots break out in Maluku between villages. VOC fortress at Ternate refuses to surrender. 1797 title and

Nederlands Zendelinggenootschap Missionary Society is founded.

or

Dutch This was the beginning of heavy activity by Dutch Protestant missionaries in Indonesia, not only to Java and Sumatra but also to very remote areas, eventually even to Irian Jaya.

1798

Napoleonic Dutch government revokes charter of The VOC was losing money to corruption and VOC, assumes its debts and assets. political intrigues. By the end of the 1700s, it Sultan of Tidore sets up subsidiary Sultan of Jailolo was fully bankrupt. On January 1st, 1800, it ceased to exist. on Halmahera. 1799 April 27 Committee for East Indian Affairs sends a letter of instructions to Batavia, stating that the revolutionary ideas of the Republic (liberty and equality) could not be applied to the Indies. By 1799, the British had taken all the former VOC possessions and protectorates in the area, except for Java, Banjarmasin, Palembang, western Timor and Makassar. Most of these Dutch officers under siege at Ternate mutiny and were returned to the Dutch in 1802, only to be reconquered by the British a few years later. surrender to the British.

1800 - 1830 (Chaos and Resistance)

1800 During these times, the Netherlands was allied to or occupied by Napoleon's France. Until Daendels arrived, not all Dutch officials in the Indies approved of the government in Amsterdam. Around this time, many ports and markets that VOC formally dissolved on January 1; properties had been monopolized by the VOC were opened revert to Dutch government. to free trade. This turned out to be profitable for the local government, which then allowed the Netherlands Indies officials to be more independent of the Napoleonic government in Amsterdam (until events of war reduced trade around 1807-1808). 1801 British take control of the Minahasa region, remaining until 1816. 1802 Melaka and Maluku are returned from British to Dutch control by the Treaty of Amiens. Dutch begin sending military reinforcements to Java. 1803 Dutch government (Batavian Republic) issues colonial charter making the Netherlands Indies government responsible to the Netherlands (unlike The "Padri" advocates on Sumatra were heavily the VOC). influenced by the Wahhabiyah in Arabia, a Padri movement takes strength in Minangkabau fundamentalist movement founded by Ibnu Wahhab in the middle 1700s. The movement is area, promotes more orthodox Islam. still favored in Saudi Arabia today. British surrender Ambon to the Dutch. Badruddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1805 Pangeran visions. 1806 British Navy skirmishes with French and Dutch forces off Java. British seize Bangka. Ministry of Netherlands. Colonies is founded for the Diponegoro experiences prophetic

The "Batavian Republic" of the Netherlands, under French control, is converted into the "Kingdom of

Holland", with Louis, the brother of Napoleon, as king. 1807 Tondano leads a rebellion against the British in Minahasa. British retake control of Melaka. French-run government of the Netherlands appoints Daendels as Governor-General of the Indies. 1808 January 1 Daendels arrives. Daendels moves his residence to Buitenzorg (now Bogor). Daendels takes formal possession of Lampung for Herman Willem Daendels the Dutch. Daendels was a product of revolutionary Europe Pakubuwono IV appeases Daendels; and a supporter of Napoleon, but he was also a Hamengkubuwono II opposes him. colonialist. Daendels did not like the Sultans and Mangkunegara II organizes "Mangkunegaran Princes of Java at all, but he himself was sent to rule in their place. He thought he was ending Legion" with Dutch financing. oppression, but he was really bring in a newer, August 18 Daendels reorganizes areas under Dutch heavier rule from Europe. In particular, he took control in Central and East Java. Bupatis and local advantage of Dutch treaty rights over native rulers are made employees of the Dutch rulers that had never before been exercised. He government. reorganized the legal system, but he himself governed through arbitrary decrees. Revolt in Banten is suppressed. British decide to abandon Melaka; Stamford He faced problems from every side, especially a Raffles, then a clerk, writes urgent letter to India British naval blockade that choked off much urging a reversal of the decision. The decision is economic activity. reversed, and the British stay in Melaka. Sulaiman becomes Sultan of Banjar. 1809 Daendels builds mountain route from Batavia to Cirebon (Jalan Raya Pos/Groote Postweg), orders town of Bandung to be relocated to the road (its current site). Pangeran Kornel, local ruler of Sumedang, refuses to cooperate due to the mistreatment of locals. Daendels abandons Dutch presence at Banjarmasin in order to consolidate hold on Java. 1810 May British retake Ambon, Ternate and Tidore. Raden Rangga, brother-in-law of the Sultan, starts failed revolt against Dutch in Yogya; Daendels marches on Yogya, forces Hamengkubuwono II to abdicate in favor of young Hamengkubuwono III. Napoleon annexes the Netherlands to France. Daendels flies the French flag over Batavia.

While in Batavia, Daendels started a campaign to clean up the city's canals. His project to build a great highway through the Parahiyangan took the lives of many laborers.

Raffles visits Lord Minto, British GovernorGeneral in India, in Calcutta, urging him to drive the French and Dutch from Java. Minto is convinced. 1811 January Daendels imposes new treaties on Yogya and Surakarta, including end to rent payments by the Dutch to the Sultans for the north coastal areas. Hamengkubuwono III hands over Pangeran Natakusuma to Dutch on suspicion of being involved in 1810 rebellion. May Daendels is replaced by Jan Willem Janssens. (Daendels soon served under Napoleon on his failed Moscow campaign.) August 3 British forces land on Java. August 26 British under Lord Minto take Batavia. The Dutch, having suffered heavy losses, retreat to Semarang. Thomas Stamford Raffles September 18 Dutch surrender to British at Sir Raffles was known for his scientific interests as Salatiga. well as the work he did for the British East India Thomas Stamford Raffles appointed Lt-Governor Company: governing Java, governing the output of Java. at Bengkulu, Sumatra which was British at the Dutch resident at Palembang and company are time, and of course, for founding Singapore. killed, probably on orders of Sultan Badruddin; the British have Badruddin dethroned and replaced by his brother. Hamengkubuwono II retakes title in Yogya. December Raffles visits Yogya Kraton, generates much hostility. Pakubuwono IV sends secret letters to Yogya offering assistance against the British, but hoping to make Yogya overextend themselves; British begin secret negotiations with Hamengkubuwono III; Natakusuma offers help to British. 1812 June British shell, take, and loot Yogya. Pakubuwono IV of Surakarta offers little help. Hamengkubuwono II is removed by the British, sent to exile in Padang, and replaced again by Hamengkubuwono III. Natakusuma becomes Pangeran founding the house of Pakualam. Pakualam Raffles had the same delusion as Daendels, that he was ending oppression, when in fact he was bringing in a tighter colonial rule. The nobility in Yogya considered the British to be horribly impolite.

I, In Raffles favor, it could be said that he liberalized the economy of Java with free-market reforms that helped farmers. He abolished forced October British sign treaty with Sultan of Banjar. labor and the compulsory cultivation of crops. He British take Timor. also tried to end the slave trade between British seize Belitung as reparation for the Indonesians and foreigners. "massacre" at Palembang the previous year. On the other hand, while farmers under Raffles were free to grow whatever they wanted, they still

had to pay up to 40% of their crops to the government. 1813 Bahauddin becomes Sultan of Palembang. Raffles abolishes the Sultanate of Banten. November Revolt in the Netherlands against Napoleon. 1814 June Lord Minto, British Governor of India and Raffles' patron and promoter, dies. Charges of corruption are brought against Raffles, who is eventually found innocent. June 21 Agreement between the nations that fought Napoleon to found a new "Kingdom of the Netherlands". August 13 British agree on eventual return of possessions in the Indies to the Dutch. British war with Balinese in Buleleng and Karangasem over the slave trade. Bone attacks the British. British residents are stationed in Banjarmasin and Pontianak. Hamengkubuwono IV takes rule in Yogya. Diponegoro (his older brother, who had declined the succession) is appointed as guardian for the 13year-old Sultan. British expedition reports on Borobudur and Prambanan to Europe for the first time. 1815 Much of Minangkabau nobility killed by Padri supporters; Padri begin to expand promotion of Islam into Batak areas. April-July Mount Tambora on Sumbawa erupts: 12,000 are dead from the eruption itself, later The eruption of Tambora changed climate 50,000 die from related famine. worldwide; in the northern United States, 1815 May Raffles visits Borobudur. was called "the year without a summer", and Raffles establishes direct rule over Cirebon, snow fell in July. removing power from its Sultans. Netherlands government establishes regulations for governing the Netherlands Indies. (These would serve as a sort of constitution for the Netherlands Indies, in one form or another, until 1942.) 1816 Bone attacks British again.

August 19 Dutch return to Batavia. Cornelis Elout continues Raffles' reform policies. Dutch unsuccessfully try to get rajas of Bali to accept Dutch authority. 1817 Madura consolidated into single kabupaten. Pattimura leads revolt against returning Dutch in Ambon; hanged in December. Botanical Gardens founded at Bogor. Gunung Ijen erupts in eastern Java. 1818 March Raffles is sent to govern British fort at Bengkulu. Raffles sends a small force into Lampung to establish a British presence there; British East India Company officials in Calcutta tell him to turn back. Raffles sends troops to Palembang to intervene in negotiations between the Sultan and the Dutch. They are arrested and sent to Batavia. British officials again tell Raffles to withdraw. Dutch under Cornelis Elout end the slave trade on Java. Dutch return to Melaka. Dutch return to Pontianak. 1819 January 19 Raffles founds Singapore, having purchased the island from the Sultan of Johore. Dutch return to Padang. Raffles tries to incite antiDutch actions in the Minangkabau countryside. Najamuddin Pangeran Ratu becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1820 Pakubuwono V becomes Susuhunan of Solo. Dutch send expedition to the Aru Islands. Umbrella commission is organized to oversee Protestant churches in the Netherlands Indies. 1821 Remaining Minangkabau nobles sign treaty giving Minangkabau to Dutch in exchange for protection against the Padri. "Padri War" begins. Cholera appears in Java for the first time; rice harvest fails.

Najamuddin Prabu Anom becomes Sultan of Palembang. 1822 Hamengkubuwono IV dies amid rumors of poisoning. Hamengkubuwono V is new Sultan. Diponegoro is upset by the handling of the situation by Dutch officials. Mount Merapi erupts near Yogya. 1823 The nobility of the Yogya kraton in these days served without collecting a salary. Instead, courtiers were given the right to collect rent on land within the Sultanate. Such rentable lands had been greatly reduced due to colonial Dutch forces are defeated by the Padri at Lintau. expansion, first by the VOC, then the British. The Gov.-Gen. van der Capellen abolishes land leases in situation for them improved a little after the Dutch returned in 1816, as European planters Central Java. began to rent lands (and the use of the peasants Pakubuwono VI ascends in Solo. living on them) for plantations. Kramo Jayo becomes Sultan of Palembang. Van der Capellen, however, was of the same liberal mindset as Daendels and Raffles before Raffles, in poor health, returns to England. him, and was disgusted by the feudal lifestyle these planters had started to enjoy. But when he abolished this system of land leasing, he also stopped the main source of income for the nobility, turning them against the Dutch. 1824 March 17 British and Dutch sign Treaty of London and divide the Indies between themselves. The Dutch claim Sumatra, Java, Maluku, Irian Jaya, and so on. The British claim Malaya and Singapore, and retain an interest in North Borneo. Aceh is supposed to remain independent. Bone takes Dutch areas in south Sulawesi.

The Treaty of London in 1824 was intended to divide the Indies between British and Dutch Netherlands Indies faces a financial crunch--Gov. control. Many of the boundaries defined in this Gen. van der Capellen offers the colony to a private treaty would later become boundaries of the British firm, Palmer and Co., as collateral on a loan Republic of Indonesia. to bail out the colonial government. (The Netherlands government, embarassed by these events, made large loans to the Netherlands Indies in 1826 and 1828.) Dutch institute direct rule in Riau. 1825 March 29 Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij is Diponegoro had support of many princes and founded. bupati, rural farmers, and religious leaders, including Kyai Maja. The Yogya Kraton did not Dutch defeat Bone before Java War; sporadic side with him. Pakubuwono VI of Surakarta fighting continues for years. supported him quietly. The "Java War" began

Padri fighters take southern Tapanuli area. King Sisingamangaraja X of the Bataks is killed fighting against the Padri. Dutch require Muslim pilgrims who wish to make the hajj to get a passport and pay a 110 gulden tax. May Diponegoro and court retainers clash in dispute over new road. with a dispute over a new road that would have July Dutch send troops to arrest Diponegoro, who disrupted an orchard that Diponegoro had declares rebellion. This was the beginning of the planted, but this was only the last in a long series "Java War", which lasted until 1830. of insults and conflicts. Adam al-Wasi' Billah becomes Sultan of Banjar. Line of succession in Palembang ends. Dutch institute direct rule. Dutch issue orders to arrest Raden Intan in Lampung. Raden Intan dies and is succeeded by Raden Imba Kusuma. 1826 Guerilla warfare widespread throughout central and east Java. The Dutch begin organizing special troops for fighting in the Indies. Prince Diponegoro Van der Capellen is replaced by Du Bus as Pangeran or Prince Diponegoro is remembered Governor-General. as a great hero today. He had the mystic vision of August Dutch return Hamengkubuwono II from a religious leader, the pedigree of the House of exile in Ambon, and reinstall him as Sultan of Yogya, and an affinity for the common people. Many streets and public institutions have been Yogya. named for him. October Diponegoro is defeated at Gowok, near Surakarta. His forces are pushed back. 1827 Dutch reorganize forces in the Java War, change to more flexible tactics, take offensive against guerilla bands. 1828 April Javanese successes against the Dutch. Madura consolidated with Surabaya. Smallpox epidemic in Bali. Fort Du Bus founded by Dutch in Irian Jaya. November Kyai Maja, spiritual advisor to Diponegoro, is taken prisoner by the Dutch after hand-to-hand combat. 1829 September Pangeran Mangkubumi (uncle of Diponegoro) surrenders, allowed to return to palace.

October Sentot surrenders, Dutch make him a Lieutenant-Colonel. 1830 March Diponegoro agrees to negotiations in Magelang, is arrested, exiled to Manado, then to Ujung Padang (until 1855). Pakubuwono VI, suspected by the Dutch, is exiled to Ambon (until 1849). Pakubuwono VII becomes Susuhunan of Solo.

1830 - 1910 (Dutch Imperialisme)

1830 It was only after the Java War that the Dutch began to think about a real empire in the Indies. From 1830 to the end of the century, the Dutch began a drive to take complete control of the areas from Aceh to New Guinea, Johannes van den Bosch arrives as the new Governor- and to extract as much profit as possible from General, begins the "cultuurstelsel" or "culture the valuable areas, such as the Priangan area of West Java. system". Forced cultivation of indigo is introduced in the Revenues from the Indies paid for as much as one-third of the Dutch government's budget in Priangan. the mid-1800s. These monies helped to finance First steamboat arrives in the Indies. the industrialization and development of the Nederlands Zendelinggenootschap (Dutch Missionary Netherlands in the 1800s. The burden fell Society) begins offering education to "native" especially upon the Netherlands Indies, since children. the Dutch had lost many of their other colonies to the British during the Napoleonic wars December 4 Van den Bosch officially organizes the (including South Africa and Sri Lanka), and Dutch forces from the Java War into the Oost-Indische since Belgium with its business and industry Leger, or "East Indies Army" (later KNIL). broke away from the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830. The government was called the Netherlands Indies, or Nederlands-Indi in Dutch, or Hindia Belanda in Indonesian today. 1831 Nederlands-Indi government manages a balanced Under the "culture system", Javanese were budget. required to grow a certain amount of crops for export--more coffee, sugar, spices and indigo, Dutch forces fighting the Padri in Sumatra reach the but less rice to feed the people. The system Bonjol area. worked without great controversy for the first U.S. ships shell coastal villages in Aceh in an action few years. About 1845, a series of poor against piracy. harvests led to greater poverty and even famine on Java--famine that was aggravated because the best lands were being used for tobacco, sugar or coffee instead of rice, and because the land in general had been exhausted by overproduction. Van den Bosch had specified that local farmers should be given leeway to grow their own food, but colonial officials under him ignored these orders in pursuit of ever larger cash crops. The products of the culture system were sold through the Nederlandse HandelMaatschappij, run by the Netherlands government, and the profits were kept by the Netherlands. The King of the Netherlands owned significant shares in the NHM, and gained an extra fortune from its profits. (The NHM survives today as the Algemene Bank

Nederland.) The Netherlands Indies nearly went bankrupt in the 1820s; after van den Bosch, it returned large budget surpluses to the Netherlands throughout the 1830s (and into the 1870s). 1832 Dutch depose Sultan of Jailolo and take control of Halmahera. 1833 January Minangkabau villages around Bonjol rise up in popular rebellion; Dutch troops in the area are massacred. Padri war heats up; Dutch seal off the coast. Sentot fights on Dutch side, but was probably not pro-Dutch in his heart. Dutch place Sentot under A traditional Minangkabau house in an old watch in Bengkulu (until 1855). photo. Sultan of Jambi asks for Dutch help against Palembang. 1834 Dutch force Sultan Muhammad Fahruddin of Jambi to recognize Dutch sovereignty. Portuguese government expels Dominican friars from East Timor. 1836 Dutch abandon Fort Du Bus on Irian. 1837 Bonjol in Minangkabau finally falls to the Dutch in Among the fighters against the Dutch in the the Padri War. Tuanku Imam Bonjol surrenders and is Padri war were the "Harimau Nan Selapan" or sent into exile. "eight tigers", led by Haji Miskin. 1838 Dutch victory at Daludalu ends the Padri war in Minangkabau. Direct Dutch rule in Minangkabau is enforced (adat law and nobility appear pro-Dutch, Islamic leaders appear anti-Dutch). Dutch expedition against Flores. Bone renews Treaty of Bungaya; fighting against the Dutch subsides. Dutch establish presence on Nias. Sulaiman inherits rule of Aceh, but Tuanku Ibrahim rules as guardian, ruling Aceh until 1870. Mataram kingdom on Lombok takes control of the whole island, plus Karangasem on Bali.

Dutch Imperialism: 1815-1870 The Dutch fought two major wars in the 1820s. They still did not control many areas in their imagined sphere of influence, including Aceh, Bali, much of Sulawesi and Nusa Tenggara. Leaders among the Indonesians included: Pattimura in Ambon in 1817 Pangeran Diponegoro in the Java War, 1825-1830 Imam Tuanku Bonjol in the Padri War in the 1830s 1841 The rajas of Badung, Klungkung, Karangasem and Buleleng on Bali sign treaties recognizing Dutch sovereignty; rajas to keep internal power. James Brooke begins creating private empire for himself in Sarawak. 1842 Dutch withdraw from east coast of Sumatra north of Palembang due to British worries. The nobility in Surakarta is arrested under suspicion of inciting revolt. 1843 By this time, there was a movement of people out of the Priangan, Cirebon, and nearby areas of West Java towards areas that were less strictly controlled by the culture system. Local bupatis and Dutch officials were instructed to send these internal refugees home whenever possible. In the 1840s, as much as two-thirds of the money earned by a Javanese farmer on his crops could be taken by taxes. 1844 Rajas of Buleleng and Karangasem are dissatisfied with Dutch, and refuse to ratify treaties. 1846 Dutch attack Buleleng; other rajas secretly support anti-Dutch forces. Dutch expedition against Flores. Typhoid epidemic in Java. Dutch take control of Samarinda. First commercial coal mine is opened at Martapura, South Kalimantan. Revolt in Banten.

Raja of Lombok accepts Dutch sovereignty. Famine in Cirebon.

