Lecture 2

CE2104 Geo Science: An Overview

Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar School of Earth Sciences SRTM University, Nanded 431 606 Maharashtra, INDIA (E-mail: vijay_kumar92@hotmail.com)

EARTH SYSTEMS: LITHOSPHERE

Lithosphere is the upper most rigid and relatively cold layer of the planet Earth consisting of crust and upper mantle. Its thickness varies from 60 to 300 km with a average thickness of 100 km. Knowledge of the structure and composition of lithosphere is utmost important to Civil Engineer as his prime sphere of activity is within the Lithosphere. Most of the surface features are in fact a reflection of the deep processes that operate within lithosphere. For example, the earthquakes with devastating consequences on the surface originate with the deep layers of lithosphere.

EARTH SYSTEMS: HYDROSPHERE

The water cycle is essential for not only preserving the life on the Earth but also for sustaining the dynamics of the Planet itself. Evaporation and precipitation transfers water from oceans to the continents and sustain higher order life on the continents. Through groundwater and surface water, the hydrosphere provides short to medium term resources to the humans. Management and optimum utilization of water resources is one of the exciting works of the Civil Engineer. Therefore, knowledge of distribution of water resources and consequences of groundwater mining are essential for better planning and designing. EARTH SYSTEMS: ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere is one of the dynamic systems of the Earth. From a highly heterogeneous on a local scale, the atmosphere is homogeneous on regional to global scales. There has been a systematic evolution in the composition and structure of the atmosphere both spatially and temporally. The present Atmosphere is highly structured both compositionally and based on physical properties.

EARTH SYSTEMS: CRYOSPHERE

Cryosphere is the world of frozen water in ice, snow and frozen ground, making up approximately 2% of the water on Earth. Glacial ice sheets found in Greenland (can be 3 km in thickness) of the north and Antarctica (3.6 km or more in maximum thickness) of the south currently make 95% of the total cryosphere. Glacial ice sheets are the main regulators of global sea level. If all the ice sheets would melt, the sea level would rise up 73 meters. Polar snow fall and polar temperature are the two most important regulators of glacial ice sheets. Snow and ice on high mountains are important fresh water resources on the continents. Cryosphere fluctuates through geologic time (glaciation vs. deglaciation).

EARTH SYSTEMS: INTERACTIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT SPHERES OF THE EARTH

Lithosphere

Biosphere

Atmosphere

Hydrosphere

All the four spheres of the Earth are under dynamic interaction. Primordial (primary) hydrosphere and atmosphere are direct products of degassing of volcanoes (lithosphere). Biosphere is a much later addition to the Earth due to interaction between other three spheres. Present day atmosphere owes its composition to the influence of biosphere. Entire climate processes owe their existence to the continuous interaction between hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere. The onset of Indian monsoon coincides with the formation of Himalayan mountain chain ~ 54 Ma ago. Through the operation of plate tectonics hydrosphere is recycled to deeper depths of lithosphere. GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS: MINERALS A Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic chemical compound having definite geometric arrangement of atoms (atomic structure) and predictable chemical composition. Minerals on the Earth occur in native state (Cu), silicate (SiO2), sulfide (FeS2), sulfate (BaSO4), halide (NaCl), carbonate (CaCO3) and oxide (Fe3O4). Silicates are the most abundant mineral in the Earths crust and mantle. Basic building block of silicate structures is SiO4 tetrahedron. The silicate structures are classified based on different arrangements of silica tetrahedron. Physical properties enable us to distinguish one mineral from other. Minerals form by 1) direct crystallization for magma, 2) precipitation from hydrothermal (hot water) solutions, 3) precipitation from lake or sea water, 4) deposited by organisms and 5) metamorphism. GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS: ROCKS

