Running head: TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Paige Shaw Task-based language teaching: Characteristics and implications University of Southern Mississippi

TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Task-based language teaching: Characteristics and implications Interaction There have been many different approaches to learning a second or foreign language over the years. The school of thought has swung from one side of the pendulum to the other, going from direct grammar translation to behavioral and audio lingual methods, where students simply copy what the teacher does and says and eventually soak up the language. As more and more studies have been conducted though, linguists have learned more and more about Second Language Acquisition and what aspects and approaches have proven the most beneficial to second language learners. Currently, most schools of thought go with more constructivist and communicative methods where students actively participate in the language of study and piece the language together themselves with proper assistance of teachers. This active participation can also be referred to as interaction among the learners. Interaction is a critical aspect in language learning because it gives students first-hand experience with the spontaneous use of the language as well as the immediate comprehension of it. Through interaction in real-time conversation, students can develop their interlanguages and improve both their accuracy and fluency in their second language. Interaction, then, is most successfully implemented in the classroom through tasks (Ellis, 2003). Task-based interaction has been found to be the most successful way to apply linguistic concepts in meaningful and authentic conversations with the learners. Why interact? Interaction in the foreign language classroom is important for numerous reasons. First, it requires learners to negotiate meaning for themselves (Ellis, 2003). This, in turn, aids their learning because they have to recall information for themselves instead of simply being told.

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Another important aspect of interaction is that it forces students to incorporate communicative strategies to overcome their linguistic deficiencies and get their message across (Ellis, 2003). This helps the students to think of the language as more organic and malleable and less linear and firm. Lastly, interaction helps students to learn how to communicate effectively by providing first hand feedback from their listeners as to what is and is not understood regarding the language the students are using. Thus, when students actively interact with the language, they can more easily figure out what they are doing right and wrong in the processing and implementing of the language and begin to learn strategies that help them correct their miscommunications (Ellis, 2003). Sociocultural aspects. Language acquisition has long been investigated by researchers in order to find out the most successful variables in acquiring and learning a second language. Some researchers believe that the key to acquiring the higher forms of mental activity is mediation, and that language is mediated through interaction (Ellis, 2003). Within this school of thought, it is suggested that the language acquisition device is located in the interaction that takes place between speakers rather than inside their heads. That is, acquisition occurs in rather than as a result of interaction (Ellis, 2003). This way of thinking, then, not only encourages, but requires communication and interaction for language acquisition. Interaction and communication in the foreign language classroom is also important because it helps students interact in social situations in the real world. The social and cultural aspects of language are some of the hardest to grasp, yet they can be the most noticeable when learners lack the knowledge of these concepts. As it is said in Pathways to Culture, The bestkept secret in foreign language education is that communication is a social interaction much

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more than it is a linguistic exchange (Seelye Heusinkveld, 1997, p. xiii). The social realm is the core of the volcano from which language spews out, affecting everything in its path, and if the learner understands the origins and meanings of this language, he or she can better equip himself to survive the challenges and demands placed in front of him. This means that language should be taught with these interactions and exchanges as the basis of the classroom lessons instead of drills and exercises that require no negotiation of meaning and give no feedback on the cultural and social norms of others. This is because social and cultural aspects of language are deeply interwoven into the everyday interactions of people and show through in the contexts of each person in a culture (Brown, 2007). The people that are submerged in the culture do not consciously think about the differences there could be between native speakers and learners of an L2, yet miscommunications are frequent because of these differences, and so if learners can identify them, they can better communicate and be understood by their interlocutors. Production and language acquisition. These sociocultural factors have also given rise to studies of the relationship between language production and learners acquisition of that language. This idea is confirmed in Variables affecting task-based learning and performance when it is stated that it is clear that the most immediate opportunities for language learning occur during learner engagement with pedagogic tasks (Norris, Bygate & Branden, 2009, p.243). Tasks, in other words, show learners the areas in which they may need to be able to function and the functions of the language therein. Learners sometimes have to be pushed to speak so that they are forced to decode and process the input that they have previously received (Nation & Newton, 2009). This causes them to produce spoken language in unfamiliar areas so that they focus on the gaps in their current

