ME 341 - HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS

CONTROLS

FLUID POWER ENGINEERING

HYDRAULICS DRIVES AND CONTROLS

1. Basic Principles

2. Hydraulic Circuits

3. Design and Selection of Hydraulic Circuits

and Circuitry Components

4. Basics of Pneumatic System

5. Design and Selection of Pneumatic Circuits

and Circuitry Components
  HYDRAULICS

HYDRO AULUS
( meaning Water ) ( meaning Pipe )
HYDRAULICS :
Work done by fluids in pipes.

Hydraulics is Classifed as

HYDROSTATICS HYDRODYNAMICS

5
HYDROSTATICS
E.g. FORCE
F1
F1 = 1 Kg
A1 = 1 Cm2

P = F1 = 1 Kg
A1 1 Cm2 AREA
A1
= 1 Kg / Cm2

( Same Pressure P )

A2 = 10 Cm2
F2 = P x A2
= 1 x 10
FORCE AREA
= 10 Kg F2 A2

6
 HYDRODYNAMICS
LIQUID AT
HIGH VELOCITY

NOZZLE

TURBINE

7
 1. Introduction to Fluid Power Engineering

Fluid power is use of confined fluid flowing under pressure

to transmit power from one location to another.

Three commonly used power transmission methods

• Electrical power Transmission – uses electrical current

flowing through wire / cable to transmit power. E.g.
Power transmission from power plant to sub-station-
home as current.
Advantage – Transmit power over very long distance very
quickly.
Disadvantage – high power transmission loss / poor
transmission efficiency.
2. Mechanical Power Transmission

Uses gears, belt and pulleys, chain and sprockets, cams,

clutches, etc., to transmit power over short distances.
E.g. Chain and sprockets to transmit power from pedals to
rear wheel in bicycle.

Advantages – Simple but rigid in construction, moderate

Efficiency.

Disadvantages – not compact, frictional losses, noisy.

3. Fluid Power Transmission

1. SPEED CONTROL – infinite speeds with in range.

2. DIRECTION CONTROL – instant reversibility and

stoppage.

3. FORCE CONTROL – multiplication of forces.

4. OVERLOAD PROTECTION – to save system

components.

5. COMPACTNESS – low size to power transmission

ratio / No. of speeds.
 HYDRAULIC POWER TRANSMISSION
LINEAR ACTUATOR

PUMP LOAD

PISTON & ROD

TO RESERVOIR

ROTARY ACTUATOR
HYDRO MOTOR
PUMP

14
 ADVANTAGES OF HYDRAULICS
 SPEED CONTROL (Infinite speeds with in given
PISTON MOVES
range)
MAXIMUM SPEED “X” Cm IN 1 min.
THIS VOL.
(No speed control ) 10 lpm IS 10 Lts.
Q=AxV PUMP
Q  Flow
(Cm3/min)
A  Area
( Cm2 )
FLOW
V  Velocity CONTROL
(Cm/ min ) VALVE
10 lpm

(Speed control ) PUMP 5 lpm

RELIEF
VALVE

ACTUATOR GETS ONLY 5

LPM AND TRAVELS “X/2”
Cm IN ONE MIN.
15
  HYDRAULIC DRIVES ARE REVERSIBLE

DIRECTION CONTROL

PUMP RELIEF
VALVE

DIRECTIONAL THE CYLINDER

ROD EXTENDS
VALVE

RELIEF
PUMP VALVE

DIRECTIONAL THE CYLINDER

VALVE ROD RETRACTS

16
  HYDRAULIC DRIVES ARE REVERSIBLE

REVERSIBLE :
CAN CHANGE DIRECTION IN FULL MOTION SINCE IT
DOES NOT INVOLVE BRAKE OR CHANGE IN GEAR.
Eg. : DUPLEX MILLING MACHINE .
 RACK AND PINION
 HUGE ELECTRIC MOTOR
 FREQUENT REPAIRS.
 HEAVY NOISE.
CHANGED TO HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
 MINIMUM MAINTANANCE
 SMOOTH FUNCTION WHILE
 OPERATING
 DIRECTION CHANGE
 LESS NOISE
17
  OVER LOAD PROTECTION

 RELIEF VALVE PROTECTS THE SYSTEM BY MAINTAINING

THE SYSTEM SET PRESSURE.

 ANY INCREASE IN PRESSURE IN SYSTEM IS RELEAVED

TO TANK . ( MOMENTARILY DIVERTING FLOW TO THE
TANK. )

 THUS OVERLOAD PROTECTION IS ACHIEVED.

