Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis

Ref.: Ch6_FaultCal KKL/2005

1.

Per Unit Values

The per unit values of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the quantity expressed as a decimal to its base value. I V I pu = V pu= Vb Ib

MVA pu =

MVA MVAb
Z Zb IbZ Vb 3Vb I b Z 3Vb2 MVAb Z

MVA b = 3Vb ph I b ph

Z pu = = = =

where Z b =

Vb Ib

(Vb line )2
MVAb Z T pu

MVA SC = 3Vb I f =

1.1

Change of MVA base

Z pu new = Z pu old = Z pu new Z pu old =

MVAb new Z (Vb line ) 2 MVAb old Z (Vb line ) 2 MVAb new MVAb old

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis 1.2 Change of Voltage base

Z pu new = Z pu old = Z pu new Z pu old

1.3

MVAb Z (Vb l new ) 2 MVAb Z (Vb l old ) 2 (Vb l old ) 2 (Vb l new ) 2

Change of both MVA base and Voltage base

Z pu new Z pu old
1.4 Example

MVAb new (Vb l old ) 2 = MVAb old (Vb l new ) 2

12.5kV 30MW 45%

12.5/132kV 45MVA 20%

110kV

X = j40

110kV 110/11kV 20MVA 20% Fig. 1

Calculate the terminal voltage of G1 and G2 if the voltage magnitude at 11 KV busbar is 11 KV.

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis

2.

Usefulness of fault calculation in the study of power system protection To understand the relay performance, you must know how severe is the fault. Fault calculation, mostly symmetrical fault, aided with the knowledge of unsymmetrical fault is required. This knowledge is required to find out the condition at the relaying point under fault conditions, for example, voltage at relaying point and current passing through relays. Based on this you can deduce what the relay will see. 3. Balanced three phase faults

3.1 Behaviour of synchronous machine under fault conditions Immediately after the application of the short-circuit the armature current endeavours to create an armature reaction M.M.F., but the main air-gap flux cannot change to a new value immediately as it is linked with low-resistance circuits consisting of, (a) the rotor winding which is effectively a closed circuit, and (b) the damper bars, i.e., a winding which consists of short-circuited turns of copper strip set in the poles to dampen oscillatory tendencies. As the flux remains unchanged initially, the stator currents are large and can only flow through the medium of the creation of opposing currents in the rotor and damper windings by what is essentially transformer action. Owing to the higher resistance, the current induced in the damper winding decays rapidly and the armature current commences to fall. After this the currents in the rotor winding and body decay, the armature reaction M.M.F. is gradually established, and the generated e.m.f. and stator current fall until the steady-state condition on short-circuit is reached. Here the full armature reation effect is operational and the machine represented by the synchronous reactance Xs. The oscillograms of the currents in the three phases of a generator when a sudden short circuit is applied is shown in Fig. 2. To represent the initial short-circuit conditions, two additional reactances are needed to represent the machine, the very initial conditions requiring what is called the Subtransient Reactance (X") and the subsequent period the Transient Reactance (X') [Fig. 3]. It is assumed that the generator is on no-load prior to the application of the short circuit and is of the round-rotor type.

Fig. 2

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis

Fig. 3

3.2 Effect of load If the effect of load is taken into consideration, the actual fault current in any branch (by Superpositon Theorem) becomes the phasor sum of pre-fault load current in that branch and the fault current calculated from above. 3.3 i. ii. iii. iv. v. Simplification by making assumption Load impedances and hence load currents neglected. All voltages sources remain balanced and constant (usually at 1 p.u.) and they are all in phase. Hence all Vpfn becomes equal and in phase with the source e.m.f. All transformers are at normal taps. Line capacitances are neglected. Transformer magnetising currents are negligible.