1847 Dutch military expedition to Nias. 1848 Dutch attack Bali, then withdraw. New constitution in Netherlands: Dutch StatesGeneral has some control over colonial affairs. Revised commercial, civil and criminal codes for the Netherlands Indies are introduced, applicable to people of European descent only. Demonstration in Batavia, led by Baron van Hoevell (a Dutch Reformed minister), petitions the King of the Netherlands for freedom of the press, public secondary schools, and representation for the Netherlands Indies in the States General. Regency schools, for the education and training of the children of local rulers and nobles, begin operations. 1849 Dutch reduce Buleleng and north Bali. The raja of Lombok attacks and takes Karangasem. Dutch take full control in Palembang. 1850 Dutch begin missionary work among Bataks of north The Netherlands Indies government prohibited Sumatra. Catholic missionaries from visiting the Bataks Famine in Central Java. on Sumatra or the Toraja on Sulawesi. Only Protestant missionaries were allowed in those Dutch purchase the remaining Portuguese posts on areas. Flores. 1851 "Dokter-Jawa" school founded in Gambir, Batavia. Billiton Maatschappij begins tin mining on Belitung. Many Chinese laborers are imported. 1852 Aceh sends an emissary to Napoleon III of France. Cola trees are introduced on Java. Dutch end the tax on the hajj. 1853 Dutch begin administering north Bali. Mangkunegara IV takes his title in Surakarta. 1854 Netherlands government issues a constitutional reform for the Netherlands Indies ("Regeeringsreglement"). Local rulers in the Indies are to continue to have

traditional powers over their subjects, ruling on behalf of the Dutch. A strict separation betweens Europeans and "Inlanders" is recognized in the law. Governor-General of the Netherlands Indies receives the power to exile anyone without appeal or review. Aceh establishes authority over Langkat, Deli and Serdang on east coast of Sumatra ("pepper ports"). Introduction of cinchona (quinine) cultivation to the Priangan, at Cibodas, West Java. 1855 Hamengkubuwono VI becomes Sultan of Yogya. Dutch military expedition to Nias. Dutch extend control over western Kalimantan. 1856 Regulation on Publications gives the GovernorGeneral authority to conduct prepublication censorship of the press without appeal or review. March Eduard Douwes Dekker is dismissed from his government post in West Java after accusing local bupatis of corruption. (Later, under the pen name "Multatuli", he writes the novel "Max Havelaar", exposing conditions in colonial Java to readers in the Netherlands.) Dutch military expedition to Flores. 1857 Dutch intervene in succession to Sultanate of Banjarmasin, support Tamjidillah over more popular Hidayatullah. 1858 Dutch expedition against south Sulawesi. Ratu Taha Saifuddin of Jambi refuses treaty with Dutch, flees into jungle with pusaka (emblems or heirlooms of his house), fights until 1904. Dutch take Siak in north Sumatra by treaty, and move troops in to prevent British adventurers from gaining a foothold there. The boundary of Siak is defined to include Langkat and Deli, infringing on Acehnese territory. Nederlands-Indi government running at a deficit due to military expenses. Pakubuwono VIII becomes Susuhunan of Solo. 1859 Banjarmasin War led by Pangeran Antasari; Dutch withdraw support for Tamjidillah, send him to Bogor.

Portuguese sign accord with the Dutch: Portuguese abandon outposts and claims on Flores and Solor to the Dutch, and retain possession of Portuguese Timor. Division between West and East Timor is set. Dutch government bans slavery in the Netherlands Indies. Dutch military expedition to Bone to depose Queen Basse Kajuara. 1860 "Max Havelaar" is published. Dutch open Savu. "Max Havelaar" exposed the abuses of Dutch colonial rule on Java, and put political pressure on the Netherlands government to Dutch abolish the Sultanate of Banjarmasin, and make reforms in the colonies. enforce direct colonial rule. 1861 Pakubuwono IX becomes Susuhunan of Solo. German Protestant missionaries begin working around Lake Toba in northern Sumatra. 1862 Hidayatullah surrenders in Banjarmasin, and is exiled to Java. Antasari dies of smallpox, guerilla war continues. Compulsory pepper cultivation ends. 1863 Dutch military expedition to Nias. British send gunboats to Langkat and other "pepper ports" on Sumatra. July 1 Slavery officially ends in the Netherlands In 1863, the government of the Netherlands Indies. used profits from the exploitation of the Tobacco cultivation is introduced to Northern Netherlands Indies to compensate former slaveholders in Suriname in South America, Sumatra. after slavery was abolished there. Fransen van de Putte, a former plantation owner on Java and opponent of the culture system, becomes Netherlands Minister of Colonies. Compulsory clove and nutmeg cultivation ends. 1864 April 1 First Netherlands Indies postage stamp is issued. Dutch experiment with rubber cultivation in Java and Sumatra. Dutch claim Mentawai Islands. The last Sultan of Siak abdicates. 1865

Compulsory cultivation of tea, cinnamon, cochineal and indigo ends. Dutch introduce tobacco to Deli and northern Sumatra.

The Raja of Buleleng on Bali, in an 1865 Dutch institute direct rule in the Sultanate of Asahan photo. in northern Sumatra and remove the Sultan to Riau. New forestry laws and regulations are introduced. 1866 Compulsory tobacco cultivation ends. 1867 Gunung Merapi erupts near Yogya; 1000 are killed. "Accountability Law" prescribes that the finances of the Netherlands Indies should be separate from those of the Netherlands. Netherlands Indies Department of Education is organized. 1868 Dutch tighten control over Bengkulu. 1869 1/3 of the population of Savu dies from smallpox. Aceh appeals to the Ottoman Empire for protection. Deli Maatschappij is founded by private investors. 1870 Minahasa area comes under direct Dutch rule. Sultan Mahmud Syah rules Aceh until 1874. Sugar Act begins a period of agricultural reform. Coffee blight afflicts Java. Regular steamship service to the Netherlands through the Suez canal begins. 1871 Agrarian Act encourages privatization of agriculture, starts to dismantle many practices of the "culture A Bugis house, rebuilt for the Colonial system". Exposition in Amsterdam, 1883. Smallpox kills 18,000 in Bali. Telegraph cable is laid from Java to Australia. November Treaty of Sumatra between British and Dutch: Dutch give Gold Coast to British; Dutch may send contract labor from India to Dutch Guiana; Dutch get free hand in Sumatra, British and Dutch both have trade rights in Aceh. Effect of this treaty: there is no more foreign objection to the Dutch taking In 1869, the Suez Canal opened, which greatly reduced the travel time and effort between Europe and Asia by sea, and gave places such as Aceh much more strategic importance.

Aceh. 1872 Batak war begins in north Sumatra, lasting until 1895. 1873 January 25 Emissary from Aceh holds talks with the American consul in Singapore, but USA help is rejected by Washington. The Dutch respond with war. March 26 Dutch bombard Banda Aceh. April 8 Dutch land troops at Banda Aceh. April 25 Acehnese force the Dutch to withdraw. The Dutch would waste over 30 years trying to take full control of Aceh, and would never fully Assam tea plants from India are introduced to replace succeed. Chinese tea plants, which had been disappointing. Tea production starts to rise. Sultan of Kutai signs a treaty recognizing the Dutch. First railways are built on Java. November 11 Dutch invade Aceh again, and maintain their positions, but would sustain heavy losses due to disease. 1874 January 24 Acehnese abandon Banda Aceh and retreat to the hills. Dutch announce that Sultanate of Aceh is ended. Sultan Mahmud Syah of Aceh dies in the jungle; Sultan Ibrahim Mansur Syah heads sultanate in hills until 1907. Teuku Umar leads the Acehnese forces. Dutch expedition to Flores. Dutch send an official to the Aru Islands. 1875 The Netherlands Indies, Australia, and Germany set a boundary between their claims on New Guinea. 1876 Introduction of rubber cultivation to Java. Baba Hassan leads revolt on Halmahera. 1877 Hamengkubuwono VII becomes Sultan of Yogya. 1878 Compulsory sugar and coffee cultivation starts to be eliminated. Expedition under Gen. Van der Heijden burns 500 villages in Aceh to the ground. After this point, the Nederlands-Indi government operates at a loss.

1879

R. A. Kartini born at Jepara. Coca cultivation is introduced on Java.

Raden Adjeng Kartini R. A. Kartini is remembered today for her collected letters, works of high literary quality. Far ahead of her time, Kartini was an early advocate both for Indonesia and for the interests of women everywhere.

1880 Rail line completed from Batavia to Bandung. Koelie Ordonnantie ("Coolie Ordinance") specifies the law of employment contracts: employers must provide adequate housing and medical care, workers are bound to a plantation only for the duration of the contract. Contracts must be signed before a magistrate, and can be disputed in court. First condensed milk in cans is imported from Australia. 1881 Minahasa chiefs are made salaried officials of the Netherlands Indies. 1882 Dutch take control of Karangasem and Gianyar on Bali. Bali and Lombok become a single Residency; the rajas of south Bali are unhappy, but continue to fight among themselves. Aru and Tanimbar islands come under Dutch administration. Tjokroaminoto born. Sugar blight hits Java. Dutch military expedition on Seram. Oil found around Kutai on Kalimantan. 1883 Sisingamangaraja XII is expelled from the Batak region. Krakatau erupts; 36,000 are killed in West Java and Lampung. A. J. Zijlker gets approval from Dutch to start drilling Musicians from Java at the Exposition in Amsterdam, 1883. for oil in Langkat, north Sumatra. Revolt in favor of Pangeran Suryengalaga fails in Yogya. 1884 Guerilla war heats up in Aceh. Dutch build Colonial The legal reforms of this period meant that feudal rights and privileges of the nobility were cancelled. The average person won a few freedoms, but many changes simply meant that power passed from traditional rulers to Dutch officials.

"Geconcentreerde Linie" in Aceh: a series of 16 forts designed to contain guerillas. Dutch institute direct rule in Deli. Communications services are consolidated by the government into PTT (Post Telegraaf Telefoon). 1885 Sultan of Asahan is returned from exile to his territory to rule for the Dutch. Dutch institute direct rule in Madura. Persons of Chinese descent in the Netherlands Indies are classified as "Europeans" for purposes of commercial law only. 1886 Modern harbor is built at Tanjung Priok, Batavia (today's Jakarta). 1887 Sultans of Madura have been reduced to bupati status. Economic depression in Java. 1888 Earthquake hits Bali. Dutch Resident in Surakarta takes control of the On Java in this period, there were over 80 finances of the Mangkunegara house. local rulers keeping the title of "Sultan", Revolt in Banten led by the Qadiriyya order. "Susuhunan" or "Bupati" ruling in theory, North Borneo (Sabah) becomes a British protectorate. while the Dutch held the real power. Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij is founded as the major inter-island shipping and passenger line. 1890 Zijlker founds company that would become Royal Dutch Shell. Dutch expedition against Flores. 1891 Mengwi in Bali is taken over by Badung. Naqshbandiyya rebel in Lombok against Mataram- A traditional masjid in Aceh from the late Balinese rule; Dutch intervene. 1800s. 1893 Pakubuwono X becomes Susuhunan of Solo. 1894 Final Dutch intervention in Lombok is successful; A "puputan" was a suicide charge by Balinese nobility goes down in puputan; Karangasem becomes nobility to defend their honor when all else Dutch dependency. was lost. The families of the court would put

on ceremonial clothes, arm themselves with false weapons and walk directly into enemy gunfire. Reports of the terrible events on Lombok reached back to the Netherlands, and caused "Batak War" ends. very different reactions in different segments of Rebellion against Portuguese in East Timor. society. The popular press promoted war fever, Netherlands Indies organizes a state-run opium and over 3000 army volunteers agreed to go to the Indies and fight for the Netherlands crown. monopoly to control the opium trade (Opiumregie). However, other observers were shocked, and their reactions helped start the movement towards moderate reform in the colonial government that would eventually be known as the "Ethical Policy". 1895 Jami'at Khair founded; organization dedicated to Arabic education. Portuguese Timor, formerly administered Macao, receives its own administration. 1896 King Chulalongkorn of Thailand makes a state visit to the Netherlands Indies. Dutch go on attack against guerillas in Aceh with special forces (Korps Marechaussee). 1898 Dutch begin exploring Irian Jaya. Van Heutsz becomes Dutch Governor of Aceh. His advisor Snouck Hurgronje introduces "Korte Verklaring", a short treaty recognizing Dutch rule, to replace older complicated agreements with local rulers; Dutch pursue alliance with uleebalangs against Islamic leaders. June Van Heutsz sends a successful Dutch expedition against Pidie, Aceh. 1899 R. A. Kartini begins letter-writing career. Pesantren Tebuireng, a famous Islamic school, is founded at Jombang, East Java. Teuku Umar, leader of the guerilla forces in Aceh, is killed during a Dutch ambush. Van Deventer, a colonial reformer, publishes "Een Eereschuld", demanding that monies collected in the past from the Netherlands Indies be restituted to the Indies to help pay off the rising colonial debt. Starting about this time, the Dutch began to encourage Islamic worship and practice, as long as politics were not involved. The goal was to channel Islamic enthusiasm away from politics and nationalism. from

Dutch Imperialism: 1870-1910 During this period the Dutch tried to take complete control of all the areas they claimed. This was the era of "high imperialism", when powers such as Britain and France were facing competition from new colonial powers such as Germany and Italy, and most unclaimed parts of Africa, Asia and the Pacific were being taken by one power before another could get an opportunity. The "Netherlands Indies" were vital to the Dutch economy: the profits from coffee, tobacco, oil, and other products helped finance the industrialization of the Netherlands. 1900 Raja of Gianyar on Bali submits to Dutch authority. Upper schools at Bandung, Magelang and Probolinggo reorganized to train Javanese candidates for local civil service. 1901 Europeans in the Indies, who controlled the economy and government, paid only 20% of Jambi placed under control of Dutch Resident of the tax revenues of the Indies. Most of the tax Palembang during succession question and related burden still fell on native Indonesians, in spite of the dismantlement of the culture system. unrest. These revenues were used, among other things, Zijlker's Royal Dutch oil company expands to to finance Dutch military conquests in the Kalimantan. outer islands. Dutch place garrison on Mentawai Islands. But it was not enough. By this time, the Dutch government was sending more money to Sukarno born. support the Netherlands Indies than it was Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands announces collecting from the Indies in revenues. Most of "Ethical Policy" towards the Indies. the cash flow from the Indies to the Netherlands after 1900 was in the hands of private businesses. 1902 Dutch end restrictions on the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). 1903 Sultan of Aceh, Tuanku Daud Syah, surrenders to the Dutch, but keeps secret contact with guerillas. Netherlands Indies begins opening MULO schools for Thirty years of war in Aceh cost 60,000 Acehnese lives, plus over 2,000 Dutch soldiers elementary education. killed in battle, and over 10,000 Dutch soldiers Decentralization Act gives a small number of seats in dead from disease. Another 25,000 forced local and provincial governments to natives of the laborers under the Dutch died in Aceh in this Indies. First elections ever on Java are held. period. Netherlands Indies treasury gets a treasury separate from the home treasury in the Netherlands. 1904 Van Heutsz, recently military Governor of Aceh, becomes Governor-General (until 1909). Taha of Jambi killed by Dutch.

Dutch military expedition takes control of Batak region of Sumatra. An expedition under Capt. Van Daalen to the uplands of Aceh kills over 3000 villagers, including over 1000 women and children. Netherlands government starts series of grants and loan repayment programs for the Netherlands Indies. Dewi Sartika founds Sekolah Isteri (Schools for Women). 1905 January Dutch begin five months of military operations on Kalimantan. Dutch send a military force against a rebellion on Ceram. August Dutch forces land at Pare Pare. Major Dutch advance on Sulawesi; Bugis, Makasar, Toraja areas are taken for good. Ruler of Bone is deposed. Acehnese resistance contacts Japanese consul in Singapore for help. Dutch occupy Mentawai islands. First trade union is founded for railway workers. Municipal councils set up at Batavia and Bandung. Netherlands Indies government sponsors a community of transplanted Javanese farmers in Lampung: first example of transmigrasi. 1906 September Major Dutch advance on Bali: Dutch invade at Sanur; Dutch naval force shells Denpasar. Nobility of Badung commits puputan. King of Tabanan is captured by the Dutch, but commits suicide. Klungkung falls in a final puputan. Rubber production takes off in Sumatra with new plant varieties. Dutch take direct control of Sumba. Dutch establish a protectorate over Berau in east Kalimantan. Postpublication censorship is introduced: all publications must be submitted to a censor for review within 24 hours of release. 1907 Dutch military puts down rebellion in Flores, takes complete control. Unrest finally put down in Jambi. Aceh guerillas attack Dutch in Banda Aceh.

King Sisingamangaraja XII of the Bataks revolts against the Dutch, and is shot in the conflict. Zijlker's Royal Dutch oil company merges with Shell Transport and Trading to become Royal Dutch Shell. Dutch send police to the Tanimbar Islands to stop intertribal conflict. New education program aims to offer 3-year schools for children in the general population. 1908 Klungkung revolts against Dutch; nobility commits suicide by puputan to preserve their honor. Dutch intervene in local conflicts on Sumbawa, take tighter control. Butung comes under direct Dutch rule. VSTP (rail workers Indonesian members. accepts Budi Utomo was a less political organization, primarily devoted to the promotion of May 20 Budi Utomo is founded among upper-class Javanese culture. It's interest was limited to Javanese students in Jakarta, including the future Dr. Javanese culture. Sutomo. October Budi Utomo holds congress in Yogya. Indische Vereeniging founded for Indonesian students in the Netherlands. Minor uprising in Minangkabau is suppressed. 1909 Sarekat Dagang Islamiyah founded by Kyai Haji Samanhudi in Jakarta; Tjokroaminoto rises to leadership. 1910 Islamic resistance in Aceh is decimated. Jami'at Khair replaced by Al-Irsyad (Jamiat Islam al Irsyad al Arabia), organization for Arab Muslims in Indonesia. Rebellion in East Timor under Dom Boaventura. Ratulangie founds Perserikatan Minahasa, social organization for Minahasans. Dutch expedition to Komodo reports on Komodo dragons to Europe for the first time. union) founded,

1910 - 1940 (New Nationalism)

1911 Throughout history, the bubonic plague had Abendanon publishes R. A. Kartini's letters with the never before spread to Java. Tens of thousands title "Door Duisternis Tot Licht". died of the plague in 1911-1913, and it was Newspaper al-Munir begins publishing in Padang. twenty-five years before the disease was eradicated from Java again, after extensive Bubonic plague outbreak on Java. campaigns against rats. 1912 September 10 Sarekat Dagang Islamiyah changes name to Sarekat Islam. Kyai Haji Ahmad Dahlan founds Muhammadiyah in The Muhammadiyah remains one of the large, Yogya. respected Islamic organizations in Indonesia Indische Partij founded by Setiabudi (Douwes today. It has been known for its "modernist" Dekker), Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo and Ki Hajar Islamic viewpoint. Dewantoro. All three are exiled within a year. Portuguese suppress revolt in East Timor. 1913 Kartini Fonds founded in Netherlands to support women's education on Java. Gov-Gen Idenburg recognizes Sarekat Islam as legal organization. Indische Partij banned; leaders go to Netherlands. Netherlands Indies government is given the power to borrow money without first receiving permission from the Netherlands. 1914 Hollandsch-Inlandsche schools are reorganized, become schools for Indonesian well-to-do. Paguyuban Pasundan organization founded as a social and cultural organization for Sundanese in western Java. May 9 Sneevliet founds Indische SociaalDemocratische Vereeniging, would become PKI In the beginning, the ISDV and PKI would have (Indonesian Communist Party). mostly Dutch members. War in Europe: Dutch government considers local militia for Indonesia. Great Colonial Exhibition in Semarang, attended by Pakubuwono X of Surakarta and entourage. KNIL organizes an airborne auxiliary. Nias comes under complete Dutch control. 1915

Haji Agus Salim joins Sarekat Islam, promotes Islamic modernism. Soedirman born. 1916 Delegation with members from Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam, and other organizations tours the Netherlands. Netherlands Indies government organizes "Politiek Inlichtingen Dienst", a special police force for investigating political crimes (later renamed to "Algemene Recherche"). Gov-Gen J.P. Count van Limburg Stirum until 1921. Young Sukarno attends school in Surabaya, lives For more background on Sarekat Islam, the with Tjokroaminoto. Muhammadiyah, and Nahdlatul Ulama, see the June Sarekat Islam holds first convention in Notes on Islam in modern Indonesia. Bandung; some members and traditional Javanese are unhappy with modernism. Mangkunegara VII takes rule of his house in Surakarta. December States-General in the Netherlands passes bill to create a Koloniale Raad (later Volksraad) for the Netherlands Indies. 1917 Sarekat Islam begins to take a more antigovernment position. Leftists from Semarang gather in Sarekat Islam under Semaun; Tjokroaminoto does not oppose The Netherlands, and the Netherlands Indies, were neutral during World War I, but they still them. maintained military preparedness. The war Netherlands considers conscripting Indonesians for disrupted trade between the Indies and Europe, military service; leftists in Sarekat Islam oppose but business with the United States and Japan this. increased. Aisyiyah, women's auxiliary to Muhammadiyah, is founded. Modern port facilities are constructed at Surabaya. 1918 May 18 Volksraad meets for the first time. 39% of its members are Indonesian. Members are elected by local councils from kabupaten. most members are government officials or bupati. It consists of one house, and serves in an advisory capacity only. Labor shortages during wartime led to strikes and higher wages.