A Rock is an aggregate of minerals. Rocks are classified into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic based on the process of their formation. IGNEOUS ROCKS are direct crystallized products of the magma (molten rock material coming from deeper levels) and are denoted as primary rocks. Igneous rocks are divided into VOLCANIC ROCKS (rocks that are crystallized on the surface from lava) and PLUTONIC ROCKS (rocks that are crystallized at depth from magma) SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are formed from surface weathering of existing rocks and formation of sediments. These sediments are transported and deposited by river water, wind or by movement of glacial ice. Transportation is either in suspension or in solution. When settle down on the beds of ocean, river and lakes undergo compaction/cementation for millions of years to form SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. Sedimentary rocks classified as clastic and non-clastic (chemical). Clastic sedimentary rocks formed from broken rock fragments weathered and eroded by river, glacier, wind and sea waves. These clastic sediments are found deposited on floodplains, beaches, in desert and on the sea floors. Clastic rocks are classified on the basis of the grain size: conglomerate, sandstone, shale etc. The Chemical sediments are formed by precipitation of dissolved ions in lake and sea water. Limestone and dolomite are best examples of chemical sediments. The sedimentary rocks form thin veener above the Sial (silica-alumina rich rocks) and Sima (silica-magnesium rich rocks) in Continental and Oceanic Crusts respectively. Sedimentary rocks are also called as secondary rocks. METAMORPHIC RCOKS are formed from the existing rocks by the action of temperature, pressure and chemically active fluids. Metamorphism (Meta = change; morph = surface) results in re-crystallization of minerals while still in solid state into minerals that are stable at different temperatures and different pressures, usually at progressively higher temperatures and pressures. Metamorphic rocks are classified based on the grade of metamorphism. Almost 90% of earth crust is made up of igneous rocks but 75% of land surface on the earth is covered by thin veneer of sediments or sedimentary rocks. Mineralogical proportions in metamorphic rocks similar to those of Igneous rocks but the former have distinct structures.

GEOLOGICAL MATERIALS: SOILS

Soil formation is the biggest benefit of weathering of rocks and minerals. Soil is the residue that is left behind after the removal material by disintegration and decomposition. The soil profile has a systematic variation from bedrock at the bottom to the organic-rich O horizon. The characteristics of soil play a significant role in sustaining the crop pattern, rate of seismic wave propagation and strength of constructions. EARTH PROCESSES: PLATE TECTONICS

Earth is a dynamic planet. The Earth is made up of 3 main layers (core, mantle, crust). On the surface of the Earth are tectonic plates that slowly move around the globe. Plates are made of rigid lithosphere. Lithosphere is crust + rigid upper mantle (Av. 100 km) The Earths crust is divided into 12 major plates which are moved in various directions. This plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against each other. Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of Earth structures or tectonic features. The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of the crust as a consequence of plate interaction. Three types of Plates are recognized: 1) Continental Plate (North American plate), 2) Oceanic Plate (Pacific Plate) and 3) Continental and Oceanic Plate (IndoAustralian Plate) Three types Plate Boundaries include: 1) Divergent Boundary (moving apart), 2) Convergent Boundary (moving towards each other) and 3) Transform Fault Boundary (sliding past each other). Alfred Wegeners theory of Continental Drift and Harry Hesss Theory of SeaFloor Spreading are the basis for the grand theory of Plate Tectonics put forth by Tuzo Wilson. Opening of a new ocean at mid-ocean ridges and and its consumption at subduction zones is called as Wilson Cycle. EARTH PROCESSES: VOLCANISM

A volcano is a vent or 'chimney' that connects molten rock (magma) from within the Earths crust to the Earth's surface. The volcano includes the surrounding cone of erupted material. Hot, molten rock (magma) is buoyant (has a lower density than the surrounding rocks) and will rise up through the crust to erupt on the surface.

When magma reaches the surface it depends on how easily it flows (viscosity) and the amount of gas (H2O, CO2, S) it has in it as to how it erupts. Large amounts of gas and a high viscosity (sticky) magma will form an explosive eruption! Small amounts of gas and (or) low viscosity (runny) magma will form an effusive eruption, where the magma just trickles out of the volcano (lava flow).