18
  COMPACTNESS

 SMALL IN SIZE
 COMPARING BASIC MACHINE, AREA OCCUPIED IS
SMALL.
( SOMETIMES THEY ARE KEPT INSIDE THE MACHINE )

 CONSIDERING THE AMOUNT OF FLOW AND PRESSURE

HANDLING CAPABILITIES THE HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS
ARE COMPACT.

 THEY PROVIDE HIGH POWER OUTPUT WITH VERY SMALL

WEIGHT AND SIZE.
19
Applications of Fluid power Engineering.

1. Mobile hydraulics – excavating equipments like bull

dozers, farm equipments, trucks, locomotives,
automobiles, etc.

2. Industrial hydraulics – machine tools, robots, material

handling equipments, presses, stamping equipments,
instruments, etc.

3. Industrial pneumatics.

4. Aerospace applications.

5. Medical applications – high power pneumatic drill used

by dentist.
 Brakes – A timeline
a. Till the 1930s, most systems for stopping
vehicles were mechanically actuated drum
brakes with internally expanding shoes.

b. Mechanical brakes were replaced by

hydraulic systems in 1945 in which the brake
pedal is connected to pistons in master
cylinders and thence by steel tubing with
flexible sections to individual cylinders at
the wheels.
c. Further increases in vehicle weights and
speeds in the 1950s made even hydraulic brakes
difficult for drivers to operate effectively, and
automobiles consequently were equipped with
power brake systems. These are virtually the
same as the hydraulic systems, except that the
piston of the master cylinder is operated by a
vacuum piston and cylinder, instead of by the
pressure exerted on the brake pedal.
d. In 1965, disc brakes were introduced for the
first time on automobiles. Disc brakes have
greater stopping power than drum brakes
and are usually installed on the front wheels
to improve braking during sudden stops.
Disc brakes are considered superior to drum
brakes because disc brakes can handle
higher braking temperatures and dissipate
heat quickly.
e. In 1985, the first antilock braking system was
introduced for motor vehicles in the US as a
safety feature to give drivers more control when
braking. Automatic braking system (ABS) uses a
microprocessor and individual wheel-speed
sensors to monitor the brakes. Hydraulic control
valves for each brakes. Hydraulic control valves
for each brake circuit prevent skidding during
panic stops or when braking hard on wet or
slippery surfaces. ABS is now available in over
90 percent of all new vehicles in the western
countries and is making inroads elsewhere as
well.
f. Large, heavy-duty trucks, as well as buses
and trains, use compressed air pressure
rather than hydraulic fluid to operate their
brakes. Constant air pressure is maintained
in the braking system, keeping the brakes
released. When the pressure is released, the
brakes are applied. A loss of pressure from a
leaky system will actually apply the brakes
rather than result in a total loss of braking,
as one might expect of it.
 Suspension Systems

a. Most suspensions of the early period of motor

history were simple and crude. Early automobiles
had two rigid axles, one connecting the two front
wheels and the other connecting the rear wheels.
When one wheel hits a bump, the wheel at the
opposite end of the axle would also move. Shock
absorbers of the 1910s were based on one of the
four principles, namely friction, pneumatic,
hydraulic, and mechanical spring. One „modern-
looking‟ hydraulic shock absorber consisted of a
piston operating in a cylinder with 4-inch stroke.
b. During 1925-35, changes in road and traffic
conditions altered the development path of
automobile suspension systems. Cadilliac
improved the ride quality of its cars by reducing
the unsprung weight. The AE Forsyth Company
felt a variable spring was best. Its dual chamber air
spring could be inflated or deflated to improve the
ride. Built like tire, the Forsyth spring cradled an
inflatable inner tube inside a vulcanized carcass.
c. In September 1934, the Leaf Spring Institute
showed an experimental suspension with dual
lower leaf sprung for the front, and rear that
acted as both the control arm and springing
medium. The Institute claimed the design
could save as much as 40 lb when compared
to coil spring designs. Studebaker adopted a
variant of this design for its 1935 models,
giving the cars a pleasant ride. The 1947
British Invicta used a novel track correcting
suspension. The front wheels were mounted
so that they moved up and down in an almost
vertical position.
d. Modern suspension systems include hydraulic
fluid and air suspension and electronic and active
suspensions. Applied a loss of pressure from a
leaky system will apply the brakes rather that cause
a total braking loss, as expected.
 The Ford Hydraulic Power assist
Ford, in spite of having produced the gargantuan
excursion special utility vehicle, does have an
environmental conscience and is going forward
with a technology called Hydraulic Power Assist
(HPA) that will allow vehicles to achieve a triple
play of performance improvements. 30 to 50
percent better fuel efficiency, a reduction in
pollutants from 25 to 75 percent and an increase
in performance from 0 to 30 mph of 30 to 37
percent. These figures are based on stop-and-go
driving., using trucks fitted with both gas and
diesel engines, using trucks fitted with both gas
and diesel engines.
This is done by using free energy-energy that
would otherwise be lost. During braking, the
vehicles kinetic (moving) energy is used to
compress and transfer fluid from a low-pressure
reservoir into an accumulator tank that is
designed to handle the now highly pressurized
fluid. Though this process adds drag but helps
to slow the heavy vehicle and reportedly reduce
brake wear by more than 70 percent. When the
truck starts again, the compressed fluid is
released from the accumulator, made to run
backward through the pump (which is
connected to the driver shaft and is now going
to function as a motor) and supply auxiliary
thrust to help accelerate it.
The additional boost supplied by the HPA system
is nothing to sneeze at; Although specific output
numbers were not available, Ford claims than an
E-550 commercial van carrying a full load
(approximately 19,000 pounds) posted a 37
percent improvement in its 0-to37 mph time,
chopping it down from 7s to just 4.4s. And on hill
testing, the HPA system helped push an F-350
pickup up a 120 ft long 30 percent grade in 6.6
seconds, versus 12.6 seconds of the same truck
without the benefit of HPA. The efficiency of the
system is impressive, as it makes use of more
than 70 percent of that free kinetic energy.
 Hydraulics in General Motors Power train