Van Limburg Stirum in 1918 made statements that the Volksraad should prepare to take a greater role in government. However, he was not Gov.-Gen. van Limburg Stirum appoints motivated by independence or nationalism--he Tjokroaminoto to Volksraad. was worried by rumors of a Socialist takeover in the Netherlands and was ready for the Indies to ISDV starts to organize soviets in Surabaya. go its own way if that happened. Nevertheless, he "Sarekat Islam B", secret revolutionary branch, was criticized in the Indies and in the starts organizing. It includes Musso (and possibly Netherlands for being soft on Indonesian

Tjokroaminoto). Sarekat Sumatra founded. Smallpox epidemic Kalimantan. hits Java, Sumatra and

Jong Minahasa organization founded. Nederlands-Indi government starts to suppress ISDV soviets, drives Dutch members from nationalists, and he was soon replaced. communist movement. The "November Promise": Dutch government says that Indonesia will have self-government in the undetermined future. November 14 Indonesian members of the Volksraad condemn the Netherlands Indies government for favoring European interests. Nederlands-Indi government exiles Sneevliet. 1919 There was some confusion in Indonesia as to May-June Shooting in Garut; assassination of a what "communism" really meant, which led to Dutch official at Tolitoli, Sulawesi. Dutch use such unusual concepts as "Islamic Communism". shootings as an excuse to suppress Sarekat Islam Many common people joined such movements in Section B. the 1920s. They used the mass organizations that Indo-Europees Verbond founded to promote the grew around Communist slogans to express their cause of "Eurasians", while also supporting the dissatisfaction with colonialism and the conditions of life. Some Islamic leaders were Dutch. happy to see the Communists leave (or be thrown Haji Misbach preaches "Islamic Communism" in out) of organizations like Sarekat Islam. Other Surakarta leaders, such as Sukarno, said that all December Sarekat Islam claims 2 million members; organizations should cooperate in the struggle holds congress in Yogya. for independence; that Islam, Communism, and nationalism could work together as long as none KLM opens long-distance air service from of them upset the overall harmony of the Amsterdam to Batavia. movement. 1920 May 27 ISDV changes name to Perserikatan Komunis di Hindia (later PKI). PKH publishes works by Lenin. Technische Hoogeschool founded at Bandung (today's ITB: Institut Teknologi Bandung). Sarekat Ambon founded. Conflict between the Communists and Sarekat Islam grows. December 25 International. 1921 Tjokroaminoto is arrested and jailed. Fock is Gov.-Gen. of Nederlands-Indi until 1926. Street scene in Batavia (Jakarta), 1920s. PKH joins the Communist

Timorsch Verbond founded. October Sixth national congress of Sarekat Islam forbids SI members to belong to other parties, including PKI. Many Sarekat Islam branches split into "Red" (SIMerah) factions after Semaun and "White" (SIPutih) factions after Tjokroaminoto. Semaun leaves for Soviet Union. Tan Malaka tries to heal the split in Sarekat Islam. PKI denounces Tjokroaminoto. Young Sukarno begins studies at Technische Hoogeschool in Bandung. Soeharto born. Hamengkubuwono VIII becomes Sultan of Yogya. 1922 Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia or Indonesian Students Association is founded in the Netherlands. Its membership would include Mohammed Hatta, Sutan Sjahrir, Sutomo, Ali Sastroamidjojo, and many others who would be prominent in the independence struggle (and in the government of the Republic of Indonesia in the 1950s). Tan Malaka is exiled from the Netherlands Indies. Tjokroaminoto is released from custody. Ki Hadjar Dewantoro founds Taman Siswa in Yogya, independent school with no gov support to promote Javanese arts as well as modern education (anti-modernist); invents term "guided democracy". Indische Vereeniging in the Netherlands changes name to Perhimpunan Indonesia. Mohammed Hatta and Sutan Sjahrir are members, Tan Malaka and Semaun speak to meetings. Semaun returns from the Netherlands. Marah Roesli publishes "Sitti Noerbaja", first Indonesian novel Strikes continue. Al-Islam congress is held at Cirebon. Pelgrimsordonnantie is passed, government control of the hajj. beginning

Modern port facilities open at Belawan to serve northern Sumatra. 1923 February Partai Katolik is founded. Prominent Communists in this period included: a Dutchman, who originally

Successful Communist led railroad strike; many Sneevliet,

unions become Communist dominated. Tjokroaminoto reorganizes Sarekat Islam as the new Partai Sarekat Islam. Communist supporters leave the organization, taking a significant number of the rank-and-file with them; "Red" SI branches become Sarekat Rakyat.

introduced Communism to Indonesia. Tan Malaka who was not an unquestioning supporter of Moscow and Stalin, but was later executed by ABRI in 1949. He was exiled from Indonesia from 1924 to 1944.

Musso led the PKI during the 1920s, and again during the 1940s independence struggle. He was Semaun exiled. a strong supporter of Stalin and the Communist Persatuan Islam, a hardline modernist group, is International in Moscow, and spent the years 1936-1948 in the Soviet Union. He was executed founded in Bandung. by the Republic of Indonesia army in the wake of Pasteur Institute moves from Batavia to Bandung. the Madiun incident of 1948. Military service is made mandatory for Dutch Semaun citizens in the Indies. Darsono who later renounced Communism. 1924 Perserikatan Komunis di Hindia changes to Partai Komunis Indonesia, decides to turn to revolt. Musso joins PKI. "Sarekat Hijau" organized by Dutch, members are In 1924, the Islamic caliphate ended, an event which caused much debate and concern in pro-Dutch local officials, criminals, police, etc. Islamic communities. Dr. Sutomo founds Indonesian Study Club. Also around this time, the economy in Europe First airmail service from Batavia to Amsterdam. was very poor. The flight takes almost two months. Central Malaria Bureau is founded to coordinate eradication programs. 1925 New constitution: Council of the Indies becomes advisory, Volksraad gets limited legislative powers, Governor-General and bureaucracy are unaffected. Chinese are officially defined under "vreemde oosterlingen". Membership in the Volksraad is set at 60: 30 Dutch, 25 Indonesians, and 5 members of either Arab or The Governor's Palace at Buitenzorg (now Bogor), flying a Dutch flag. This was used by the Chinese descent. Netherlands Indies government from 1870 until PKI-led strikes fail, Tan Malaka is in Singapore. 1942. (Years later, Sukarno used it as a Sukarno founds pro-independence General Studies Presidential retreat.) Club in Bandung, advocates unity. Film censorship is instituted. First commercial radio station in Batavia. 1926 Dutch arrest more PKI members; Musso goes to Singapore. PKI receives instructions from Moscow to start a revolt, then cancels the instructions. Musso keeps the second instructions (the instructions not to revolt) secret. The 1926 unrest was the first of three ill-advised, unsuccessful revolts by the PKI. The second was in 1948 at Madiun, the third was in 1965. After these revolts, Communist activity lessened greatly or went underground. Many leftist

February Committee of Islamic scholars meets in Surabaya to send a delegation to Saudi Arabia to protest conditions for Indonesian pilgrims on the hajj. (This committee would later form the nucleus of Nahdlatul Ulama.)

leaders, including Tan Malaka and Musso, spent November 12 PKI revolts in Banten, Batavia, years overseas. Within a few years, the mass Bandung, Padang. PKI declares a republic. Revolt is movements were gone, and instead the crushed by the Dutch, who make over 13,000 Communist presence consisted of a few cadre arrests. Tan Malaka opposes revolt. who were mostly loyal to orthodox Marxism and Sukarno gets engineering degree in Bandung. Stalin's Soviet Union. De Graeff is Gov.-Gen. until 1931. December 31 Kyai Haji Hasjim Asjari founds Nahdlatul Ulama, a Muslim organization dedicated to schools, charity, and economic help. 1927 January PKI revolts in West Sumatra are destroyed. February Hatta and others attend anti-colonial convention in Brussels along with many nationalists from Asia and Africa. July 4 Sukarno founds Perserikatan Nasional The Dutch used the communist unrest as an Indonesia (PNI). excuse to arrest many Indonesian leaders who September Hatta, Ali Sastroamidjojo and others in were not communists. Perhimpunan Mahasiswa Indonesia are arrested. Sukarno in these days was a strong nationalist. Netherlands Indies builds Boven Digul prison camp He said that "neither an airplane from Moscow nor a caliph in Istanbul" could help Indonesia in West Irian to house political prisoners. win independence--they had to do it themselves. Anti-narcotics campaign: Netherlands Indies bans the cultivation of coca and hemp. December PPPKI umbrella group of nationalist organizations (Permufakatan Perhimpunan Politik Kebangsaan Indonesia) is organized in Bandung. 1928 PNI changes name to Partai Nasional Indonesia, adopts merah-putih flag, Bahasa Indonesia as national language, "Indonesia Raya" by Supratman as national anthem. March Hatta and supporters are acquitted; Hatta's speeches are convincingly anti-Dutch. October 28 Youth Congress in Batavia adopts Pakubuwono X of Surakarta poses with Gov.Gen. de Graeff (center) in 1928. "sumpah pemuda": one nation, one language. Muhammad Yamin writes poems "Indonesia tumpah Many people see this time as the real beginning of Indonesian nationalism, the "kebangkitan darahku". bangsa" or "national awakening". KNILM is founded as official airline of the Netherlands Indies. Perti (Persatuan Tarbiyah Islamiyah) is founded at Bukittingi as an educational organization for traditionalist Minangkabau Muslims.

1929 August Netherlands Indies government warns PNI members to stop their activities. Indonesians gain a majority of seats in the Volksraad, still only an advisory body. Dutch restore former rulers of Bali to local self-rule under Dutch authority, in an elaborate ceremony at Besakih. December 29 Sukarno and followers are arrested. 1930 Sukarno sent to Bandung for trial. He gives rousing speeches in court, but is convicted and sentenced to four years in prison. PNI is declared dissolved by the Netherlands Indies government. Muhammad H Thamrin sets up nationalist faction in Around this time the effects of the worldwide Volksraad; wants autonomy. economic depression began to hit. Exports of June Pangeran Surjodiningrat founds Pakempalan sugar and other cash crops to industrial nations Kawula Ngayogyakarta as a cultural organization dropped, and Japanese imports grew. There was for the people of Yogya, which becomes very some growth of industry in the cities in the 1930s as well, which was supported by the Netherlands popular. Indies government as a counter to Japanese Japanese found Borneo Oil Company. imports. Hok Liong, Chinese of Malang, invents clove cigarette or "kretek", later founds Bentoel company. Jamiyatul Washliyah is founded with strong Karo Batak participation. 1931 Perhimpunan Indonesia is taken over Communists; Sjahrir and Hatta are expelled. by

April PNI is dissolved and replaced by Partindo. Some PNI members, including Hatta, are Some important Dutch figures in Batavia were disappointed. actually sympathetic to Sukarno during this December Sjahrir founds Pendidikan Nasional period, including Van Mook, who wrote an anonymous newspaper article criticizing the Indonesia with Hatta ("PNI-Baru"). treatment of Sukarno by the government. (Van Sukarno released by de Graeff. Mook later served as Lieutenant-Governor of the King of Bone is restored by the Dutch to govern Indies from 1945-48, during the independence with local self-rule. struggle.) De Jonge is Gov.-Gen. until 1936. Netherlands Indies government tightens press censorship. 1932 Sukarno joins Partindo; interest in Partindo rises. August Hatta returns from the Netherlands. Mohammed Natsir, age 24, takes charge of new Persatuan Islam schools, writes that Islam must be

the basis of the new Indonesia. Dutch require independent schools to get permission from the government to operate; factions in the Volksraad unite against the idea. 1933 February 5 Mutiny of Dutch and Indonesian sailors on the Dutch naval vessel Zeven Provincien. Netherlands Indies suppresses independent schools and political leaders in Minangkabau. August Sukarno, Hatta, Sjahrir are arrested. Sukarno is exiled to Ende on Flores without a trial. Oost-Indische Leger is renamed KNIL (Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger). Meetings of the PPPKI umbrella group are banned. 1934 Dutch begin protectionist drive to keep out less expensive Japanese products in favor of more expensive Dutch ones. Dutch pressure PKN to renounce overt political Around this time, there was a political activity. crackdown on fascists and communists in the February Hatta and Sjahrir are arrested and sent to Netherlands, along with the attacks on the Boven Digul concentration camp in West Irian. nationalists in Indonesia. Dutch ban congress of Partindo. Nahdlatul Ulama youth wing, Ansor, is founded. Tjokroaminoto passes away. 1935 Al-Ittihadiah (modernist founded at Medan. Islamic association)

Nahdlatul Wathan, an organization for Islamic education, is founded on Lombok. December Budi Utomo and Persatuan Bangsa Indonesia combine to form Partai Indonesia Raya or Parindra. Membership includes Thamrin and Dr. Sutomo; it also includes some pro-Japan members. The new party calls for independence through cooperation with the Dutch. 1936 Van Starkenborgh is named Governor-General; holds title at least until 1945. Hatta and Sjahrir are moved to Banda.

Dutch pilots of KNILM, the colonial airline, in the late 1930s. Indonesians had almost no September 29 Volksraad votes to support petition opportunity to rise to jobs at this level. for autonomy for Indonesia within the constitution However, by this time, half of the agricultural of the Netherlands. exports of Indonesia came from IndonesianFirst becaks in Batavia. owned lands, rather than Dutch or other foreign-

November Partindo disbands. 1937 May 24 Gerakan Rakyat Indonesia founded: Gerindo. It includes Yamin and Amir Sjarifuddin. As an organization it supports independence, but tends to cooperate with the Dutch against the Japanese. September MIAI founded: Majlis Islam A'laa Indonesia, umbrella group for cooperation between Muhammadiyah, NU, Persatuan Islam, and other groups. December 17 Antara news service founded. 1938 Sukarno, still under Dutch custody, is moved to Bengkulu. First outsiders reach Baliem Valley on Irian Jaya.

owned plantations. In 1900, almost none of the agricultural exports came from Indonesianowned lands.

Dutch hold council of Tapanuli to support Batak By the late 1930s, the Dutch were building up local rulers. their defenses at Surabaya, Amboina, Cilacap Netherlands Indies institutes "adat law" in and other bases, in apprehension of Japanese Minangkabau and Banjarmasin. expansion in the area. Yet, the Dutch resisted Moscow tells PKI to stop anti-Dutch activities. arming Indonesians for defense purposes. Persatuan Arab Indonesia formed from existing Arab Muslim organizations. November 16 Netherlands government rejects the 1936 autonomy petition for Indonesia. 1939 Pakubuwono X of Surakarta passes Pakubuwono XI is new Susuhunan. Japanese occupy Spratly Islands. May PUSA (Persatuan Ulama Seluruh Aceh) is founded by Muhammad Da'ud Beureu'eh to coordinate anti-Dutch activities in Aceh. Gabungan Politik Indonesia or GAPI is formed, an Pakubuwono X was a huge man, very much umbrella group of nationalist organizations. loved by the people of Surakarta, who predicted that after his rule there would be no more like Thamrin is a major promoter. him. Kartosuwirjo and followers split from Partai Sarekat Islam, taking much of its support in West Java with them. December GAPI organizes Kongres Rakyat Indonesia, a large representative meeting in Batavia, which presents the demand for full elected parliament for the Indies. 1940 away,

February Dutch again reject autonomy for the Indies. February 13 Japan repudiates treaty of arbitration with the Netherlands. March 18 Hamengkubuwono IX becomes Sultan of Yogya. May Netherlands falls to government flees to London. Germany, Dutch

1940 - 1945 (Perang Dunia II)

1940 May 10 Germany invades the Netherlands. May 15 The Netherlands surrenders to Germany; Dutch government flees to London. Netherlands Indies government declares a state of siege, and places the Indies on a wartime footing. German citizens in the Netherlands Indies are placed in internment camps. June Young Suharto enters military school at Gombang. June 28 Japan says that it wants to renegotiate trade agreements with the Netherlands. July Indonesian exports to Japan are stopped. August Japan suggests that French Indochina and the Netherlands Indies should be incorporated willingly into the "East Asia CoProsperity Sphere". August 9 GAPI presents another petition for the "complete democratization of Indonesia". August 23 Commission for the Study of Constitutional Reforms is set up to look into the GAPI demands (but nothing else). Thamrin and others in the Volksraad withdraw their proposals for democratization, saying that the situation was becoming hopeless. September 12 Netherlands Indies government begins trade talks with a Japanese delegation under Kobayashi. Van Mook does not cooperate with Japanese demands for aviation fuel. October 26 Japan and the Netherlands issue a joint declaration that the Indies will not be part of the "Co-Prosperity Sphere". November 12 Quota on oil sales to Japan from the Indies is set by agreement. December Kobayashi returns to Japan. 1941 January 6 Dutch arrest Thamrin, Douwes Dekker and other nationalists. Thamrin dies in custody five days later. Douwes Dekker is exiled to Surinam. In August 1941, the Atlantic Charter was signed by the USA, Britain, and the governments-in-exile of many of the occupied nations of Europe, including the Netherlands. The Charter called for the "right of all peoples to choose the form of government under January 11 New, more agressive Japanese which they will live", among other things. In negotiating team under Yoshizawa arrives in September of the same year, Dutch diplomats Batavia. clarified that they did not think this applied to February Increasing Japanese pressure on the Indonesia. Even after the Netherlands had been taken over by Nazi Germany, the Dutch still held onto their colonies. For over a year and a half, the Netherlands East Indies government continued to rule over Indonesia, reporting to the Dutch government-inexile. Efforts by Indonesian activists to organize selfrule were ignored. Some Japanese extremists had talked about building an empire in the Pacific in the early 1930s, or even earlier. In 1940, however, Japan still faced a possible military threat from the Soviet Union, and the Japanese military was unwilling to overextend their forces too far to the south.

Netherlands Indies government to "join the East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" is rebuffed by Van Mook. May 14 Japanese send an ultimatum to the Netherlands Indies government, demanding Japanese influence and presence in the region. June 6 Talks between Dutch and Japanese collapse. Netherlands Indies government replies that no concessions to Japan will be made, and that all strategic products (including oil and rubber) have been contracted for shipment to Britain and the United States. July 11 Volksraad organizes an Indonesian militia. July 25 Japan announces a "protectorate" over In 1941, the British and Americans as well as the Dutch began to tighten restrictions on business with Indochina. Japan, including embargoes on supplies that could July 26 Japanese assets in the Netherlands be used to wage war. In response, Japan announced Indies are frozen. that it would try to organize the "Greater East Asian July 30 Dutch government-in-exile promises to Co-Prosperity Sphere", a bloc that would supply raw materials to Japan and receive exports in return. The hold conference on Indonesia after the war. original idea stretched the bloc as far as India and November 30 Dutch naval forces in the Indies New Zealand. The bloc would be controlled by the begin mobilizing. Japanese military. Japanese propaganda also December Australian troops occupy East advanced the idea that Asian colonies of European powers should be free from Western control--but this Timor. implied that control of those colonies would fall to December 8 Japanese invade Malaya, landing Japan by military force. in southernmost Thailand and northern Malaya. Japanese begin attacking the Philippines. The circumstances of Thamrin's death are not clear, Netherlands, among other nations, declares war except that he definitely died while in Dutch custody. The Netherlands Indies government suspected on Japan. Thamrin and the others arrested in January 1941 of December 10 British battleships Prince of secretly collaborating with the Japanese. Wales and Repulse are sunk within hours of each other off Malaya. December 16 Anti-Dutch Acehnese make contact with Japanese forces in Malaya. December 17 Australian-led force lands in East Timor. Portuguese dictator Salazar protests. Japanese land in Sarawak. December 22 Main Japanese invasion force lands in the Philippines. Hatta writes a newspaper article calling on Indonesians to oppose the Japanese. December 24 Japanese attack British forces at Kuching, Sarawak. January 1942 January 2 Japanese take city of Manila. January 3 Japanese take Sabah. The Netherlands Indies government had few resources of its own. With the Netherlands under control and the home government in exile in London,

January 6 Japanese take Brunei. January 10 Japanese begin invasion of Indonesia in Kalimantan (Tarakan) and Sulawesi (Manado). January 11 Japanese take Tarakan. January 12 Van Mook makes an emergency trip to the United States, asking for reinforcements, and that the Netherlands Indies not be forgotten in the Allied defenses. January 13 Japanese take Manado. defense of the area fell mostly to the British and January 15 British Gen. Wavell takes Americans. When the British lost Malaya and command of ABDACOM, the first Allied joint Singapore, and the Americans lost the Philippines, command (Australian, British, Dutch, the defense of the Netherlands Indies became American) in the war. hopeless. January 16 Acehnese agents return from Malaya with promises of Japanese support against the Dutch. January 23 Japanese take Balikpapan in spite of a strong Dutch and U.S. attack. January 25 Japanese take Kendari on Sulawesi. January 31 Japanese attack Ambon. Australian defenders suffer 90 percent casualties; Ambon city is taken within 24 hours. British troops evacuate Malaya for Singapore. February 1942 February 1 Japanese take Pontianak. February 3 Japanese bomb Surabaya, Hubertus Van Mook beginning air raids on targets on Java. Van Mook was to be the last Dutch head of February 4 Battle of Makassar Strait (naval government for the Netherlands Indies. In the 1930s, battle between Kalimantan and Sulawesi): he was an official with liberal, reformist views. In the Japanese air and sea power forces Allies to early 1940s, he was a tireless advocate for the withdraw to Cilacap. Japanese advance into Netherlands Indies, frustrating Japan in negotiations while quietly pleading with Britain and the USA for Sulawesi. defense supplies. After the war, he would in turn both February 8 Japanese begin main assault on battle against and negotiate with the new Republic of Singapore. Indonesia, until he resigned in October 1948. February 9 Japanese bomb Batavia, Surabaya and Malang. February 10 Japanese take Ujung Pandang (Makassar). February 15 Singapore falls; 130,000 troops under British command are taken as prisoners of war. Japanese land paratroopers at Palembang, take oil industry. February 18 Van Mook, in Australia, pleads for Allied forces to make an offensive.