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis 4. Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis
V a= Zs Ia+ Zm Ib+ Zm Ic V b= Zm Ia + Zs Ib+ Zm Ic V c= Zm Ia + Zm Ib+ Zs Ic

In a 3 phase system,
(1)

where Zs = self impedance per phase. Zm = mutual impedance between any phase pair. or [V]=[Z][I] (2)

V a = V b V c

I a I = I b I c

Z s Z m Z m = Z m Z s Z m Z Z Z m m s

1 1 1 2 a A = 1 a 2 1 a a

-1 1 1 1 1 2 A = 3 1 a a 2 1 a a

where

a = 1 / 120 [ V ] = [ Z ][ A ][ A ]-1[ I ]

1 + a + a2 = 0

[ A ]-1[ V ] = [ A ]-1[ Z ][ A ] [ A ]-1[ I ] Examining

-1 1 1 1 V a V o 1 2 A V = 3 1 a a V b = V 1 = V s 2 1 a _ V c V 2 a

(3)

Vo = 1/3 ( Va + Vb + Vc ) V1 = 1/3 ( Va + a Vb + a2 Vc ) V2 = 1/3 ( Va + a2 Vb + a Vc )

(4) (5) (6)

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis Similarly
-1 1 1 1 I a I o 1 2 = 1 a A I I b = I 1 = a 3 I 2 1 a 2 a _ I c

Is

Io = 1/3 ( Ia + Ib + Ic ) I1 = 1/3 ( Ia + a Ib + a2 Ic ) I2 = 1/3 ( Ia + a2 Ib + a Ic ) Now, [ A ]-1 [ Z ] [ A ] = [ Zs ]

(7) (8) (9)

1 1 1 Z s Z m Z m 1 1 1 1 1 a a 2 Z m Z s Z m 1 a 2 a 3 2 2 a Z m Z m Z s 1 a 1 a a 0 0 Z o 0 0 Z s + 2 Z m = 0 Zs - Zm 0 = 0 Z 1 0 0 0 Z s - Z m 0 0 Z 2
Therefore

(10)

V o Z o 0 0 I o V 1 = 0 Z 1 0 I 1 0 0 Z 2 I 2 V 2
Also [ I ] = [ A ] [ Is ]
I a 1 1 1 I o I b = 1 a 2 a I 1 2 1 a I c I 2 a

(11)

(12)

Similarly
V a 1 1 1 V o V b = 1 a 2 a V 1 2 1 a V c V 2 a

(13)

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis 5. 5.1 Transformer Sequence Impedance Positive and Negative Sequence Equivalent Circuit of Two Winding Transformer

A two winding power transformer may be represented by an equivalent circuit, representing the self-impedance and the mutual coupling between windings, as shown in Fig. 4. The total leakage impedance Zl is usually much smaller than the magnetization impedance Zm. Their magnitudes are of the order of 10 % and 2000 % respectively. Thus, in fault calculations, the positive sequence network of the transformer may be represented by the series leakage impedance only (Fig. 5). As the structure of the transformer is symmetrical, its equivalent circuit to negative sequence currents will be identical to the positive sequence network.

Fig. 4

Fig. 5 5.2 Zero Sequence Network of Two Winding Transformer

The transformer can still be considered as a three terminal network, but it is necessary to remember that the exciting branch is now the exciting impedance to zero sequence voltages or currents which are identical in all three phases. In three phase, three limb core type transformers this may be only of the order of 100 % to 400 % owing to the high reluctance of the flux path. Account may be taken of the method of interconnection of the windings and of the presence or absence of a neutral connection by considering that the transformer in the zero sequence representation is provided with sets of links 'a' and 'b' on both the primary and secondary sides (Fig. 6) and leaving these links open or close in accordance with the answers to the following questions: I. Does a physical circuit exist by means of which zero sequence currents can be passed into the winding in question from the external circuit on that side (i.e. is there a neutral point on the transformer or elsewhere which is connected to earth or to a neutral wire, possibly through an impedance). If so, the link 'a' is closed; if not it is left open. This is done for each side of the transformer in turn. Can zero sequence currents circulate in the winding in question, without flowing in the external circuit (i.e. does a delta connection exist). If so, the appropriate link 'b' is closed.

II.

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis

Fig. 8 5.3 Positive and Negative Sequence Network of Three Winding Transformer

Provided that the magnetising impedance is neglected, the positive and negative sequence network can be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of three star impedances (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9

Hong Kong Polytechnic University Department of Electrical Engineering Fault Analysis It should be pointed out that the star point of the equivalent circuit is a fictitious point and does not represent the system neutral and that loads or short circuits can be applied only to terminals. All impedances must be expressed in the same MVA and voltage base. One of the branches, usually the least important, may exhibit negative impedance. 5.4 Zero Sequence Networks of Three Winding Transformer

The same rule as the two winding transformers applies. Typical examples are shown below:

Fig. 10

10