Volcanism is dominant along Plate Boundaries. Three types of volcanic eruptions are identified (Cinder Cone, Shield and Composite). The Volcanic eruptions are both effusive and explosive. Volcanic eruptions are highly hazardous and volcanism can be scrutinized by seismic, deformation and gas monitoring.

EARTH PROCESSES: EARTHQUAKES

Energy is released from deep layers of the Earth whenever there are tectonic upheavals. The energy is released in the form of seismic waves we call this phenomenon as Earthquakes. Focus of the earthquakes is the focal point where the earthquake is originated at depth and Epicenter is a point on surface above the focus. Magnitude of earthquakes is measured on Richters Scale. Similar to volcanism, Earthquakes are dominant along plate boundaries. Seismic zonation map of India helps us in earthquake prone and resistant regions.

GEOMORPHOLOGIC FEATURES The surface of the Earth is sculptured by the geological agents wind, water, glaciers and even humans. Continuous action of geological agents on the rocks and minerals produce different structures. The type geological landforms formed by wind, water and glaciers are distinctly different from each other. Studying various types of landforms, understanding their formation and spatio-temporal controls on the landform formation are important aspects of Geomorphology.

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES: FOLDS and FAULTS Structural geology is the study the architecture and processes responsible for deformation of Earths crust. With depth Stress (force/unit area) increases, this results into strain (deformation) on the rocks. Rocks subjected to stresses greater than their own strength begin to deform usually by folding (bending), flowing, or faulting (fracturing with visible displacement). Depending on whether the stress is uniform or non-uniform in all the directions, different types of fold and fault structures result. Examples of different types of fold and fault structures are shown below.

LANDSLIDES AND SUBSIDENCE Tectonic and Geomorphologic processes develop instabilities within the Earths landforms. Especially in the hilly terrains and due to slope instabilities and lowering in the compaction, the geological material starts flowing in solid state resulting in landslides. If water is also acting upon these weakened structures then the area may undergo subsidence.

GROUNDWATER Groundwater is the major water repository for agricultural and domestic purposes in India. The storage and retention water below the surface depends on the geological properties of the rock material. Sedimentary rocks are the best repositories for groundwater. Porosity (amount of void space) and permeability (networking of pores) are two significant parameters that control the storage, flow and retention of groundwater. Based on porosity and permeability, rocks are classified as Aquifers (good porosity and permeability; ex. Sandstone), Aquitards (good porosity but poor permeability; ex. Shale) and Aquicludes (poor porosity and permeability; ex. Granite). Water Mining is a serious problem that India is facing at present. GEOLOGY OF INDIA The Indian subcontinent is made-up of geological domains formed at different times ranging from Archean (> 2500 million years) to recent (for example the Indo-gangitic plane). However, the Indian subcontinent is dominantly composed of Precambrian (> 550 Million years) rocks. Stable continental masses are called as cratons, which did not undergo any deformation and metamorphism in the last 2500 million years. There are five such stable continental masses in India including Dharwar craton, Bastar craton, Singhbhum craton, Bhundelkhand craton and Aravalli craton. In addition to the cratons, the geology of India is manifested by sedimentary basins formed at different times, high-grade metamorphic belts, large erupted basaltic lava flows and young folded mountain chains (Himalayas). GEOPHYSICAL MAPPING: SEISMIC METHODS Earthquakes produce many waves. Detection, analysis and interpretation of those waves constitute the seismic method of geophysical mapping. Seismic waves can also be generated by blasting. Primary (P waves) and secondary (S waves) waves have different velocities in different materials. Their velocities are directly proportional to the density and elastic properties of material; P waves travel both in solid and fluid media, whereas S waves travel only in solid medium. Seismic methods are by far the best suited geophysical mapping tool for the selection of sites for dams and other mega projects.