February 19 Battle of Badung Strait (naval battle between Bali and Lombok): small Japanese force drives back Dutch and Australians. Japanese land on Bali. First Japanese air raid on Darwin, Australia. February 20 Japanese land on Timor. February 23 Revolt against Dutch begins in Aceh and North Sumatra, with Japanese support. Dutch transfer Sukarno to Padang; Sukarno slips away in chaos as Dutch evacuate. Dutch evacuate Sjahrir and Hatta from Banda by air minutes before the Japanese begin bombing the island. Japanese claim fall of Timor; Australian forces continue guerilla warfare. February 27 to March 1 Battle of Java Sea: Japanese destroy much of the Dutch and Australian naval forces near Surabaya. American destroyers escape to Australia. Dutch Admiral Doorman is killed. March 1942 March 1 Battle of Sunda Strait: Japanese invasion force lands at Banten. Japanese invasion force lands west of Surabaya. Japanese air raid on Medan. March 5 Japanese air strikes at Cilacap. Japanese enter Batavia. In March 1942, the Allied forces on Java were told by scouts that a Japanese force of 250,000 was March 7 Rangoon falls to Japanese. marching on Bandung, when in fact the force was March 8 Dutch under Starkenborgh in Java only one-tenth that size. This wrong information may surrender outside Bandung. Van Mook escapes have been a part of the Allied surrender on Java. in a plane to Australia at the last moment. The Dutch actually transferred Communists being Japanese take Surabaya. held in prison camps in the Netherlands Indies, some March 11 Acehnese resistance engages in of them since 1926, to prison camps in Australia when the Japanese arrived. battles with retreating Dutch. March 15 Japanese forces arrive in Aceh. Oil fields at Tarakan: Indonesia's strategic natural resources made it a valuable prize during the Second March 28 Last Dutch force on Sumatra World War. Oil fields and refineries were important surrenders at Kutatjane. to the Japanese war effort, and were frequent targets Japanese ban all political activities and existing of Allied bombing raids. organizations. Volksraad is abolished. A ban is placed on merah-putih flags. March 18 Japanese take Padang. Japanese 16th Army is in charge of Java; 25th Army in Sumatra (headquarters at Bukittinggi); Navy controls eastern Indonesia (headquarters at Ujung Pandang).

April 1942 Japanese try to organize "AAA" movement; start propaganda campaigns. ABDACOM is dissolved. British and Americans divide responsibilities of war: British will try to retake Malaya and Sumatra as well as Burma. Rest of the Pacific and Gen. Imamura of the Japanese 16th Army, head of Indonesia becomes the responsibility of the U.S. the occupation of Java in 1942. (working with Australia). April 19 Japanese take Hollandia (now Jayapura). June 1942 June 17 Netherlands government-in-exile in London sets up consultative board for the affairs of the Netherlands Indies. July 1942 Outwardly cooperating with the Japanese was the Japanese assemble Sukarno, Hatta, and Sjahrir only option Sukarno and Hatta really had. The in Jakarta. ultimate goal, of course, was not to support Japan, Sukarno, Hatta, Sjahrir meet privately: Sukarno but to win independence for Indonesia. Later, the to rally masses for independence, Hatta to returning Dutch would try to accuse Sukarno of handle diplomatic connections, Sjahrir to being a Japanese collaborator in order to get British coordinate underground activities. support against the new Indonesian republic. Sukarno accepts Japanese offer to be head of Sjahrir, for his part, directed underground activities Indonesian government, but answerable to from his sister's house at Cipanas, near Bogor. Japanese military. Information was frequently and quietly shared between Sukarno, who could get information from Japanese occupy the Kai and Tanimbar Islands. Japanese inner circles, and Sjahrir. August 1942 August 29 Japanese begin transferring some forces from Sumatra and Java to the Solomon Islands. September 1942 Indonesian Muslims refuse to bow towards Japanese Emperor in Tokyo. October 1942 Japanese military advances in the Pacific stop; At the beginning, Japanese propaganda sounded like Japanese commanders told to organize pro- an improvement over Dutch rule. After the Japanese Japanese sentiments in occupied areas. troops began stealing food and taking men for forced labor, the opinion of Indonesians turned against October 16 Japanese 16th Army sends them. garrisons to Lombok, Sumba and Timor. Against Indonesians, the Japanese military was mostly guilty of three things: forced labor, in which many Indonesian men were taken from their homes and sent as far as Burma to do construction and other hard labor in terrible

conditions. Many thousands died or disappeared. forced requisitioning, in which Japanese soldiers took food, clothing, and other supplies from Indonesian families by force and without compensation. This led to much hunger and suffering during the war. forced slavery of women, in which Indonesian women were kept as "comfort women" for the amusement of Japanese soldiers. In addition, the Japanese kept Dutch civilians in internment camps under poor conditions, and treated military prisoners of war in Indonesia badly. War crimes in Indonesia were not nearly as serious as those committed in China or Korea during the same period, however. Some commanders, such as Gen. Imamura in Java, were publicly criticized in Tokyo newspapers for being too "soft". There were even Japanese officers who were sympathetic to the idea of Indonesian independence, and who went out of their way to support Indonesian political figures and organizations, right up to Sukarno himself. November 1942 Revolt in Aceh is put down by the Japanese. December 1942 December 6 Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, in exile, gives a speech promising a reformed relationship with the colonies after the war. December 27 Japanese open first internment camp for Dutch women at Ambarawa. January 1943 Japanese arrest Amir Sjarifuddin, break up his The case of Amir Sjarifuddin is an unusual one. He resistance movement. Sjarifuddin is sentenced was a Communist, yet received funds from the Dutch to death, but Sukarno intervenes on his behalf. government-in-exile to support his resistance movement against the Japanese. Australian guerillas evacuate East Timor. February 1943 February 9 Japanese send extra troops to Tanimbar and Kai Islands, and Irian Jaya. March 1943 March 9 Japanese organize Putera (Pusat Tenaga Rakyat, a political auxiliary organization). Sukarno is named chairman. Hatta and Ki Hadjar Dewantoro are members. Japanese begin to organize local military auxiliaries, including Heiho. By the end of the war in 1945, over two million Indonesians are

in them. July 1943 Japanese arrest 1000 in South Kalimantan. July 7 Japanese Prime Minister Tojo promises Indonesians limited self-government in a speech at Gambir, Jakarta. August 1943 August 13 US bombers from Australia hit Around this time, many Protestant ("Kristen") churches established Indonesian leaderships after Balikpapan. Dutch churchmen and missionaries had been sent to Japanese begin to take over sugar estates in Japanese internment camps. A side-effect of the favor of Japanese sugar producers; European Japanese occupation was to make Protestant managers are sent to internment camps. churches more Indonesian. September 1943 Revolts against Japanese put down in South and West Kalimantan. Orders go out to Japanese military to organize "Giyugun" (local armies). October 1943 October 3 Japanese organize Peta (Pembela Many notable figures were signed up for Peta, Tanah Air). including Soedirman and Suharto. Independence Japanese organize Masyumi (Majlis Syurah activists saw military training not so much as Muslimin Indonesia). support for Japan as preparation for possible Japanese begin to impose compulsory labor on independence. By mid-1945, there were 120,000 villagers (romusha), many thousands die or armed fighters in Peta. This group later formed the core of the new Indonesian Armed Forces (ABRI) disappear. after independence was proclaimed in 1945. Japanese impose rice requisitioning. November 1943 November 10 Sukarno, Hatta, and Kyai Bagus This was the first time that Sukarno had travelled Hadikusumo are flown to Tokyo to be decorated abroad. Hatta, who had spent years in Europe, was by the Emperor of Japan. less easily impressed. December 1943 Barisan Hizbullah organized by Japanese; armed force of Muslim youths associated with Masyumi. 1944 January Putera replaced by Jawa Hokokai/Java A small Netherlands East Indies administration was Service Association. Sukarno is chairman. set up in the eastern areas that Allied forces passed through in 44-45 on their way to the Philippines. April 19 Allies bomb Sabang in Aceh. April 22 Jayapura). Allies retake Hollandia (now

May 9 Japanese commanders decide to abandon Irian Jaya.

May 17 Allied air raid on Surabaya. May 27 US force lands on Biak. June 4 Japanese begin counterattack on Biak. August Barisan Pelopor is organized as youth wing of Jawa Hokokai (after independence, it would become known as Barisan Benteng). August 11 Allied air raid on Palembang. August 28-29 Ambon is mostly destroyed by Allied air raids. September 7 Japanese General Koiso promises that Indonesia will be independent in the "very near future". September 8 US forces finally clear last Japanese from Biak. September 15 Allies land on Morotai. Japanese authorities begin organizing regional councils (with advisory powers only). October Australian forces begin bombing Balikpapan. Japanese organize a Central Advisory Council, similar to the Volksraad, with no legislative powers. December Barisan Hizbullah, an armed auxiliary to Masyumi, is organized by the Japanese. Pakubuwono Surakarta. XII becomes Susuhunan of

February 1945 February 14 Peta soldiers at Blitar attack Japanese armoury. March 1945 March 1 Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (BPUPKI), a committee to prepare for Indonesian Independence, is announced by the Japanese. Members include Sukarno, Hatta, Wahid Hasyim, many others. Chairman is Dr. Radjiman Wediodiningrat. April 1945 Japanese Vice-Admiral Maeda, head of Naval Intelligence in Indonesia, sponsors speaking tour by Sukarno and Hatta to Ujung Pandang. In early discussions among the members of BPUPKI, it was assumed that the new Indonesia would not only include all the Netherlands Indies, but also Portuguese Timor, Sarawak, Sabah, and British Malaya.

Sukarno poses with Japanese military and civilian April 30 Australian and Dutch forces land at officials in Ujung Pandang in April 1945. Tarakan. May 1945

May 3 Acehnese guerillas overrun Japanese outpost at Pandrah, killing all Japanese forces with no losses among their own. May 28 BPUPKI holds first meeting. Supomo speaks to the committee against personal individualism, and in favor of national integration. June 1945 Maeda sponsors speaking tour by Sukarno and Hatta to Bali and Banjarmasin. June 1 Sukarno describes "Pancasila" doctrine in speech to independence committee. June 10 Australian forces land in Brunei. Dutch forces land in North Sumatra. June 24 Allied forces land on Halmahera. July 1945 Japanese military meets in Singapore. Plans are made to hand over Indonesia to Indonesian independence leaders. July 1 Australian forces take Balikpapan. U.S. bombers hit Watampone, other sites in Kalimantan and Sulawesi. July 10-17 BPUPKI holds discussions to draft a constitution for Indonesia. July 11 US air raid on Sabang. The Pancasila is the national doctrine of Indonesia, the ideals that society should try to live up to. For more info, see the Notes on Pancasila.

1945 - 1950 (War of Independence)

August 1945 August 7 BPUPKI renames itself to PPKI: Panitia The original constitution of 1945 is not very Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia. specific on many issues, and placed much power in the hands of the President. In 1950 a more August 9 Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman comprehensive constitution was adopted that gave Wediodiningrat are flown by the Japanese to the most power to the Assembly, but this Vietnam to meet with Marshal Terauchi. There constitution was dropped in favor of a return to the they are informed of the collapse of Japanese 1945 constitution under Sukarno's orders in 1959. forces, and that Japan will grant Indonesia independence on August 24. In the opinion of the victorious Allied powers in 1945, Lord Mountbatten, the Allied supreme August 14 Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman commander in southeast Asia, was in charge of Wediodiningrat return to Jakarta, mistrustful of the Sumatra and Java. Australian forces were given Japanese promise. responsibility for Kalimantan and Eastern August 15 Japan surrenders to the Allies. The Indonesia. Japanese army and navy still control Indonesia. Japan has agreed to return Indonesia to the Dutch. August 16 Sukarno and Hatta are spirited away by youth leaders, including Chaerul Saleh, to Rengasdengklok at 3:00 A.M. They later return to Jakarta, meet with General Yamamoto, and spend the next night at Vice-Admiral Maeda Tadashi's residence. Sukarno and Hatta are told privately that Japan no longer has the power to make decisions regarding the future of Indonesia. August 17 Sukarno reads the brief, succinct, and unilateral "Proklamasi"; the Declaration of Independence. PETA forces, radical youths, and ordinary people in Jakarta organize defense of Sukarno's residence. Flyers are distributed proclaiming independence. Adam Malik sends out a shortwave announcement of the Proklamasi. August 18 Piagam Jakarta (Jakarta Charter) mentioning Islam among the Pancasila principles is dropped from the preamble to the new constitution. August 18 New Republic consists of 8 provinces: Sumatra, Borneo, West Java, Central Java, East Java, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Sunda Kecil. August 22 Japanese announce their surrender publicly in Jakarta. Japanese forces disarm and disband Peta and Heiho. Many members of these groups have not yet heard of independence. August 23 BKR (Badan Keamanan Rakyat), first Indonesian military force, begins organizing from former Peta and Heiho members.

Dutch forces land at Sabang in Aceh. August 29 The New Republic: The constitution that had been drafted by the PPKI preparatory committee, and announced on the 18th, is adopted (UUD 45). Sukarno is declared President, Hatta is declared Vice-President. PPKI (originally BPUPKI, founded under the Japanese occupation the previous March) is remade into KNIP (Central Indonesian National Committee). KNIP is the temporary governing body until elections can be held. The new government is installed on August 31. The Patih (chief advisor) of Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya dies, no successor chosen, Sultan takes charge of his own affairs, begins to institute reforms in Yogya Tan Malaka reappears in Jakarta. September 1945 September 1 Van Mook, Dutch LieutenantGovernor of the Indies, meets British Lord Mountbatten in Ceylon, and asks that Japanese Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya was an troops still in Indonesia be ordered by the British early supporter of the new Republic. to suppress the Republican government. Mountbatten agrees, but the Japanese delay. September 5 Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya and Pakualam VIII in Yogya declare their palaces to be part of the Republic of Indonesia. September 8 First British troops parachute into Kemayoran Airport at Jakarta. Japanese navy in Kalimantan formally surrenders to Australian forces near Balikpapan. September 9 Japanese navy in eastern Indonesia formally surrender to Australian forces at Morotai. Japanese forces on Timor surrender to Australians in Kupang harbor. September 16 British Rear Admiral Patterson lands in Jakarta. He announces that the British mission is "to maintain law and order until the time that the lawful government of the Netherlands East Indies is once again functioning". The Dutch ask Patterson to have the leaders of the Republic arrested, but the British high command tells Patterson not to interfere in politics. September 17 Mass pro-Republic rallies in Jakarta. September 23 Patterson sends Captain Huyer of the Dutch Navy to inspect installations in Surabaya. September 27 Republican youths take over PTT

(Post, Telegraph and Telephone) headquarters in Bandung. September 29 British reinforcements land in Jakarta. Republican youths take over railways and radio stations in Jakarta, installations in Yogya, Solo, Malang, and Bandung. Mass independence rallies are held in Jakarta and Surabaya. The Susuhunan of Solo declares allegiance to Republic. King of Bone declares support for the Republic; rajas of Makassar and Bugis join him. Balinese rajas declare their support for the Republic. Former Peta and Heiho soldiers, Islamic forces try to organize themselves into a new fighting force. Scattered violence breaks out between youths and Dutch former internees. Dutch soldiers who had been prisoners-of-war under the Japanese are put back into active service against the Republic. Australian troops take surrender from Japanese navy. Australian military gives support to NICA (Netherlands Indies Civil Administration) to retain government control in eastern areas, Sulawesi, and Kalimantan. October 1945 October 5 Angkatan Darat (later ABRI, TNI) Sjahrir was more inclined to negogiate with the founded: Indonesian armed forces. (October 5 is Dutch; Sjarifuddin was not only a Communist, but later celebrated as Armed Forces Day.) a figure who had received covert support from the Dutch government-in-exile during the war. October 8 Republican forces in Surabaya take Captain Huyer into custody. There was friction between Sjarifuddin as Minister of Defense, who was secretly Communist and may British troops in Padang, Medan, Palembang. have had Dutch ties, and military officers who had Fighting escalates between Republican youths and served in PETA under the Japanese and had foreigners. Dutch troops attack civilians. Islamic sympathies. Republican Angkatan Darat forces skirmish with Van Mook was never quite happy that he had been Dutch on Java, Sumatra, Bali. named "Lieutenant-Governor" instead of "Governor-General" of the Indies. Japanese military police massacre Republican youths in Pekalongan. Japanese troops push Republicans out of Bandung; hand over city to British. October 14 Republican youths begin five-day battle against Japanese troops in Semarang. October 16 Sutan Sjahrir and Amir Sjarifuddin take over Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP). Sjahrir is Prime Minister of the Republic. Sjahrir publishes pamphlet in support of

democracy and social justice, and against feudalism, fascism and the remnants of Japanese fascist thought. Government decree authorizes the formation of political parties. October 17 Van Mook sends telegram to Dutch government urging that negotiations with the Republic be rejected. October 18 Japanese troops secure Semarang; hand over city to British. October 22 Nahdlatul Ulama proclaims that a state of jihad exists against the Dutch, making participation obligatory for Muslims. October 23 Under British pressure, Van Mook meets with Sukarno for informal talks. Neither side gives ground. Japanese Admiral Shibata surrenders Surabaya to Dutch, but hands over his weapons to Republicans. Many Japanese troops are disarmed by Republican youths. October 25 British 49th Indian Infantry arrives under General Mallaby. October 27 British airplanes drop leaflets on Surabaya demanding surrender by Republican forces within 24 hours. British troops on the ground are nearly destroyed by Indonesian troops and mobs of ordinary people. October 29 Sukarno and Hatta arrive in Surabaya by plane. Sukarno and General Mallaby agree on a truce. Poor communications and general chaos prevent Sukarno from enforcing the truce. Australian commander in South Sulawesi bans all political activity, organization of militias, etc. among the public under his control. October 30 British Major General Hawthorn flies to Surabaya from Jakarta. Sukarno, Hatta, Mallaby, and Hawthorn sign a cease-fire. Five hours later Mallaby is killed. British bombard Surabaya as punishment, thousands left dead or homeless. British strafe civilian refugees on highway. PKI created again. November 1945 November 1 Republican government issues Manifesto Politik.