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knowledge and can heighten their awareness of the importance of particular grammatical features in the productive use of the language (Nation & Newton, 2009, p. 116). It has also been found that allowing planning time before students have to produce the language can improve the students accuracy, fluency and complexity in the L2 (Nation & Newton, 2009). This entails preparing to perform a task by having time to think about the given topic and make brief notes. This allows students to be less stressed about the production and more prepared, thereby increasing their motivations for doing the task and maximizing their results (Nation & Newton, 2009). Interaction and motivation. Since one of the major motivations for using a task-based approach is the motivation of the students, it also makes sense to consider the contexts and influences that are the motivational basis of the L2 learner (Drnyei, 2002). Differences in motivational factors include, but are not limited to, second language versus foreign language setting, age of the learners, personal language goals, and the language being studied. It also largely depends on each individual and what factors motivate them personally (Brown, 2007). Brown describes six needs that students have for pushing their motivation. They are the need for exploration, manipulation, activity, stimulation, knowledge, and ego enhancement (Brown, 2007). Tasks largely tailor themselves to these needs by acknowledging that not all learners need to learn the same things, but by implementing a task-based approach, students can focus on the outcome they desire and therefor achieve whatever goals they may have through that task ( Avermaet & Gysen, 2006). This means that it is the teachers job to help students see the value in learning a language and providing them with enough interaction to keep them active and stimulated so that they can learn and develop their self-esteem with the language and achieve the goals that they have.

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Implementation Task-based interaction All these factors of second language acquisition stated above only further point to TaskBased Language Teaching in the classroom. By dealing more with the performing notions and functions of the language in any language classroom instead of decontextualized linguistic elements, teachers can better cater to learners needs, creating a more holistic language learning experience (Ellis, 2003). Now that we have seen some of the reasons for using task-based instructional strategies to facilitate interaction in the classroom, we should consider how to implement them and create lessons that follow this style. Task based language teaching attempts to balance the focus on meaning and form through the use of an analytic syllabus, and tasks that focus on form and promote interaction (Long & Norris, 2009). There are various types of tasks that facilitate interaction, but a key factor is having some sort of gap that has to be filled through communication. The most common type of task that promotes this type of interaction is referred to as an information gap activity. Focus on meaning. Information gap activities force students to interact with one another by creating a need for communication in order to find out some kind of information. This allows the student to focus on meaning and getting the message across to the other interlocutor (Skehan, 1996). This is beneficial for increasing students familiarity and fluency with the language, but without attending to the formal constructions of the language, does not allow students to reach their full potential.

TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Focus on Form. Focus on form takes text that is grammatically accurate and places it into contexts where the different ways to use each utterance can be seen in action. It brings attention to whatever form or forms students are having trouble with and shows them how to use them in context (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002). Focus on form means that grammatical features are not presented in a linear, decontextualized way but that the various grammatical elements and structures of the language can be presented holistically so as to give students a fuller understanding of how the language works as an entity. Task-based courses Both psycholinguistic and socio-cultural traditions can assist in forming task-based instruction. This means that teachers should constantly consider the planning and improvising aspects of language teaching when creating lessons and courses (Ellis, 2000). The design of a task-based lesson involves three phases to ensure the maximum benefits from the lesson; pretask, during task, and post-task Ellis, 2003). During the pre-task phase students may have time to prepare for the task by focusing on forms, taking notes on vocabulary or looking at some structural or linguistic aspect of the language, while during the task the focus will be on form in general. The post-task phase will be then, to review and reflect, to repeat the task phase, or to once again focus on forms without fear of taking away from the task (Ellis, 2003). Teachers can also decide whether to focus on form explicitly or implicitly and thereby guide the direction and use of the task as being principally for the purpose of increasing accuracy or fluency. In task-based courses, three questions should be asked by teachers: What should language learners learn? How can language learners be stimulated to learn whatever they are supposed to learn? And Why? (Avermaet & Gysen, 2006). The why refers to the learner needs