GEOPHYSICAL MAPPING: RESISTIVITY METHODS Minerals have different conductivities for electricity. Most of the silicate minerals have every low conductance where as sulfide and chloride minerals have much higher conductivities. Presence of groundwater increases the conductivity of the geological material many folds. Therefore, mapping the relative conductivities helps us to know subsurface material properties. Resistivity of geological materials can be measured both in horizontal and vertical scales. GEOPHYSICAL MAPPING: GEOTOMOGRAPHY Geotomography is three dimensional mapping of the earth based on seismic methods. By erecting a large number of seismometers earthquake waves propagating in different directions can be analyzed and information can be retrieved on the internal structure of the Earth. GEOPHYSICAL MAPPING: LOGGING For erecting any civil construction we have to have direct information on the geological material at least at shallow depths. For this, purpose we can drill the ground study the cored material. We can physically study the cored Lithologs for various geological and engineering properties. Additionally, we can also map the drilled hole in terms resistivity, radioactivity, magnetic properties etc., indirectly without excavating the material. REMOTE SENSING, GIS AND GPS: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS The advent of spatial technologies has greatly changed the way we view the planet Earth. By using spatial technologies we can map the Earth from milli- to continental-scale. Aerial photographs and satellite imageries are the two important remote sensing tools we utilize in understanding distribution of various geological materials and interaction between different spheres of the earth. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is software, which greatly helps us in reading varied information with respect a geographical location mostly in a map pattern. For example, for the selection of a dam site we need knowledge of geological, tectonic, political, sociological and geographical details. Instead of seeing them as independent variables, we can superimpose all these criteria with respect to the possible sites to be selected in a map pattern. This will give us a comprehensive

view on the selection. Global Positioning System (GPS) is instrumental in giving precise location parameters in terms of latitude, longitude and altitude. SITE SELECTION FOR ENGINEERING SITES: DAMS Dams and bridges are possibly the biggest contributions and Civil Engineers for the advancements of human civilization. Management and optimum utilization of river water resources is essential for the development of any country more so India being an agriculture-based economy. Selection of sites for the construction of dams not only depends on the physical and engineering properties of the geological material but also on the internal stress distribution. Selection of sites and construction of dams is a challenging area in earthquake prone areas. In addition to geological reasons, human displacement is an important criterion that needs to be taken into account for the selection of dams. Dams and displacement is an important social problem India is facing at present. SITE SELECTION FOR ENGINEERING SITES: TUNNELS Tunnels are the life line of transportation in many hilly regions. The development of some parts of India would have been restricted, if the horizontal holes in the Earth were not created by Civil Engineers. With our previous knowledge, we realize that every geological material has distinct physical and engineering properties. The durability, strength and presence/absence of geological weak zones (folds/faults/joints), viscosity and compaction among others have to be considered for selection of sites to excavate geological material and create tunnels. SITE SELECTION FOR ENGINEERING RADIOACTIVE DISPOSAL SITES SITES: WASTE AND

With the growing population and energy requirements, India requires geographical domains that can be used as disposal sites for both Solid and Liquid Wastes coming from industrial, agricultural and municipal sources, and biomedical and hazardous wastes coming from medical and manufacturing firms, and radioactive waste coming from nuclear reactors. The selection of these geographical domains is the prerogative of Civil Engineers and depends on their geological knowledge. The designs of these sites should consider minimal interaction between lithosphere and hydrosphere/atmosphere or else it will lead to

toxic contamination. Especially the selection of disposal sites for radioactive waste should evaluate the geological and engineering properties of rocks and minerals, which are being used as storage sites.

REFERENCE BOOKS The Earth by Press and Seiver Blue Planet by Skinner and Porter Physical Geology by Arthur Holmes A Text Book Geology by P.K. Mukharjee Engineering Geology by Purbin Singh Geology for Civil Engineers by McLean and Gribble Principle of Engineering Geology by Johnson De Graff Foundations of Engineering Geology by Waltham