A British soldier fires at snipers in Surabaya, November 3 Sukarno lifts ban on political parties. November 1945. November 9 Sukarno asks Sjahrir to form a Many of the British occupying troops in Indonesia Cabinet. in 1945 were actually from India. Nehru strongly British 5th Indian Division lands at Surabaya. protested the use of Indian troops against

November 10 (Heroes' Day/Hari Pahlawan) Indonesian counterattack in Surabaya. Fighting continues for three weeks. 600 Indian troops defect from the British and join the Indonesians. Sudirman rises to lead army forces on Java. Some Japanese troops battle Republican forces on Java, Sumatra, Bali. Dutch abandon Aceh forever. Japanese-favored leaders removed from NU and Muhammadiyah. Kongres Ummat Islam Indonesia meets, remakes Indonesians; this was an important reason that the the originally Japanese-organized Masyumi as an British withdrew. Indonesian and Islamic political party. Natsir is head of the new Masyumi party. Partai Kristen Indonesia is founded. Barisan Tani Indonesia (Indonesian Peasants Front) is organized by PKI to promote land reform and take actions against landowners. November 23 British Foreign Secretary Bevin urges negotiations between the Dutch and the Republic. PKI begins operating organizations. December 1945 12-15 December Battle of Ambarawa 15 December Soedirman installed as Panglima Besar (supreme commander) of the army. Allies evacuate remaining Japanese from Aceh; a In the areas that were controlled by the new few Japanese remain to help Republic. Republic of Indonesia, Angkatan Darat military "Social War" breaks out in Aceh: the traditional forces carried out their mission to repatriate aristocracy loses in a bloody conflict with Islamic Japanese soldiers, Allied prisoners of war and leaders. former internees. Sjahrir, Sjahrifuddin and their followers form Partai Sosialis. Dutch forces begin to replace Australians as occupying power in eastern areas. January 1946 January 3 Department of Religion is founded. PNI party is reestablished. Persatuan Perjuangan (Union of Struggle) formed by Tan Malaka to oppose the Sjahrir government and negotiations with the Dutch. Soedirman speaks against negotiations and Sjahrir. Barisan Banteng radicals kidnap Pakubuwono XII of Surakarta. At the beginning of 1946, Dutch forces in Indonesia numbered about 20,000. again through front

Republic of Indonesia government leaves Jakarta for Yogya. Gajah Mada University founded in Yogya; Sultan offers front portion of Kraton to house it. Dutch forces occupy Bangka and Belitung. Indonesia issue is raised in the United Nations for the first time. February 1946 February 10 Van Mook sends proposal to Sjahrir for "democratic partnership" between the Netherlands and Indonesia, but which still does not provide for real independence. Sjahrir reshuffles cabinet under pressure. March 1946 "Social War" breaks out in Batak areas of Sumatra. Local rulers are accused of collaborating with the Dutch. Tan Malaka and Persatuan Perjuangan increase criticism of Sjahrir. March 12 Sjahrir publicly replies to Van Mook's offer of February, demanding immediate recognition of Indonesia's sovereignty without delay. March 17 Sjahrir and Sjahrifuddin pull their followers out of Persatuan Perjuangan, arrest Tan Malaka and others. Sjahrir secretly agrees with Dutch to negotiate for Republican control of Java, Madura and Sumatra only, in a political union with the Netherlands, Curaao and Surinam. April 1946

King of Bone and the local Republican Sutan Sjahrir government are arrested by Dutch forces on Sjahrir had been a leading figure in the Sulawesi. independence movement in the 1930s, and had Dutch replace British in Bandung. "Bandung spent time in the Boven Digul concentration camp. Lautan Api": Indonesians start to burn down the He organized the governments of the new Republic city rather than surrender it to the Dutch. Much of in 1945-1947, and spent a great deal of energy in negotiations with the Dutch. the southern part of Bandung is burned. Barisan Banteng rules Surakarta in defiance of To some, Sjahrir was a respectable voice of moderation with an educated, Western outlook on Sjahrir government. things. In his time, he was criticized both by April 14 Dutch and Indonesian representatives Communists and by Army nationalists for being begin talks at Hoge Veluwe in the Netherlands. allegedly "pro-Dutch". (Among other things, The talks are unsuccessful. Sjahrir had married a Dutch woman when he was a young student in the Netherlands.)

May 1946 Violence between Toba and Karo Bataks in Sumatra. Nasution takes command of the new Siliwangi division of Angkatan Darat (the army), named after the first king of Pajajaran. Soedirman gives speech with Sukarno present: government must work for the principles of the Constitution (UUD 45) and independence. June 1946 Government revokes privileges of Pakubuwono and Mangkunegara houses in Surakarta, under pressure from Soedirman. June 27 Army units under General Sudarsono open the jail in Surakarta and release Tan Malaka and his followers. Sjahrir is arrested in Surakarta while on an overnight stay the same night, and is taken to the Kraton (Sultan's Palace) with other notable figures. General Sudarsono's troops occupy Yogya. Sukarno declares martial law and demands Sjahrir's release. Troops loyal to Sukarno advance on Surakarta from Surabaya; the loyal Siliwangi division sends troops to Yogya. Adam Malik, young radical, others are arrested. July 1946 Allies officially turn over all of Indonesia except Java and Sumatra to Dutch. July 2 General Sudarsono and Mohamed Yamin visit Sukarno in person, and demand that Sjahrir be replaced by Tan Malaka. Sjahrir, supposedly still a captive, surprises everyone by walking into the room. Sukarno orders that Sudarsono and Yamin be arrested. July 3 "July 3rd Affair": army units release Adam The Philippines became independent from the Malik from jail and demand that Soedirman be put United States on July 4, 1946. in charge of security. Sukarno takes control of the situation. Sjahrir reorganizes government to include Natsir, Sjarifuddin, the Sultan of Yogya, Haji Agus Salim, and Djuanda. July 15 Van Mook calls conference at Malino, Sulawesi, to plan for new Dutch-sponsored state in eastern Indonesia. September 1946 Talks are reopened between the Sjahrir government and the Dutch at Linggajati, near

Cirebon. September 22-24 Violent anti-war protests in Amsterdam. October 1946 October 14 Preliminary military truce signed at Linggajati. November 1946 First rupiah banknotes are issued by the Republic. SOBSI umbrella group of labor organizations is organized with PKI support. November 15 Linggajati agreement: Dutch recognize Republic of Indonesia authority in Java, Sumatra and Madura. Both sides agree to form United States of Indonesia with Netherlands crown as symbolic head. November 20 Battle of Marga: resistance on Bali led by Ngurah Rai is defeated by Dutch forces. November 29 Last British troops leave Indonesia. Dutch Capt. Raymond Westerling begins campaign in South Sulawesi against Republican youths. Westerling and his men commit many war crimes against citizens, including atrocities against children and hospital patients. December 1946 December 18-24 Dutch create state of East Indonesia/Negara Indonesia Timur at a conference in Denpasar, Bali. Capital of the new NIT is The Dutch delayed signing the Linggajati Makassar, and it includes the entire eastern half of agreement for months. Many of their actions over the following six months appeared to be aimed at Indonesia. Sjahrir protests. undermining it. "Left Wing/Sayap Kiri" coalition packs KNIP with pro-Linggajati members. February 1947 Between December 1946 and February 1947, the Sukarno and Hatta threaten to resign if Linggajati Dutch forces (KNIL) executed nearly 3000 people is not ratified. without trial. March 1947 March 25 Netherlands government finally ratifies Linggajati agreement. May 1947 May 11 Dutch create state of West Kalimantan with Sultan of Pontianak at head; Sjahrir protests. June 1947 Dutch complain that Indonesia is stopping

shipments of rice to Dutch-controlled areas. Egypt and Syria recognize the Republic of Indonesia. June Angkatan Darat (Indonesian Army) is renamed TNI. June 26 Dutch forces mobilize for an invasion of Madura, and eventually Java. William Foote, a USA diplomat, intervenes and offers to mediate between Dutch and Indonesians. The invasion is postponed. June 27 Amir Sjarifuddin and the "Left Wing" withdraw support of Sjahrir. Sjahrir leaves the government and becomes Indonesia's representative at the United Nations. Amir Sjarifuddin becomes Prime Minister. July 1947 July 8 Sjarifuddin government makes conciliatory offer to Dutch: Republic of Indonesia will stop seeking international recognition; Netherlands officials can take government positions in the Republic. July 20 first Dutch "police action": Dutch troops occupy West Java, East Java, Madura, Semarang, Medan, Palembang, Padang, bomb many cities. At the start of the first Dutch "police action", there July 24 20,000 march in anti-war demonstration were 92,000 Dutch forces in Indonesia. in Amsterdam. July 30 Young students blow up bridge at Bumiayu, preventing Dutch forces from taking Purwokerto. USA and Britain unhappy, India, Australia, Soviet Union support the Republic of Indonesia in the UN. Refugees pour into Central Java. Australia boycotts Dutch shipping. August 1947 August 1 UN Security Council calls for cease-fire in Indonesia. August 4 Ceasefire agreed to by Dutch and Sukarno, but is ignored in the field. Dutch declare "Van Mook line" at the edge of their military advances in Java and Sumatra. Daud Beureu'eh is military governor of Aceh for the Republic. October 1947 Dutch military tries to consolidate control of areas within the "Van Mook line". Dutch take control of all of Madura. December 1947

December 8 Dutch and Indonesian representatives meet on board the U.S.S. Renville, a U.S. Navy transport stationed in the Philippines, which was moved Jakarta harbor for the talks. December 25 Dutch create state of East Sumatra. January 1948 January 17 Renville agreement under UN auspices draws a ceasefire line favorable to Dutch. January 21 Dutch found "Negara Madura" The Renville agreement called for a truce along the so-called "Van Mook line". The original draft government on Madura. did not even mention the Republic. Amendments January 23 Sjarifuddin resigns as Prime Minister; were added that included mention of the Republic the "Left Wing/Sayap Kiri" parties go into of Indonesia after the United States applied opposition. pressure on the Dutch, and it was only then that Sukarno appoints Hatta to head an emergency the Indonesians agreed. cabinet answerable to President. The PNI, Masyumi, and Tan Malaka all opposed Dutch organize "Daerah Banjar" government on the Renville agreement. Kalimantan. Republican forces under Hasan Basry continue fighting from the countryside. February 1948 Sjahrir forms PSI (Partai Sosialis Indonesia), supports Sukarno. "Left Wing" under Amir Sjarifuddin renames itself The Dutch blockaded the areas under control of People's Democratic Front (Front Demokrasi the Republic of Indonesia around this time, Rakyat). Sjarifuddin criticizes the Renville causing shortages of food and medicine. agreement. Col. Nasution leads Siliwangi division out of West Java to Central Java. March 1948 By this time, Van Mook saw that Indonesia would not remain a colony of the Netherlands forever. Van Mook creates a provisional government for His actions became not so much efforts to keep the federated Indonesia. Netherlands Indies, as ways to manage a slow transition to self-rule. April 1948 April 24 Dutch create state of Pasundan in western Java. May 1948 Kartosuwirjo proclaims himself Imam of Negara Islam Indonesia, or "Darul Islam", an Islamic state rebelling against both Dutch and the Republic. His followers begin setting up local administrations in West Java. July 1948 July 8 Representatives of 13 Dutch-controlled states created by Van Mook convene at Bandung,

to begin process of creating United States of Indonesia. August 1948 August 11 Musso, former PKI leader from the 1920s, arrives in Yogya after spending twelve years in the Soviet Union. Sjarifuddin announces that he has been an underground member of PKI. PKI sponsors strikes and demonstrations. Hatta, with little money to pay troops, begins demobilizing some TNI (army) units. September 1948 PKI gains recruits from PDF; new Politburo includes Aidit, Lukman and Njoto. Republican Government releases Tan Malaka from custody as counter to PKI influence. September 5 Musso gives speech advocating that Indonesia align itself with the Soviet Union. September 17 Siliwangi division drives PKI out The "Madiun incident" was the second time the of Surakarta; PKI retreats to Madiun. PKI made an unsuccessful, poorly-planned revolt. September 18 PKI attempts coup in Madiun, kills The first was against the Dutch in 1926-7; the last pro-government officers there. was in 1965. September 19 PKI figures in Yogya arrested; Sukarno denounces the Madiun coup; Musso replies that he will fight; popular opinion sides with Sukarno. September 30 Siliwangi division recaptures Madiun. PKI abandons Madiun, pursued by army. Aidit and Lukman leave for China. October 1948 Pro-government Tan Malaka followers create Murba Party. Tan Malaka is arrested again. October 11 Van Mook resigns as Lt.-Governor of the Indies. October 31 Musso killed while attempting to escape arrest. November 1948 November 26 Dutch create state of Jawa Timur in occupied areas of East Java. Dutch abolish post of Governor-General, replacing it with a "High Representative of the Crown". December 1948 December 1 Amir Sjarifudddin captured. December 11 Dutch inform UN representatives Panglima that further talks with the Republic are "futile". Besar Soedirman

December 18 Dutch organize Negara Sumatra Selatan state, with capital at Palembang. December 18 Dutch officials tell representatives of the United States and the Republic of Indonesia in Jakarta that they are cancelling the Renville agreement. The news does not reach Yogya, as the Dutch have already cut the phone lines there. December 19 Second Dutch "police action" begins at 5:30 A.M. without warning. Yogya falls to the Dutch. Civil government of republic, including Sukarno, Hatta, Sjahrir, allows itself to be captured, hoping to outrage world opinion; Sukarno and Sjahrir are taken into Dutch custody, and eventually flown to Bangka. Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya remains in his palace, and does not leave during the entire Dutch occupation. Dutch occupy Bukittinggi. Emergency government for Indonesia is declared (PRDI) at Soedirman is warmly remembered today as Payakumbuh nearby under Prawiranegara. perhaps the greatest hero of the revolution. Towards the end of the fighting, he fell ill and Tan Malaka escapes again during the confusion. directed troops from his sickbed. December 20 Army executes Sjarifuddin, Soedirman was another complex character in the withdraws from Yogya. revolutionary era. He had been impressed by All of Indonesia except for Aceh and parts of Japanese military traditions and the spirit of Sumatra are under Dutch control. Guerilla warfare bushido; yet he was also thought to be sympathetic heats up; Soedirman leads guerilla war from to the leftist movement of Tan Malaka. sickbed. Many American newspapers publish editorials against the Dutch. December 22 Nasution government for Java. declares military

UN is outraged at Dutch; Dutch attack while UN observers are at Kaliurang. 19 Asian countries boycott Dutch. Dutch-chosen members of East Indonesia state government vote to condemn the "police action". USA suspends postwar aid to the Netherlands (Marshall Plan money) that is budgeted for military use in Indonesia. December 24 UN Security Council calls for end to hostilities. December 31 Dutch accept UN call for ceasefire in Java. January 1949 January 5 Dutch accept UN call for ceasefire in There was significant guerilla activity against the Sumatra Dutch during this period, led by Nasution and Sudirman. At the height of Dutch activity in the Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya refuses 1940s, there were around 150,000 Dutch forces in

Dutch offer to head new Javanese state, resigns as head of Yogya government, and gives help to Republic guerilla fighters. January 28 UN Security Council demands release of the Republican government, and independence for Indonesia by July 1, 1950. February 1949 February 7 Resolution is introduced in United States Senate to stop all Marshall Plan aid to the Netherlands. Resolution is defeated on March 8. March 1949 March 1 Guerillas retake Yogya for six hours under Suharto. March 31 U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson privately tells Dutch that their Marshall Plan aid is still in jeopardy. April 1949 April 6 United States Senate passes resolution to stop Marshall Plan aid to the Netherlands, but only if the UN Security Council votes sanctions against the Netherlands. April 16 Tan Malaka is captured and executed by a TNI commander after a Dutch contingent attacks the town where he was staying. April 22 Dutch announce that they will return the Republican government to Yogya if the guerilla war stops. May 1949 Sukarno and Hatta remain in custody on Bangka. May 7 "Roem-Royem" agreement: Dutch agree to restore the Republic of Indonesia government, to hold talks according to the UN Security Council resolution of January 28, and to work towards a settlement based on the Renville agreement. General Spoor, commander of the Dutch in Indonesia, resigns. He dies of a heart attack on May 25. June 1949 June 24 Dutch troops begin evacuating Yogya. June 29 Indonesian troops enter Yogya. July 1949 July 6 Republican government returns to Yogya. Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX receives Sukarno and Hatta at the Kraton.

Indonesia.

Dutch-created states hold conference, support joining Republic August 1949 Republic troops retake Surakarta. August 7 Darul Islam movement formally breaks with the Republic of Indonesia. August 11 Ceasefire on Java. August 15 Ceasefire on Sumatra. Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya coordinates handovers from Dutch to Republic. Dutch begin releasing 12,000 prisoners. August 23 Round Table conference begins in the Hague. Hatta head delegation for the Republic of Indonesia, Sultan of Pontianak heads delegation from the Dutch-created states. November 1949 November 2 The Hague Agreement is the result of the Round Table Conference: "Republik Indonesia Serikat" is supposed to have the crown of the Netherlands as a symbolic head, Sukarno as President, and Hatta as Vice-President. It consists of 15 Dutch-created states plus the original Republic. Sovereigny is to be transferred by December 30. Dutch investments are protected, and the new government is responsible for the billion-dollar Netherlands Indies government debt. The Dutch keep Irian Jaya. December 1949 December 19 Universitas Gadjah Mada founded The Dutch finally signed their defeat at this table, at Yogya. preserved still in the Kraton Yogyakarta. December 27 Dutch formally transfer sovereignty to "Republik Indonesia Serikat" (Republic of As part of the transfer of sovereignty, Chinese residents of the new Indonesia were given a choice United States of Indonesia). to accept Indonesian citizenship or maintain December 28 Sukarno is returned to Jakarta. Chinese citizenship. The government of China, unlike Indonesia, recognized dual citizenship. January 1950 January 23 Dutch Capt. Westerling attempts assassination and coup in Bandung; some members of Dutch-created Pasundan government are involved. January 29 Soedirman dies. February 1950 Westerling sneaks out of the country.

February 9 Pasundan government dissolves itself. March 1950 March 9 Negara Sumatra Selatan, Negara Madura, and Jawa Timur dissolve themselves into the Republic. March 13 Rupiah is devalued by one-half. March 31 Garuda Airlines is founded (originally as a joint venture with KLM). April 1950 April 4 Sultan of Pontianak is arrested for connections with the Westerling plot. RUSI takes over West Kalimantan state. April 5 Capt. Andi Aziz, formerly of KNIL, takes control of Makassar. Republic and pro-Dutch forces clash; East Indonesia government is shaken. Minahasa region separates itself from Negara Indonesia Timur and joins the Republic. April 18 RUSI forces retake control of Ujung Pandang. "Benteng" program is started to support "pribumi" (native, meaning non-Chinese) businesses. Program lasts until 1957. April 25 Republic of South Maluku proclaimed at Ambon. May 1950 East Indonesia/Negara Indonesia Timur agress to dissolve itself into the Republic of Indonesia on August 17, 1950. June 1950 June 4 Gerakan Wanita Indonesia Sedar or GERWIS is founded, a leftist organization for women (later GERWANI). July 1950 Republic of Indonesia troops begin putting down Republic of South Maluku. Fighting continues on As many as 300,000 Dutch citizens left Indonesia Ambon and Buru until November. for the Netherlands during the early 1950s. July 26 The Netherlands Indies armed forces (KNIL) are officially disbanded. August 1950 17 August New constitution; the new Republic of Indonesia is made out of the original (now expanded) Republic, Sumatra Timur and East Indonesia/Negara Indonesia Timur. There is no more RUSI. Jakarta is the capital of the Republic.

The Netherlands and Indonesia remain in a theoretical constitutional union, but Indonesia is fully independent.

1950 - 1965 (The Sukarno years)

1950 September Natsir and the Masyumi party lead first government of fully independent Indonesia. Indonesia admitted to United Nations. Sumatra is reorganized into North Sumatra, Central Sumatra, and South Sumatra provinces. Aceh, which had been made into a separate province by the PRDI government of Prawiranegara in 1949, is incorporated into North Sumatra province. Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta is created with provincial status, in recognition of the service to the Republic given by Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX. November Ambon, center of Republic of South Maluku, falls to Indonesian forces. December 4 Unsuccessful conference meets to discuss the future of West Irian. Beginning of transmigrasi (resettlement) from Java and Bali to less-populated islands, notably Kalimantan, sponsored by the Indonesian government. 1951 Some colonial soldiers from Ambon refuse to join the Indonesian armed forces and are relocated to the Netherlands. Shakeup in PKI; the new leadership is Aidit, Lukman, Njoto, and Sudisman. The new leadership directs the party to work within the system. The new party line is nationalist, antiDutch, anti-Western and anti-capitalist. March 3 Friendship treaty with India signed. April Natsir government falls due to its economic austerity programs. New government is formed under a Masyumi-PNI coalition: Sukiman Wirjosandjojo is Prime Minister. August Strikes and unrest provoked by PKI; many arrests in Medan and Jakarta. PKI leadership hides briefly. Sweep of arrests of PUSA (Persatuan Ulama Seluruh Aceh) activists in Aceh. Lt. Col. Kahar Muzakkar leads a rebellion by disgruntled soldiers in South Sulawesi. 1952

The Assembly that was seated directly after the adoption of the August 1950 constitution was not elected. It remained seated until the 1955 elections, during the rise and fall of many parliamentary governments.

Sukarno Sukarno was an activist for independence under the Dutch in the 1930s, and under the Japanese in the 1940s. He was the first President of Indonesia, he described the national ideology of Pancasila and is still a popular historical figure today. However, his presidency ended in economic and political disorder.