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and specific motivations, which is why task-based lessons tailor more to the learner and allow them to flourish more than other approaches to lesson planning. Ellis gives eight guiding principles to task-based teaching that can be useful in planning courses. They are: 1. Ensure an appropriate level of task difficulty 2. Establish clear goals for each task-based lesson 3. Develop an appropriate orientation to performing the task in the students 4. Ensure that students adopt an active role in task-based lessons 5. Encourage students to take risks 6. Ensure that students are primarily focused on meaning when they perform a task 7. Provide opportunities for focusing on form 8. Require students to evaluate their performance (Ellis, 2003, p. 278). With these principles in mind, teachers can ensure that they incorporate all necessary aspects into task-based language teaching. Task-based assessments Based on what studies have shown about Second Language Acquisition, teachers should also assess students through tasks and base results on the overall performance and comprehensibility of the students. L2 learners have a sort of internal syllabus that makes the more traditional assessment types that ask for knowledge about, rather than use of the language invalid. It is unrealistic to present all the linguistic forms of the language in a short period of time and ask for students to use them perfectly. It is more viable to assess students based on what they can communicate effectively and what tasks they can accomplish in the target language (Long & Norris, 2009). The stages that learners go through to learn or acquire various

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forms do not follow the same linear pattern that some methods attempt to teach, and so that aspect of the language will not be acquired until the student is psycholinguistically ready (Long & Crookes, 1992). Conclusion Task-based interaction involves a plethora of considerations and information, but also provides the best learning experience for second language learners. Interaction is the basis of language learning because interaction is the basis of why people use language in their everyday life. Therefore, interacting through real-to-life tasks is the best way for learners to practice the language they are learning so that they will be prepared to enter the second language environment and fulfill real tasks outside of the classroom.

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References Avermaet, P.V. & Gysen, S. (2006). From needs to tasks: Language learning needs in a taskbased approach. In K.V. Branden, M. Bygate & J.M. Norris (Eds.), Task-Based Language Teaching: A reader (pp. 143-170). Pennsylvania: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Brown, H.D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. Fifth edition. New York: Pearson Education Inc. Dornyei, Z. (2002). The motivational basis of language learning tasks. In K.V. Branden, M. Bygate & J.M. Norris (Eds.), Task-Based Language Teaching: A reader (pp. 357-377). Pennsylvania: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language pedagogy. In K.V. Branden, M. Bygate & J.M. Norris (Eds.), Task-Based Language Teaching: A reader (pp. 109-129). Pennsylvania: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. New York: Oxford University Press. Hinkel, E., & Fotos, S. (2002). New perspectives on grammar teaching in second language classrooms. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Publishers. Long, M. & Crookes, G. (1992). Three approaches to task-based syllabus design. In K.V. Branden, M. Bygate & J.M. Norris (Eds.), Task-Based Language Teaching: A reader (pp. 57-81). Pennsylvania: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Long, M. & Norris, J. (2009). Task-based teaching and assessment. In K.V. Branden, M. Bygate & J.M. Norris (Eds.), Task-Based Language Teaching: A reader (pp. 135-142). Pennsylvania: John Benjamins Publishing Co.

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Nation, I.S.P., & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL listening and speaking. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis. Norris, J., Bygate, M. & Branden, K.V. (2009). Variables affecting task-based learning and performance. In K.V. Branden, M. Bygate & J.M. Norris (Eds.), Task-Based Language Teaching: A reader (pp. 243-247 ). Pennsylvania: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. In K.V. Branden, M. Bygate & J.M. Norris (Eds.), Task-Based Language Teaching: A reader (pp. 83-107). Pennsylvania: John Benjamins Publishing Co.