February 23 Sukiman cabinet falls. April 4 PNI-Masyumi coalition government takes power. Wilopo is Prime Minister. Sultan of Yogya is defense minister. April 28 PELNI shipping service is created out of several smaller government-run services to compete with the Dutch-owned KPM. Wilopo releases many political prisoners, cuts budget expenditures, plans for demobilization of army units with Sultan of Yogya, General Simatupang, and Colonel A. H. Nasution, among others. July Discontent builds among some military Mohammed Hatta factions over possible demobilizations. Hatta had been a tireless supporter of Indonesian August Wahid Hasyim and Nahdlatul Ulama independence since his days as a student in the withdraw from Masyumi Party. Netherlands in the 1920s. He was a Minangkabau Rebels in South Sulawesi ally with Darul Islam from Sumatra and a faithful Muslim. During the 1940s and 1950s, he was seen as an advocate for rebels in West Java. the interests of Muslims and people from outside of Netherlands states that it will not give up West Java. He resigned as Vice-President just before the Irian. PRRI rebellion, and while he did not support the October 17 Army personnel, equipment, and rebellion, he was sympathetic to the rebels' demonstrators in front of Presidential Palace concerns. He continued to play a role in public life demand that plans for demobilization of armed into the 1970s. forces be cancelled. Sukarno speaks to crowd and disperses them. Sukarno, Hatta, and Wilopo hold talks with Simatupang, Nasution, and other top armed forces officers. Government of "Republic of South Maluku" captured, taken to Jakarta for trial. November Col. Gatot Subroto, head of military in East Indonesia, is forced out of his headquarters in Ujung Pandang by Col. Warouw. December 18 Nasution is dismissed. Sultan of Yogya resigns as defense minister. 1953 May Indonesia sends ambassador to P.R. China. June 3 Wilopo resigns as Prime Minister. August 1 PNI-led government takes power. Ali Sastroamidjojo is Prime Minister. September Daud Beureu'eh declares rebellion in Aceh against central government; makes contact with Darul Islam rebels in West Java. East Timor is made a province of Portugal. Borneo is renamed Kalimantan Province. 1954 Military officers are banned from campaigning in

uniform. Talks begin on dissolving the NetherlandsIndonesia constitutional union. 1955 February 17 Conference of army officers at Yogya; factions within army reconcile. April Asia-Afrika conference held in Bandung; delegates from 24 nations attend, including Chou En-Lai, Nehru and Nasser. Important beginning for non-aligned movement. Indonesia signs agreement with China giving Chinese in Indonesia dual citizenship. Conference issues The elections of September 1955 are sometimes statement supporting Indonesia's claim to West called "the only free elections that Indonesia has ever had". However, they did not succeed in making Irian. a government that the people could trust. The August 12 Masyumi-led government takes power government that emerged was split into tiny just before elections. Harahap is Prime Minister. factions, and none of the groups competing for September 29 Elections show big gains for NU power (Islamic politicians, the military, the and PKI, disappointment for Masyumi, many Communists) were satisfied. small parties win seats. October 27 Nasution, returned to active service, becomes major general and army chief of staff. December Elections are held for the "Konstituante" assembly: an assembly to draw up a new constitution. 1956 March PNI-Masyumi-NU coalition government. Ali Sastroamidjojo is Minister. forms The Sastroamidjojo government pursued policies of Prime "Indonesianization", but these policies increased corruption and inflation, and discouraged investment. Many military officers opposed this May Sukarno visits U.S. government. May 8 Constitutional union between Indonesia In 1956, Sukarno sent some local military and the Netherlands is dissolved. commanders who had been building power bases in Aidit visits Soviet Union. their districts to diplomatic postings overseas. Borneo is divided into East Kalimantan, South In the mid-1950s, it cost the Dutch over Fl. 100 Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan provinces. million per year to administer West Irian. June Government clamps down on smuggling in Much of the foreign debt that was repudiated in Minahasa. 1956 was actually left over from the original July 26 Hatta announces that he will resign as Netherlands Indies government, and was transferred to the Republic of Indonesia as part of Vice-President on December 1. the final settlements with the Dutch. August 4 Indonesian government repudiates 85% of its debt to the Netherlands. October Attempted coup while Sukarno visits the Soviet Union and China. November "Konstituante" convenes to consider a new constitution. Sessions become deadlocked on the question of whether Islam or the Pancasila should be the guiding philosophy of the nation.

Sukarno calls for end to party politics, suggests "guided democracy". Pramoedya Ananta Toer starts supporting PKI. First family planning clinic in Jakarta. November Second failed coup attempt by disgruntled army officers in Siliwangi division. December 1 Hatta resigns as vice-president. December 16 48 Army officers from Sumatra sign a manifesto critical of the central government in Jakarta. December 20 Col. Hussein seizes administration in Padang. Col. Simbolon seizes administration in Medan, then retreats into the hills. Dutch establish first post at Wamena in Baliem Valley on West Irian. Suharto becomes commander of Diponegoro division in Central Java. Soumokil, former leader of Republik Maluku Selatan, is captured. 1957 Central Sumatra province is divided into Jambi, "Guided Democracy" was Sukarno's idea to unify Riau, and West Sumatra provinces. the Cabinet by including members of all political parties, and to create a new National Council to January Government coalition collapses. counterbalance the unstable Assembly. From the Nasution meets Hussein and Simbolon for talks at beginning, Sukarno had been unhappy with the the Palembang. chaos of party politics. Critics of Sukarno and his February 21 Sukarno formally proposes "guided new concept saw it as a step towards a more Communist-friendly government. Guided democracy" in a speech. Democracy in practice did not lead to more power March 5 Lt.-Col. Sumual takes control of for Communists, rather it led to more power for government functions in eastern Indonesia from Sukarno himself. Ujung Pandang: beginning of "Permesta" rebellion. Sumual demands more power for Sukarno's nationalization of Dutch businesses hurt Sukarno, less for the Assembly and Cabinet, and the economy more than it helped it. Civil servants and military officers who ran the companies in the expresses dissatisfaction in Ali Sastroamidjojo. name of the government found it difficult to March 14 Ali Sastroamidjojo resigns. Sukarno compete on the world's markets, and found proclaims martial law, and flies to Medan to give themselves tempted by corruption--especially as speeches in spite of the rebellion. their salaries became smaller and smaller due to inflation. Sukarno did not nationalize the entire oil Press censorship is reintroduced. industry, however, leaving critical operations in the Nasution orders arrest of many politicians due to hands of Caltex, Stanvac and Shell. corruption. April 9 Sukarno appoints "working cabinet" (Kabinet Karya), with Djuanda as P.M., including Chaerul Saleh, Subandrio as foreign minister. Rebels in Aceh agree to ceasefire. Jakarta area is reorganized as DKI Jakarta (Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta--Jakarta Special District).

Maluku is restored as a province. Aceh is separated from North Sumatra and made a province again. May Sukarno appoints 41 leaders of "functional groups" to an advisory Dewan Nasional. June Rebel army officers in Manado declare autonomous state of North Sulawesi. July Grenade attack on PKI offices in Jakarta. PKI makes gains in local elections; becomes the leading party in Central Java. September Various rebellious officers from Sumatra and Sulawesi meet in Padang to coordinate forces. Masyumi meets in Palembang; declares that good Muslims cannot also be Communists, demands that PKI be outlawed. October Government promotes and coordinates an anti-Dutch boycott. November 29 UN resolution calling for transfer of West Irian to Indonesia fails. November 30 Grenade attack on Sukarno at Cikini School in Jakarta. Six children are killed, over a hundred wounded. Sukarno escapes almost unharmed. December 1 Sukarno announces that the holdings of 246 Dutch businesses will be nationalized. December 3 PKI- and PNI-led unions begin seizing Dutch properties. Many Dutch-owned ships sail into international waters to avoid nationalization. December 5 Government orders 46,000 Dutch citizens to be expelled. December 13 Gen. Nasution orders the army to manage the seized Dutch enterprises. Nasution puts Ibnu Sutowo in charge of the Permina oil company. Natsir, Harahap, Sjafruddin and other Masyumi figures move to rebel-held areas after receiving threats and insults from Communists and others. 1958 January 6 Sukarno leaves on foreign tour to The rebellions of 1957-58 were not so much Japan, India, and other Asian countries. attempts to break away from Indonesia as they were attempts to get more local control over local affairs Nasution gives speech at Magelang suggesting a and resources within Indonesia. dual role for the military: both a military force and an organization for social development. The Philippines, Taiwan, South Korea, and the new Beginning of "dwifungsi" doctrine. country of Malaya were sympathetic to the PRRI

February Rebellious officers meet in Padang rebellion. while Sukarno is in Thailand. Masyumi leaders During 1958, Sukarno advanced the idea of giving join in, including Natsir. "functional groups" or "golongan karya" seats in February 10 Hussein demands that the Djuanda the government. These "functional groups" included goverment step down in five days. professional, labor, agricultural, and student organizations, but also the military. February 15 Rebels set up rival PRRI government (Pemerintah Revolusioner Republik Indonesia) at Bukittingi. Sjafruddin is PRRI President. Permesta rebels join forces with PRRI. The USA promises secret aid to the rebels. Sukarno demands a hard response. February 16 Sukarno returns from abroad. February 21 Air Force Bukittingi, and Manado. bombs Padang,

March Army units from Diponegoro and Siliwangi divisions land in Sumatra and take Medan. April Padang falls to central government forces. May Bukittingi falls to central government forces, as does Gorontalo on Sulawesi. US pilot is shot down over Ambon while secretly helping PRRI rebels. June Manado falls to central government forces. July Nasution suggests bringing back 1945 constitution with addition of "Jakarta Charter". Publication Licenses (Surat Ijin Terbit) are introduced: newspapers and magazines may not publish without one, and they can be revoked by the government. August Army takes over businesses in Indonesia that are owned by residents with Taiwanese (Republic of China) citizenship. September Nasution declares ban on Masyumi and other political parties in areas that had supported PRRI or Permesta. Ibnu Sutowo begins working with American and Japanese businessmen to build Permina as a state oil company. Indonesia and China ratify a 1954 treaty stating that resident Chinese with dual nationality must choose one citizenship or the other by December 1962. Anak Agung Bagus Suteja becomes governor of Bali (until 1965). He is partial to the PKI, and increases the number of PKI members in administration and civil service on Bali. Perhimpunan Buddhis Indonesia is founded. Sunda Kecil province is divided into Bali, Nusa

Tenggara Barat, and Nusa Tenggara Timur provinces. Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan Tengah) is made a separate province, after tensions between Dayaks in rural areas and Muslims in Banjarmasin. 1959 April Sukarno leaves on world tour. May "Konstituante", meeting in Bandung, considers bringing back the 1945 constitution. It rejects Jakarta charter, without which the Nahdlatul Ulama would not support 1945 constitution. The final vote is just short of the two-thirds needed to bring back the original constitution. May 14 Decree is issued that foreigners will be banned from doing business in rural areas in six months. ("Foreigners" included ethnic Chinese who still held citizenship in the People's Republic of China or Republic of China/Taiwan.) Gen. Nasution Nasution had a long career in and out of leadership in Indonesia. He was a major military leader during the struggle for independence, commanding the Siliwangi division in West Java. In 1952, he was dismissed from his command during a period of conflict between the army and Sukarno. By 1955, he was back in favor. In 1958, during the time of the PRRI and Permesta rebellions, Nasution first suggested the idea that would later be called "dwifungsi", the "dual function" of the military, the idea that the military should have social and even political obligations as well as defense duties.

Followers of Daud Beureu'eh in Aceh abandon him, and make a separate peace with the Nasution barely escaped the coup attempt of Indonesian government. Aceh is made a Daerah September 30, 1965 with his life, jumping over the wall to the Iraqi ambassador's residence next door. Istimewa (Special Area). Nasution had investigated Suharto for corruption in July 5 Sukarno reestablishes the 1945 the 1950s; later, in 1980, Nasution was a signer of constitution by decree. the "Petition of Fifty" that criticized Suharto as July 5 Sukarno dissolves the Assembly, then President. reseats it under the 1945 constitution: the "MPR The "dwifungsi" concept was Nasution's idea to Sementara" or provisional MPR. Sukarno adds 94 find a middle way between democracy, which some extra members to represent the provinces, and people in the late 1950s felt had failed, and outright another 200 to represent "functional groups"-military dictatorship, which Nasution wanted to plus the original 281, making a new total of 575, avoid. But in practice, military units began to skim most of them now selected by Sukarno. money from companies that Sukarno had New "Kabinet Kerja" is announced; Sukarno nationalized, to collect customs and tolls, even to starts reorganizing government through engage in smuggling--especially since Sukarno's appointments; decrees that civil servants cannot government was able to pay them less every year. belong to political parties; starts to replace local While some military men built roads, schools and elected officials with appointed ones. Dewan mosques in their civil service, for others used their Nasional is dismissed. Sukarno makes himself position as a military man in civil service to engage Prime Minister, leaves Djuanda as "First in corruption. Minister", and names Subandrio as deputy Prime In the 1950s, "dwifungsi" was seen as a way to Minister. Subandrio resigns from the PNI. avoid giving total power to the military. By the August 17 Sukarno calls his new system of 1990s, the "dwifungsi" concept was criticized by government-by-decree "Manifesto Politik" or some as giving far too much influence to the Manipol. The ideology is not well-defined, but military. newspapers that do not support it are closed down. August 28 Rupiah is devalued: Rp 1000 are now Rp 100; banknotes over Rp 25,000 are demonetized.

Army begins moving ethnic Chinese from rural areas to cities. As many as 100,000 leave Indonesia for the People's Republic of China over the next year; another 17,000 for Taiwan. Parisada Dharma Hindu Bali is founded to promote the interests of Hinduism as a religion (later Parisada Hindu Dharma). Uprising in East Timor gains Indonesian backing, but is suppressed by Portugal. Nasution combines all veteran's organizations into one group under army control. Nasution investigates Suharto for corruption and demotes him. 1960 Sukarno begins using new slogan: "Nasakom", for Nasionalisme, Agama (religion), Komunisme. January Khrushchev visits Jakarta. Elected Assembly (DPR) rejects budget. Sukarno's

March 5 Sukarno dissolves the Assembly, replaces it with an appointed Assembly: the "DPR-Gotong Royong". Military officers are appointed to the DPR for the first time. July PKI criticizes cabinet. Army detains entire PKI Politburo; Sukarno has them released. August 17 Indonesia breaks off diplomatic relations with the Netherlands over West Irian. Masyumi and PSI parties are banned. Some local army commanders ban the PKI in their areas. Sulawesi is divided into North Sulawesi and South Sulawesi provinces. 1961 Construction begins on MONAS, the National Monument, in Jakarta.

Sukarno and U.S. President Kennedy Indonesia begins to fall behind on its foreign debt Sukarno made friendly advances to the USA, the payments. Soviet Union and later, China. He tried to play one January Nasution visits both Washington and against another, but by the mid-1960s, seemed to be Moscow. The U.S. declines to give aid; the Soviet closest to the China of Mao. Union gives $400 million. February Remnants of "Permesta" guerillas in Sulawesi begin surrendering after offer of amnesty. March KOSTRAD special founded. forces unit is

May Sukarno visits United States, meets with President Kennedy.

June Remnants of PRRI and Darul Islam movements in Sumatra and Java begin surrendering. Rebels in Aceh divide into factions, weaken. Dutch begin organizing "Nieuw-Guinea Raad", a council to prepare for independence for West Irian. Sukarno reaffirms his right to send people into internal exile (a holdover from colonial times). All scouting groups are merged by Sukarno into Pramuka (Praja Muda Karana). Sukarno signs treaty of friendship and cooperation with the People's Republic of China. December 19 Sukarno announces that he will take over West Irian by force if necessary. Gens. Nasution and Ahmad Yani are in charge; Mandala command is headed by Maj.-Gen. Suharto. 1962 January Assassination attempt on Sukarno while visiting Sulawesi; many former rebels and critics MONAS are imprisoned. The National Monument or MONAS is only one of Opsus covert operations force is founded under many monuments that Sukarno built in the 1960s Suharto's Mandala command. (although it was not finished until 1965). Armed forces are consolidated as ABRI. Police The U.S. put heavy pressure on both the forces are included as a branch of ABRI. Netherlands and Indonesia to negotiate for West Indonesian naval force defeated by Dutch in Irian, fearing that if the dispute became a war, Indonesia would turn completely to the Communist confrontation off West Irian. side. Meanwhile, Suharto and other military figures February US Atty Gen Robert F Kennedy leads decided from the experience that the armed forces negotiations on West Irian. were not prepared for action against Sukarno's next March Sukarno appoints Aidit and Njoto of PKI target: Malaysia. as advisory ministers. April Kartosuwirjo, leader of the Darul Islam rebellion, is captured. West Irian negotiations fall apart; Indonesian military pressure increases. Hinduism is recognized as an official religion. Indonesia joins OPEC. August 15 Dutch agree to transfer West Irian to United Nations in October. UN is to transfer West Irian to Indonesia by May 1963. Elections are to decide the ultimate fate of the territory. September Kartosuwirjo is executed. The Darul Islam movement begins falling apart. Rebellion in Aceh subsides. Gen. Omar Dhani, a leftist officer, becomes head of the Air Force.

November IMF puts conditions on economic aid to Indonesia. December 8 Unsuccessful rebellion in Brunei with covert support from Indonesia--beginning of confrontation with Britain over the future of Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak, or "Konfrontasi". 1963 January Subandrio declares that plans for the Konfrontasi was the slogan for Sukarno's antinew Malaysia are unacceptable, and will be met Malaysia campaign. The PKI supported with "Konfrontasi". Konfrontasi, but ABRI quietly opposed it. A few Communist volunteers actually landed in Malaya Sukarno issues a presidential decree requiring itself, but were quickly captured. Most low-level publishers to submit a copy of every new book to fighting happened in the jungle along the the government within 48 hours of publication. Kalimantan border. ABRI officers who were Prosecutors gain broad power to ban books and opposed to Konfrontasi actually maintained secret press charges against publishers. contact with military officials in Kuala Lumpur February 18 Gunung Agung on Bali erupts. throughout this period. Gen. Yani had assigned May Budget cuts, price increases, and a devalued Brig. Gen. Kemal Idris to head a proposed invasion rupiah are instituted in order to receive IMF aid. of Malaysia, but Kemal Idris was not on good terms with Sukarno, and delayed actions against May Indonesia, Malaya, and the Philippines Malaysia as much as he could. The antibegins talks on future of disputed territories Konfrontasi covert actions by the military were the including Sabah, and a possible "Maphilindo" beginning of the Opsus special forces outfit, which confederation. PKI strongly opposes the would include Ali Murtopo and Humardani and "Malaysia" concept. Talks continue through would become a political tool during the first ten August. years of Suharto's presidency. May 1 UN hands over control of West Irian to Konfrontasi cost money that Sukarno's government Indonesia. did not have, and it damaged the economy by June Foreign oil companies in Indonesia are interrupting traffic with Singapore. made contractors under Permina. Refineries, distribution and retailing are to be sold to Permina. D.N. Aidit Aidit was the head of the PKI from 1951 until its Anti-Chinese riots in Bandung. downfall in 1965. Prime Minister Djuanda passes away, is replaced by three "Deputy Prime Ministers": Chaerul Saleh, Subandrio, and Leimena. Economic policy suffers in Djuanda's absence. Assembly makes Sukarno President-for-Life. Suharto is made chief of Kostrad (Strategic Reserve Command). Gunung Agung erupts a second time. High-yield rice strains begin to be cultivated around Karawang, West Java (part of the "green revolution" in agriculture). August Manikebu group of intellectuals begin to be harassed by PKI for failure to support Sukarno explicitly. Sukarno asks to public to be patient during rice shortages.

September Malaysia is founded. PKI demonstration burns down British embassy in Jakarta; Indonesia breaks off relations with Kuala Lumpur (and Singapore). September 23 Sukarno declares the slogan "ganyang Malaysia" ("crush Malaysia") in a speech. November Sukarno issues antisubversion law. December Aidit returns from tour in Soviet Union and China. PKI begins enforcing land reform laws, confiscating land from rural landowners, resulting in rural violence, often against Islamic organizations such as Nahdlatul Ulama. U.S. President Johnson withdraws economic aid. Covert military aid to pro-U.S. figures in ABRI continues. Bappenas economic planning body is founded. December 24 Sukarno forms "Mahkamah Militer Luar Biasa" or Mahmillub, special military tribunals. 1964 January R.F. Kennedy arranges ceasefire between Malaysia and Indonesia, but guerilla attacks continue. PKI confiscates British-owned properties. February 13 Lampung is made a province. Central Sulawesi is separated from North Sulawesi and made a province; Southeast Sulawesi is separated from South Sulawesi and made a province. March "Maphilindo" talks fall apart; Sukarno tells USA to "go to hell". April Violence related to land reform spreads in Central Java. May Sukarno puts air force chief Omar Dhani in charge of Konfrontasi. August Unsuccessful rogue landings Indonesian raiders into Malaya itself. by By 1964 and 1965, the economy was in terrible shape. Shortages of food and clothing were common. Prices during 1965 increased by 700 percent, and the price of rice increased even more. The government's budget deficit was running at 300 percent. Millions of people collected a government salary, but it was worth less and less each month. ABRI personnel in particular found themselves unable to support themselves without engaging in smuggling or other corrupt activities. The 1957-58 rebellions, the West Irian campaign, and the preparations for Konfrontasi had all been expensive for both the government as a whole and for ABRI.

August 17 Sukarno gives his "Year of Living Dangerously" speech. September Group of pro-Sukarno intellectuals led by Adam Malik (Badan Pendukung Sukarnoisme) criticizes PKI. October Sekretariat Bersama Golongan Karya or Sekber Golkar (Secretariat of Functional Groups) is founded by army interests.

Army shakeup reduces prestige of Omar Dhani, transfers best troops to Suharto. November PKI establishes secret bureau to coordinate infiltration of army units. Sukarno travels to China for secret meetings. People's Republic of China offers 100,000 small arms to Indonesia to arm a peasant militia, if Indonesia wants. Bank of China assets in Indonesia given to Indonesian government. December Chaerul Saleh claims to evidence that the PKI is planning a coup. have

December 17 Badan Pendukung Sukarnoisme is banned by Sukarno as a "CIA plot". 1965 January Indonesia walks out of United Nations, The officers killed in the G30S events: in protest of Malaysia's admission. Gen. Ahmad Yani Lt.-Gen. Haryono Buddhism is recognized as an official religion. Lt.-Gen. Parman Sukarno, under pressure from PKI, declares ban Lt.-Gen. Suprapto on the Murba Party, whose members included Maj.-Gen. Panjaitan Chaerul Saleh and Adam Malik. Maj.-Gen. Siswamohardjo Tendean (aide to Nasution) February Anti-PKI newspapers are closed down. Captain Brigadier-Gen. Katamso Kahar Muzakkar is killed in Sulawesi. Colonel Inf. Mangunwijoto March Leftist naval officers mutiny in Surabaya. What really happened in 1965? Nobody knows. April China repeats its offer of small arms from There are dozens of theories, some of them with little evidence in their favor. Many of the the previous November. participants are now dead; from some of them, we May Gen. Ahmad Yani suggests that "Nasakom" only have the confessions they made after being be promoted in the Army. arrested. Under Suharto, the government routinely Sukarno calls for a "Fifth Force" of armed banned most books and publications about the 1965 events, which makes the situation even more peasantry to be organized. difficult. Organisasi Papua Merdeka (OPM) is formed by former members of the Dutch-organized colonial Was the army behind it? Certainly not as an organization. Rebel officers such as Untung militia. probably acted without broad support. May 29 The "Gilchrist letter": Sukarno accuses Army elements of plotting against him, with Was Sukarno behind it? Probably not, but who can cooperation from the British Embassy. (Letter say. Suharto? There is no direct evidence against him. However, rumors persist that Suharto may itself generally considered to be a forgery.) have heard of the coup plans before September June Discussions on "arming the people" along 30th, and so was ready to take advantage of the Maoist lines take place; army sidesteps, air force disorder beforehand. and navy support it. Was the PKI behind it? The PKI had made two PKI supporter becomes police commander in hopeless attempts to take power before, in 1926 and Jakarta. again at Madiun in 1948. Is it possible that July 2000 PKI supporters begin receiving rebellious, undisciplined officers planned the coup, military training from Air Force officers at Halim and then the PKI announced its support? Maybe. Air Base near Jakarta. Were foreign powers involved? There was heavy involvement by China in Indonesian politics in

August Anti-PKI elements in PNI are purged. Violence between PNI and NU supporters on one side and PKI supporters on the other heats up in Central and East Java. Sukarno collapses during public reception.

Sukarno cuts off ties with IMF, World Bank, Interpol; makes August 17 speech promoting anti-imperialist alliance with Beijing, other Asian Communist regimes It is perhaps most possible that whatever secret Aidit returns from trip to China, makes August 17 plans had been made did not go exactly as the speech calling for millions of workers and planners intended. peasants to be armed. September 16-19 Air Force Gen. Omar Dhani makes secret trip to China. September 27 Gen. Ahmad Yani speaks against Nasakom in the army and "arming the people". September 28 Anti-Communist student leaders ask Gen. Nasution for paramilitary training comparable to what PKI supporters would receive.

1965. Both the United States and the Soviet Union were supplying aid either directly to the government or to their friends in ABRI. The West German goverment supplied secret aid to anticommunists. We know today, too, that the CIA gave lists of Indonesian communists to the Indonesian military during the purges that came after. But did foreign powers help plan G30S? Probably not, but again, we do not know.

September 30 Lt.-Col. Untung, other Diponegoro and Brawijaya Division soldiers, and PKI supporters gather at Halim Air Base, with Gen. Omar Dhani and Aidit present. They leave and attempt to take seven top army generals. Nasution escapes by leaping over the wall of his Suharto's main supporters in ABRI were Brig. Gen. house, his young daughter is shot and Lt. Kemal Idris, Col. Sarwo Edhie Wibowo, and Maj. Tendean, his aide, is taken away. Gen. Ahmad Gen. Dharsono. Yani is killed at his house, as are two others. Three other generals are taken alive with Lt. Tendean and the bodies of the dead to Halim, where the remaining live captives are murdered and thrown in the well called Lubang Buaya. Rebel soldiers take Merdeka Square in Jakarta by the Presidential Palace, the radio and TV stations. October 1 Suharto arrives at Kostrad Headquarters overlooking Merdeka Square, takes emergency control of loyal troops after consulting with available generals. Radio announces that "Movement 30 September" (Gerakan 30 September, or G30S) is proSukarno, anti-corruption, anti-United States and anti-CIA. Mutinies in five of seven Diponegoro Division battalions support the rebels, as do Naval officers in Surabaya. Sukarno goes to Halim, consults with Omar Dhani but not with Aidit. Suharto offers water to hot soldiers in Merdeka Square, they come to his side; ignores messages

By the end of 1965, a huge wave of popular violence against the PKI had started. In West and Central Java, the army began rounding up Communists, but in many villages, people took the law into their own hands. In some areas, such as East Java or Aceh, Islamic groups (such as the Nahdlatul Ulama youth group Ansor) fought to wipe out communists. However, there was a heavy anti-communist purge on Bali as well. Thousands were sent to prison, and over a year's time, perhaps more than 250,000 were dead. ABRI did not commit all of the killings, but ABRI officers did arm and train student groups that committed killings, and also did not act to stop the violence until the PKI had been wiped out.

from Sukarno. Suharto announces on radio that six generals are dead, he is in control of army, he will suppress coup attempt and protect Sukarno. Sukarno leaves for Bogor, Aidit leaves for Yogya, Omar Dhani leaves for Madiun. October 2 Loyal army units retake Halim Air Base. Mayor of Surakarta supports coup. PKI supporters march in Yogya. PKI newspaper Harian Rakyat publishes issue in favor of coup. Military rebels in Central Java retreat to countryside. Suharto agrees to Sukarno order taking presidential control of army, but only if Suharto has emergency powers to restore order. October 3 Bodies discovered in Lubang Buaya. Sukarno, in a radio broadcast, claims the Air Force was not involved. October 4 Bodies are removed from Lubang Buaya in the presence of print and TV reporters. Suharto is also present. October 5 Public funeral in Jakarta for dead generals. October 6 Sukarno meets with his cabinet in Bogor, then finally issues a statement denouncing the attempted coup. October 8 Demonstration headquarters in Jakarta. burns PKI

October 13 Ansor (the Islamic youth organization associated with Nahdlatul Ulama) holds anti-Communist rallies on Java. October 14 Suharto begins moving loyal troops into Central Java. October 16 Sukarno dismisses Omar Dhani as head of Air Force. Suharto is appointed commander of the army. October 18 Nearly a hundred Communists killed in battle with Ansor youths. Beginning of general massacre of PKI supporters in Central and East Java. Inflation runs wild in the general uncertainty. November 1 Kopkamtib security established with Suharto at head. force

November 11 Fighting between PNI and PKI supporters on Bali begins massacre of

Communists on Bali. November 22 Aidit is captured and executed. The Assembly (DPR), consisting entirely of members appointed by Sukarno, is purged of PKI members. Sukarno's 1963 decree is used to ban all books written by members of the PKI and associated organizations. Muhammadiyah declares jihad against PKI. Sukarno pleads with Muslims to give dead proper burial. Anti-Communist movement spreads throughout Java. December 10000 PKI supporters have been arrested, many thousand more killed. AntiCommunist massacres are heavy on Bali. The ABRI commander for Aceh announces that Aceh is now free of Communists. December 13 Major currency adjustment due to inflation: 1000 old rupiah are converted to 1 new rupiah. Special Military Courts begin holding trials of PKI members. December 31 Shell signs contract to sell remaining Indonesian holdings to government.

1965 - 1998 (The Suharto years)

1966 January Roundups continue of PKI supporters, degenerate into random, unplanned violence in many areas. "Supersemar": Sukarno and Suharto in 1966. The January 15 Sukarno holds cabinet meeting in abbreviation "Supersemar" is also a reference to the Bogor, and invites members of student character Semar from traditional wayang kulit organizations to attend. Anti-communist students stories. Officially, Sukarno gave emergency powers to Suharto, which were then approved by the demonstrate outside. Assembly--but Sukarno was under pressure from February 13 "Mahmillub" tribunals begin of military powers and street demonstrations, and by persons accused of involvment in the September then, the Assembly had been purged of many of 30th coup. (Almost 900 are tried in these special Sukarno's supporters. tribunals through 1978.) Under the powers of "Supersemar", Suharto February 21 Sukarno names new cabinet, founded Kopkamtib, a special forces detail including Omar Dhani and Subandrio, who are originally assigned to tracking down PKI members. wanted for arrest. It was later used for general political purposes, February 24 Student demonstrations stop traffic including for enforcing restrictions on the press. in Jakarta. Sukarno uses helicopters to fly his Suharto also expanded the role of the special forces new cabinet to swearing-in ceremonies. group called "Opsus" using these special powers. Presidential guards fire on students, killing two. Opsus was used for covert operations and was headed by Gen. Ali Murtopo. February 25 Sukarno and Suharto meet. Student organizations are declared dissolved and At the beginning, Suharto shared many policy decisions with Adam Malik as foreign minister and demonstrations are banned. the Sultan of Yogya regarding domestic affairs. February 28 Subandrio declares that "terror will During the 1960s, Suharto's government repaired be met with terror". Students hang Subandrio in the economy with the help of foreign-trained effigy. "technocrat" economists, many of whom worked in March 6 Suharto warns Sukarno of the Bappenas planning group. dissatisfaction among the officer corps in ABRI. March 8 Sukarno issues orders to ABRI reminding them that he is still president. March 11 Sukarno tries to hold cabinet meeting while students demonstrate outside. Suharto does not attend. Suharto's troops surround the building; Sukarno flees to Bogor by helicopter with Subandrio and Chaerul Saleh. Three major generals follow Sukarno to Bogor, and discuss the situation with him for several hours. Sukarno signs a document giving broad powers to Suharto, the "Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret" or "Supersemar" letter. March 12 Suharto, using the new "Supersemar" powers, officially bans the PKI. March 18 Subandrio and most of Sukarno's cabinet are arrested. Suharto receives support from Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya, who helps coordinate economic policy. Adam Malik is new

foreign minister. April Purge of Sukarno supporters in the PNI, in the Diponegoro Division, and the National Assembly (MPR/DPR). Ali Sadikin becomes governor of Jakarta. SOBSI labor organization is banned. Adam Malik travels to New York, announces that Indonesia will rejoin the United Nations. April 12 Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogya issues a frank statement on the poor state of the economy. May Adam Malik meets with Tun Abdul Razak of Malaysia in Bangkok, and announces that "konfrontasi" with Malaysia has ended. Japanese government gives Indonesia emergency aid. June 21 Smaller Assembly approves the "Supersemar" transfer of powers to Suharto, and the ban on the PKI. July Indonesia begins rescheduling payments. IMF is brought back in. debt

August 11 Indonesia normalizes relations with Malaysia. September 19 Conference meets in Tokyo to discuss Indonesia's foreign debt. Sultan of Yogya represents Indonesia. Western trade powers and the IMF attend; the Soviet Union is not invited. Indonesia gains an 18-month moratorium on debt payments. October Subandrio given death sentence, but not executed. October 3 Suharto announces broad, liberal economic reforms. November Plot to take Sukarno and restore him to power fails; Sukarno would not cooperate. December Omar Dhani given death sentence, but not executed. Bulog (Badan Urusan Logistik) is founded to manage rice procurements for the government. Former Republik Maluku Selatan leader Soumokil is executed; Moluccans in the Netherlands burn the Indonesian embassy there. All Chinese-language schools are closed. New Press Law tightens existing the existing censorship process. Assembly (MPR) declares that the preamble to the 1945 constitution, including Pancasila, is

inalterable. 1967 January Sukarno says he had no foreknowledge of coup attempt. Economic reforms are passed, including a government guarantee that no further properties will be nationalized, a three-year tax holiday, and a guarantee that profits earned can be sent overseas. February British and USA properties returned to owners. March 12 Assembly (MPR) takes all power away from Sukarno, names Suharto acting president. April Christian churches are attacked in Aceh. Several days of anti-Chinese demonstrations break out in Jakarta. Suharto Indonesia breaks diplomatic relations with Suharto was President of Indonesia from 1967 until 1998. Most of his long presidency was marked by China. economic growth and enforced consensus. Most Chinese-language newspapers closed by The parliamentary compromise of July 1967 began government. a long period where the legislative branch of Freeport copper mine opens in Irian Jaya. government was mostly controlled by Suharto July 27 Compromise announced in the himself. Some ABRI generals, including Nasution Assembly after long debate on how parties and and recent Suharto allies Kemal Idris and Gen. constituencies should be represented. Dharsono, commander of the Siliwangi division, Government gets to appoint up to one-third of were opposed to the plan. Dharsono was soon sent away as ambassador to Thailand to reduce his members. influence. August Suharto places all armed forces under his control. August 8 ASEAN is founded. Original members are Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, and Thailand. Bengkulu is made a province. October Anti-Christian riots in Makassar; Suharto speaks against religious violence. Series of bank failures involving deposits by Bulog raise questions of corruption. IGGI group of countries giving foreign aid to Indonesia is organized. 1968 Foreign Minister Adam Malik says that In the aftermath of the 1965 events, many people Indonesia will make an independent foreign who had not professed a religion before signed up as policy, but one friendly with the USA. a member of one of Indonesia's five recognized religions: Islam, Hindu, Buddhist, Catholic, or February 20 Parmusi party founded, including Kristen (Protestant). A person without a religion some former Masyumi supporters. was seen as a possible Communist. As a result, the March 27 Suharto wins Presidential election. number of Catholics and Christians/Protestants

grew rapidly in the late 1960s, although Muslims remained 90% or so of the total population. In the late 1960s, and again in the late 1970s, there were suggestions within the government, possibly from Suharto himself, to have "kebatinan" or "Islam-abangan" added as an official religion that citizens could register under. By "kebatinan" was meant the traditions of Javanese mysticism, much of which had survived for centuries and had little to do Monopoly on clove imports is granted to with standard Islam. The effect would have been to Suharto's half-brother Probosutejo and Liem reduce the number of registered Muslims in the Sioe Liong. census, and so to reduce the political power of December Bulog loses significant funds in Islamic parties and politicians across the board. another bank failure, damaging its ability to buy The Parmusi party was supposed to be a rice in 1969. replacement for the Masyumi party, which had been banned due to the 1958 rebellions. Parmusi was never able to win support of most former Masyumi supporters, though. August Army-run oil companies, including Permina, are merged into Pertamina, headed by Ibnu Sutowo. Pertamina now has a monopoly on the oil industry in Indonesia, but work is contracted out to foreign firms as well. 1969 April Repelita I, the first five-year development plan, begins. Its goal is to restore the economy, build infrastructure, and make Indonesia selfsufficient in rice cultivation. Indonesia repudiates earlier citizenship treaties with China. 80,000 ethnic Chinese lose their Indonesian citizenship.

Starting in 1969, Suharto's government decreed a July Prison camp is opened on Buru in Maluku number of restrictions on political activities, parties and organizations. However, the government for former PKI members. claimed that Golkar was not actually a political July 15-August 2 Village councils in Irian Jaya, organization, and therefore was not covered by the under pressure from Opsus special forces in the restrictions. The result was that Golkar was able to region, vote in favor of joining Indonesia. be the only political party without restrictions. September 17 Irian Jaya is formally made a Also in 1969, the government under Suharto province. elevated Sukarno's 1963 presidential censorship November Assembly finally passes bills to decree to the status of law. approve the July 1967 compromises. A certain Under Repelita I, the first five-year plan of proportion of seats will be appointed as Suharto's government, 60% of the government's representatives of "Functional Groups": Golkar. budget was funded by foreign aid through IGGI, the November 22 Mochtar Lubis publishes Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia. newspaper articles detailing corruption in Pertamina. December 4 Members of "functional groups" on local councils are prohibited from belonging to political parties, with the exception of Golkar. U.S. President Nixon visits Jakarta. 1970 Suharto visits Washington. January 22 Student protests are banned after series of demonstrations against corruption. Around 1970, the New Order government started heavy promotion of family planning programs.

January 31 Suharto appoints a commission to investigate corruption in government. February Government employees are told to be loyal to the government and to support Golkar. Civil servants are told to avoid political activities and organizations. June 21 Sukarno dies at Bogor. July Results of anti-corruption commission's investigation-- that corruption is widespread throughout government--are leaked to the press. August Pro-PKI remnant is purged near Blitar, East Java. August 16 Suharto announces that only two corruption cases will be brought to court. Anticorruption commission is closed. Mrs. Tien Suharto and businessman Liem Sioe Liong found PT Bogasari flour mills. Liem Sioe Liong and Probosutedjo (Suharto's brother) gain a monopoly on the import of cloves. 1971 Government, following Suharto's lead, refuses to remove ban on the Masyumi party. July 3 Golkar wins 2/3 of seats in Assembly in elections. PNI and NU trail far behind. New Assembly (DPR) consists of 360 elected members, 75 appointed ABRI officers, and 25 appointed members from other groups. New MPR now has 920 members: the 460 total members of the DPR, 207 members chosen directly by Suharto, 123 chosen by the political parties, and 130 chosen to represent the provinces.

Candidates for the elections of 1971 were screened by military security; many PNI, NU and Parmusi members were disqualified by the military to stand for election. Political parties--except for Golkar-were restricted from campaigning in rural areas. Golkar enjoyed an advantage from its support from Liquefied natural gas exports begin from Aceh the military, and the compelled support from civil and East Kalimantan. servants and government employees. Golkar also received substantial financial support from various Bulog takes over the pricing and distribution of sources. The Opsus special forces group influenced sugar. political activity as well. December KORPRI (Korps Karyawan Pegawai Republik Indonesia) is founded by the government to replace all other organizations of civil servants and government employees. Dharma Wanita is founded for the wives of civil servants. Makassar is officially renamed Ujung Pandang. 1972 March IMF obtains agreement from Indonesian government to limit its borrowing, and

borrowing by Pertamina and other agencies under government control. June Dry weather and government inaction lead to rice shortages on Java. International prices for rice increase as the Indonesian government is forced to start importing. Beginning of "rice crisis". October Suharto, under IMF pressure, issues decree that all international loans to state enterprises must be approved by Bank Indonesia and the Minister of Finance. 1973 January 5 Smaller political parties are merged into two organizations by the government. Nahdatul Ulama, Parmusi and other Islamic groups are merged into the PPP (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan, or United Development Party). Murba, PNI, and smaller Christian and Catholic parties are merged into the PDI. The "rice crisis" of 1972 and 1973 pushed many Many labor unions merged into umbrella Indonesians back into hard economic times, and led to political instability, espressed mostly by student organization. demonstrations. March Assembly (MPR) elects Suharto to After 1973 until the end of Suharto's presidency, second term. there were only three political parties in Indonesia: U.S. and Japan cut back on rice aid to Indonesia. Golkar, which had special status and the backing of Rice prices remain high. the government, the PPP, which was to represent May Suharto promises IMF that future Islamic interests, and the PDI, which combined the borrowings by Pertamina will be limited to remnants of Sukarno's PNI party and smaller short-term loans. Christian-oriented parties. Only Golkar was allowed to campaign outside the cities, only Golkar August 5 Dispute over a traffic accident leads to was allowed to conduct activities outside of a widespread anti-Chinese violence in Bandung. strictly controlled campaign season, and One person is killed, property damage is government employees, including teachers and substantial. minor local officials, were compelled to vote for September 27 Islamic students demonstrate and Golkar. take over the Assembly in protest of proposed The protest by Muslims against the marriage laws secular marriage laws. not so much because of the laws themselves. Islamic War in the Middle East leads to increase in advocates thought that a secular government should international oil prices. not be making decisions on behalf of the Muslim November Student protests against foreign community, even though they agreed with the influences, poor economic conditions, and intention of the laws. corruption in government spread. Gen. sumitro speaks to student groups. November 30 Several prominent persons, including former Vice-President Hatta, sign a statement critical of the power of foreign investments in Indonesia. 1974 Repelita II (beginning of second five-year The government's response to the "Malari" riots was development plan). Its goal is to raise living to increase suppression of free expression and

standards, concentrating especially on food, clothing and housing. January 12 protesters. Suharto meets with student restrictions on foreign investment. Some questioned the military's handling of the riots, suggesting that individual commanders or factions might have delayed action against either protesters or rioters, possibly due to sympathy with the students, but possibly also to allow violence to break out and so discredit the protesters.

January 14-17 Japanese P.M. Tanaka visits Jakarta. "Malari" riots ("Malari" standing for "January 15th Disaster") break out during visit: student demonstrations involving tens of thousands lead to violence, looting and fires. Eleven demonstrators are killed. Gen. Sumitro, After 1974, economic policies were more restrictive as head of Kopkamtib, does not act to stop the and nationalist, a change from the relative protests. liberalism of the early Suharto years. Widespread arrests follow the "Malari" riots. The global oil crisis of 1974 led to much higher Most public meetings are banned, newspapers prices for Indonesian oil, but it also created an and magazines are closed, including Indonesia economic recession in America and Europe, so sales Raya, headed by Mochtar Lubis. Gen. Sumitro is of the higher-priced oil actually fell. demoted. Intelligence agencies are consolidated under the command of Gen. Benny Murdani. Opsus is Masjid Istiqlal is one of the largest mosques in the disbanded. world-- another project dreamed of by Sukarno, but April Coup in Portugal supports decolonization; finished by Suharto. political parties form in East Timor: UDT (centrist), Fretilin (communist), Apodeti (integrationist) 1975 Suharto dedicates MONAS, completed now after It was widely known before 1975 that corruption 14 years. was a problem within Pertamina, but it was only when the company began to default on its debts that Taman Mini Indonesia opens in Jakarta. the remarkable size of the problem became clear. February 18 Pertamina, the state oil company, Pertamina's total debts may have been as high as defaults on a $40 million short-term loan from a $10 billion at their peak. In 1974 Pertamina had a consortium of U.S. banks. larger fleet than the Indonesian Navy. Fixing the March 10 Pertamina defaults on a $60 million mess left by Ibnu Sutowo and Pertamina was very expensive for the Indonesian government-- foreign Canadian loan. debt literally doubled due to the affair. March 14 Bank Indonesia tells Pertamina's creditors that it will pay Pertamina's debts up to Many people died after Indonesian troops entered $650 million, and that Pertamina would not be East Timor, mostly from the side-effects of war: famine due to dislocation and disease. The borrowing on the international market. government of Indonesia has said that 30,000 died, April Bank Indonesia stops publishing financial a number which is too low; foreign leftists often say statistics. 200,000, a number which is probably too high. The May 20 Report to the Assembly states that Indonesian military suffered casualties that were Pertamina's total debt is more than $10 billion, probably higher than they had planned, as well. much of it in enterprises that have nothing to do Heavy operations seem to have lasted for three or with oil. Major General Harjono is appointed to four years. oversee Pertamina's finances. The architects of the takeover were Ali Murtopo, June Commission on Timor meets in Macao; head of the Opsus covert operations force, and Gen. Benny Murdani, who had gained control of all Apodeti and UDT attend, Fretilin does not. intelligence agencies. Suharto himself is said to August 26 UDT takes control in Timor by coup; have been uncomfortable with the way events in Portuguese simply leave. East Timor finally proceeded.

September Fretilin declares rebellion, drives UDT out of Dili into Indonesian territory, begins killing enemies. September 16 Papua New Guinea gains independence from Australia. In 1975 and 1977, some refugees from Maluku who October Indonesian commando units start had fought against the Republic of Indonesia as "Republik Maluku Selatan" took hostages in limited operations in East Timor. terrorist incidents in the Netherlands. In spite of the November Fretilin declares independence, heavy media coverage of these events, the actions demands withdrawal of Indonesian units. drew little support inside Indonesia, partly because December Indonesia launches full invasion of so many RMS supporters had fled to the Netherlands East Timor at Dili and Baucau, installs new in the early 1950s. government at Dili with UDT and Apodeti members. Suharto finally orders reforms in Pertamina's corporate structure. 1976 February ASEAN leaders meet on Bali. March 3 Ibnu Sutowo is removed as head of Pertamina. In the late 1970s, two new waves of popular music March Indonesia receives over $2 billion in swept Indonesia. From Bandung, a new and sensual financing and credits from governments in sound called Jaipongan arrived about 1976. America, Europe and Japan to meet the Another new development was the explosion of Dangdut, popular music from singers such as Pertamina crisis. Rhoma Irama, that showed both Arabic and rock May Government begins to cut back on influences, and expressed the disaffection of Muslim Pertamina's non-oil projects, cancelling some, youths. transferring other projects to other state enterprises. Several top officials of Pertamina Ibnu Sutowo, an old friend of Suharto, finally fell from power when Suharto hosted a meeting of are fired. ASEAN heads of state on Bali. Ibnu Sutowo May 31 "People's Assembly" in East Timor appeared in a helicopter, and took President Marcos declares for integration with Indonesia. of the Philippines away on a golfing trip, leaving July 17 East Timor officially becomes a Suharto behind. Suharto never forgave him, and Ibnu Sutowo was out of Pertamina within days. province. August First Palapa communications satellite is launched. 1977 Adm. Sudomo announces that a plot against the The leader of the "Komando Jihad" was later shown government by an Islamic group called to have ties with ABRI intelligence. Some said that "Komando Jihad" has been stopped. the whole affair might have been manufactured to discredit the Islamic PPP party before the elections. May Golkar wins 2/3 of vote in elections; PPP party wins majority in Jakarta. PPP alleges fraud in Central Java, East Java and South Sulawesi. Adam Malik becomes Vice-President. Ali Sadikin retires as governor of Jakarta. Indonesia lands paratroopers in Baliem Valley, Irian Jaya, to stop OPM (Organisasi Papua Merdeka) raids.

September ABRI begins heavy operations against Fretilin on East Timor--operations continue for 18 months. November 10 Student protests are held around the country on Hari Pahlawan (anniversary of the Battle of Surabaya, 1945). December Release of most remaining prisoners from 1965 events begins. December 12 Nasution speaks against the government at a public rally of Muslims in Jakarta. 1978 January 18 Student council at ITB (Bandung See also Notes on Pancasila. Institute of Technology) issues "White Book", an extensive paper criticizing the government, and calling for Suharto to be replaced. Dharsono gives speech in Bandung saying that the military should be more responsive to the people's desires. February Government troops occupy ITB campus. Student leaders are arrested in Bandung, Yogya, Surabaya, Jakarta, and Medan. Many newspapers are shut down for a week. Sultan of Yogya announces that he will not run for vice-president again. March 22 Suharto elected by Assembly (MPR) to third term. Adam Malik is vice-president. PPP members walk out over the use of the word "beliefs" rather than "religion" (a perceived motion for "kebatinan" and against orthodox Islam). March 28 Group of retired ABRI officers, led by Dharsono, complains to army chief of staff about excessive military presence in Jakarta during the Assembly session. "P4" courses in Pancasila introduced into schools, companies, goverment offices. B. J. Habibie becomes Minister for Technology. July Attorney General's office announces that investigations into the Pertamina affair are over. Ibnu Sutowo is not charged. October 17 Meeting of top ABRI officers publish paper on dwifungsi doctrine, stating that the military should probably reduce its presence in civilian life. Majlis Dakwah Islamiyah is founded as a Muslim organization associated with Golkar. Use of Chinese characters in almost all printed materials is banned, including labels on imported

goods. Department of Religion forbids members of the five official religions to seek converts from among the other official religions. 1979 Repelita III calls for shift toward manufacturing in the economy, creating more jobs, and closing the gap in income between rich and poor. May Former Gen. Sumitro publishes article saying that the succession to the presidency should be conducted fairly and openly. June 1 Vice-President Adam Malik gives a speech saying that the government has make mistakes and violated the spirit of the 1945 constitution, but that dissatisfaction should not lead to violence. Unlike the 1973-1974 oil crisis, the 1979-1980 rise in oil prices led to a huge influx of cash for the Indonesian government.

Repelita III had a goal to bridge the income gap between classes in society, but it did not succeed in October Legislation is introduced into the this. Assembly to reform the election laws. Government critics try to increase the number of elected seats in government. Oil prices jump up again following the Iranian revolution. December Government issues a series of weekly magazines for distribution in small villages. 1980 February "ABRI Masuk Desa" program, The "Petition of Fifty" urged that Indonesia hold involving military involvement in local free elections without coercion or special privileges. development, begins. It criticized Suharto for redefining "Pancasila" to mean "loyalty to the president". It asked members of February 20 A group of 26 politicians and ABRI to put their loyalty to the nation above loyalty military figures issues a petition for fair to any person or faction. elections. In March and April of 1980, Suharto gave speeches March 27 Suharto tells a meeting of regional stating or implying that he was the "embodiment of ABRI commanders that they should defend their Pancasila". Some saw his statements as irreligious, appointed seats in the Assembly, even with others as anti-democratic. These speeches were an force. important factor that brought together many April Suharto publicly denies charges of prominent figures to sign the "Petition of 50". corruption and immorality. May 13 Petisi Limapuluh/Petition of Fifty criticizes Suharto's role in government. Signers include Nasution, former governor of Jakarta Ali Sadikin and former Prime Ministers Natsir and Harahap. The petition is not reported in the Indonesian media. June 3 Government announces discovery of a plot against the government. No charges are filed, but restrictions are placed on the business activities and foreign travel of "Petition of 50" signers.

Procedures for ethnic Chinese to apply for citizenship are reformed. July Members of PPP and PDI in assembly ask Suharto to respond to the issues in the "Petition of 50". August Suharto responds to critics in Assembly that existing committees in the Assembly could investigate any issues regarding his speeches or positions. No action is taken. November 19 Three days of anti-Chinese rioting break out in Surakarta. Violence spreads to Semarang, Pekalongan, and Kudus. Military is brought in to restore order. 1981 March 11 Radical Muslims attack a police station at Cicendo, Jawa Barat. March 28 Radical Muslims hijack a Garuda airliner bound from Palembang to Medan. The plane is stormed by Indonesian troops in Bangkok; seven are killed. Even as oil money flowed into Indonesia in the late 1970s and early 1980s, foreign investment was falling due to heavy restrictions on foreign investment, and due to the high subsidies for stateWorld Bank report criticizes the spending of oil owned companies which made private competition money on large-scale industrial projects that difficult. create few jobs. Xanana Gusmao becomes leader of Fretilin. 1982 Forest fires in East Kalimantan. April Nearly one million turn out for PPP rally in Jakarta. Competing Golkar rally is attacked by PPP supporters, who are then fired on by In 1982, the Indonesian government began security forces. Seven are killed. Tempo promoting transmigrasi (resettlement) of people Magazine is closed for two months for reporting from Java and other central islands to Irian Jaya. on the incident. The SIUPP licensing was more harsh than previous May Dwifungsi doctrine for the armed forces censorship. Before, a newspaper which published an becomes law. article that the government did not like would be Golkar wins a reported 2/3 of vote in elections. shut down. The SIUPP license covered all publications belonging to a corporation, so if one PPP party wins majority of votes in Jakarta. magazine published an article which was banned, September Publication Licenses are replaced by the government could use that to stop publication of a new Surat Ijin Usaha Penerbitan Pers (SIUPP: every newspaper and magazine belonging to that Permit to Operate a Media Organization). company. November Import controls are instituted for a wide range of agricultural and industrial goods. Gen. Benny Murdani is appointed head of ABRI. 1983 March 23 Cease-fire agreement signed between By 1983, the economic boost from high oil prices in Indonesian government and representatives of 1979-1980 had gone away, as the rest of the world Fretilin (East Timor guerillas). fell into recession.

April Suharto elected by Assembly (MPR) to fourth term. "Petrus" anti-crime initiative begins in large cities. May Government announces that it will scale back plans for heavy industry development. Rupiah devalued due to falling oil prices. Xanana Gusmao and an ABRI commander during August 31 ABRI resumes attacks on Fretilin in the brief cease-fire in East Timor in 1983. Gusmao led a low-level guerilla action (Fretilin) against East Timor. Indonesian forces in East Timor throughout the Gen. Murdani becomes head of ABRI. 1980s. By 1989, the Indonesian government felt comfortable enough to reopen East Timor to foreign Sudharmono becomes Golkar chair. travelers. Gusmao was captured in 1992. October Golkar membership, originally intended for "functional groups", is opened to the general public. An aggressive membership campaign is started. Abdurrahman Wahid becomes administrative chair of Nahdlatul Ulama. 1984 Repelita IV begins. Suharto states that all organizations must adopt Pancasila. May 30 Bill introduced into Assembly that organizations must adopt Pancasila as their doctrine. The Tanjung Priok incident remains a sore point to this day. The head of ABRI at that time was Gen. Benny Moerdani, a Christian. The response of moderate Islamic politicians was to call for a freer and more equitable society, while a minority of radical Muslims used the incident to justify the scapegoating of Christians and Chinese that had helped spark the tragedy in the first place.

Unrest around Jayapura in Irian Jaya; some rebels retreat from Indonesia to Papua New In October and November, a series of spectacular Guinea. fires occurred in and around Jakarta, causing August Radical Islamic speakers give anti- expensive, but scattered, property damage. No cause Chinese, anti-Christian and anti-government was ever reported. sermons in poor areas of Jakarta, including Tanjung Priok. August 20-22 PPP congress accepts Pancasila as guiding doctrine. September 8-10 Disputes between local mosques in Tanjung Priok district of Jakarta and security officers sent to investigate antigovernment leafleting turn to violence and arrests. September 12 A demonstration in Tanjung Priok demanding the release of arrested activists is fired on by troops; 63 are killed. General rioting breaks out in the area. Hundreds of arrests are made. September 18 Group of government critics, including Dharsono, issues paper describing the Tanjung Priok incident. October 4 Bombing attacks kill two in Jakarta;

targets are Bank Central Asia and a shopping center in Glodok, the Chinese quarter. October 29 Explosions rock an ABRI munitions dump near Jakarta, 15 are killed. November subversion. 8 Dharsono is arrested for

December Muhammadiyah accepts Pancasila as doctrine. December 22 Assembly passes law requiring all political parties to adopt Pancasila as doctrine. December 24 Church bombings in East Java. 1985 January 10 Trials begin for those arrested during and after the Tanjung Priok incident. January 21 Radical Muslims explode bombs at Borobudur, damaging the monument. All labor unions are merged into SPSI. Nahdatul Ulama votes to leave the PPP party and withdraw from politics. April 1 VAT (value added tax) is introduced. May 1 Customs service is contracted to Socit Gnrale de Surveillance, a private Swiss firm, in an attempt to stop corruption. May Government issues first public financial report on Pertamina in ten years. Assembly passes law requiring all organizations to adopt Pancasila. June Trials against Islamic activists occur across Java. July Mysterious fires destroy several buildings in Jakarta, including the state radio and TV stations. August Hundreds of alleged PKI supporters are removed from government jobs. Many PKI prisoners from the 1965 events are executed. Ginanjar Kartasasmita is named to head Capital Investment Coordinating Agency, which permits or restricts foreign investments. 1986 April 10 Sydney Morning Herald publishes article on corruption by Suharto and his family. April 30 U.S. President Reagan visits Indonesia; two reporters in the entourage are denied entry. May Relations between Indonesia and Australia deteriorate due to the Sydney Morning Herald

article. Plane of Australian tourists is turned back at Denpasar, Bali. May 6 Fiscal and monetary reforms are instituted. September Rupiah devalued again; oil prices hit bottom; exports begin growing. October Friendship treaty between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. October 9 Sinar Harapan newspaper is banned. Jakarta authorities order becaks off of city streets; 20,000 becaks are dumped in the sea. 1987 April 23 Golkar receives 3/4 of vote in elections. Number of seats in Assembly (DPR) is increased. Of 500 members, 100 are appointed ABRI officers. Gold rush in East Kalimantan province. December 25 Government announces that most regulations on exports will be dropped, many other economic reforms. 1988 January 5 Government budget reveals that 36% of projected income for the year will go to service the national debt. March 10 Suharto is elected by the Assembly (MPR) to a fifth term. March Ali Alatas is foreign minister. May Gunung Api on Banda erupts. September 5 Kopkamtib security force, established during events of 1965, headed by Gen. Murdani, is replaced by Bakorstanas, headed by Gen. Try Sutrisno. Unlike Kopkamtib, Bakorstanas is answerable directly to President Suharto. October 27 Banking deregulation is instituted. Capital markets and foreign investment are partially deregulated. Economic liberalization takes hold. November 21 Import controls are loosened; shipping and trade are partially deregulated. Economy starts rapid growth. November 28 Government restrictions on the activities missionaries. announces of foreign

Sudharmono is replaced as Golkar chair under

army pressure, but is chosen by Suharto to be Vice-President. Gen. Benny Murdani is removed as head of ABRI, but is made defense minister. Try Sutrisno becomes head of ABRI. 1989 February 6-8 Army suppresses clash over land rights in Lampung; as many as 100 are killed. March Clandestine operations against rebels in Irian Jaya begin; continue through August. Commerical television begins broadcasting in Jakarta. March 7 Hamengkubuwono X becomes Sultan of Yogyakarta. June Government audit shows that two-thirds of state-run businesses are financially unsound.

Economic growth started to speed up in 1989, with a East Timor reopened to foreign tourists; variety of moves toward economic liberalization. restrictions on internal travel are lifted. Some government figures called for free markets Clash between Islamic activists and ABRI troops and globalization, while others called for subsidizing development in the national interest. at Bima. Repelita V begins. September Suharto visits Moscow. October Censorship board is founded to make recommendations to the Attorney General regarding bans on books and publications. Members include the ABRI and intelligence officers. October 12 Pope visits East Timor. Riots in Dili. 1990 Indonesia and China restore diplomatic ties. ICMI (the Indonesian Association of Muslim Intellectuals) received encouragement from Suharto March Suharto gathers 30 of the top as a competitor to Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul businessmen in Indonesia to his ranch in West Ulama, organizations that were beyond the Java, and tells them publicly that they should sell government's control. up to 25% of their businesses to "cooperatives". April Indonesia and Papua New Guinea sign security agreement. Stock market in Jakarta begins steep fall. June Indonesian forces pursue Irian Jaya rebels into Papua New Guinea territory. Tommy Suharto granted monopoly in clove trade. October Indonesia and Papua New Guinea ratify the April security agreement. December 7 B.J. Habibie founds ICMI.

Army suppresses rural unrest in Aceh. 1991 Indonesia begins hosting talks on Spratly Islands dispute. Protests by Muslims government lottery. over a proposed

April Democracy Forum founded, led by Abdurrahman Wahid of NU. November 12 Unrest in East Timor; soldiers fire on demonstrators in Dili, resulting in over 200 dead. Bank Mualamat Indonesia founded for observant Muslims. 1992 March 200,000 attend mass NU rally in Jakarta. Indonesia and Papua New Guinea officials meet to discuss the disposition of more than 6000 refugees that had fled Irian Jaya to Papua New Guinea after fighting between Indonesian forces and rebels. April Suharto abolishes IGGI consortium of foreign-aid organizations; tells Dutch in The Dutch and other western countries had been particular to "go to hell" with aid. pressuring the Indonesian government on human June Golkar wins 70% of vote in elections. PPP rights issues. Suharto's "go to hell" remark was a reminder of the aggressive (and popular) stance gains 17%. against foreign influence that Sukarno took in the September Indonesia takes chairmanship of 1950s. Non-Aligned Movement for three years. November 20 Xanana Gusmao is captured in East Timor and sentenced to life in prison. Fretilin rebellion weakens. December 12 Severe earthquake hits Flores; 2200 are killed. Bank Summa collapses. 1993 January Pressure from rank and file in PDI not to renominate Suharto for president is deflected by PDI head Suryadi. March Suharto elected by Assembly to sixth term; shuffles cabinet, B.J. Habibie and Ginanjar Kartasasmita gain prestige. Try Sutrisno is VicePresident. Feisal Tanjung becomes head of ABRI. May Leader of OPM (Irian Jaya rebels, Organisasi Papua Merdeka) Marthen Luther Prawar is killed in a clash with Indonesian

forces. October Harmoko becomes Golkar chairman. December Megawati Sukarnoputri is chosen new PDI chair. 1994 Government cancels publishing license for "Tempo", largest magazine in Indonesia; continues to be published on Internet.

In late 1994 and early 1995, there were reports that November Indonesia is APEC chair for 1994, Indonesian forces had killed as many as 37 people hosting summit conference at Bogor. Bogor who were protesting the activities of the Freeport Declaration calls for free trade and investment copper mine in Irian Jaya. throughout the APEC nations by 2020. Repelita VI begins. 1995 February Sri Bintang Pamungkas is expelled from the PPP party for criticizing the government. September Christian mobs burn down homes and shops belonging to Muslims in Dili and other cities in East Timor. October OPM rebels burn the Indonesian