Displacement on-Demand, used in GM‟s power

train, automatically turns off half of the cylinders
during light-load operating conditions, enabling
the working cylinders to achieve higher fuel
efficiency. It also leverages an existing oil pump
system to provide hydraulic pressure to activate
the system. In a normal operation, when the
camshaft rotates against the hydraulic lifter, it
opens and closes either an intake or exhaust
valve.
Fluid power drives amusement park
entertainment rides like roller coasters and
special effects equipments in movies. Prominent
international movies to use fluid powered
animatrons include Titanic, Anaconda, Tora Tora
and Jaws
 Pressure

IN ORDER TO DETERMINE THE TOTAL FORCE EXERTED ON A SURFACE WE

NEED TO KNOW THE PRESSURE OR FORCE PER UNIT AREA.

PRESSURE = FORCE FORCE IN  KILOGRAMS ( Kg )

AREA AREA IN  SQ. CM ( Cm2 )

PRESSURE IN  KILOGRAM / SQ.CM
(Kg / Cm2 )

P = F
A F

P A
FORCE = PRESSURE x AREA

THE ATMOSPHERIC AIR EXERTS UNIFORM PRESSURE ALL ROUND. THIS

PRESSURE IS APPROX. 1 Kg / Cm2 AND IS DENOTED AS 1 BAR
( BAROMETER )
 PASCAL‟S LAW

PRESSURE APPLIED ON A CONFINED FLUID IS TRANSMITTED

UNDIMINISHED IN ALL DIRECTIONS AND ACTS WITH EQUAL
FORCE ON EQUAL AREAS AND AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THEM.

• PRESSURE APPLIED ON A • FRENCH SCIENTIST

• CONFINED FLUID PASCAL DISCOVERED
• IS TRANSMITTED THIS LAW IN THE
•  UNDIMINISHED 17th CENTURY.
•  IN ALL DIRECTIONS
•  ACTS WITH EQUAL • RELATES TO
FORCE ON EQUAL AREAS AND USE OF CONFINED
FLUID IN
•  AT RIGHT ANGLES TO
THEM  TRANSMITTING
POWER
 MODIFYING
MOTION
 MULTIPLYING
FORCE.
 PASCAL‟S LAW
FORCE F1
SMALL AREA
A1

PRESSURE
P = F1
P
A1
F2 = P x A2

LARGE AREA
A2
FORCE F2
 BRAMAH‟S PRESS
THIS
HYDRAULIC LEVERAGE PRESSURE
SUPPORTS A
WT OF 100 Kg
10 Kg ON A IF AREA IS
1Cm2 AREA 100 kg 10 Cm2
PRESSURE
10
kg DEVELOPED
1Cm2 THROUGHOUT 10 Cm2
IS 10 Kg / Cm2

INPUT THE FORCES ARE PROPORTIONAL OUTPUT

TO THE PISTON AREAS
10 Kg = 100 Kg
1 Cm2 10 Cm2
MECHANICAL LEVERAGE WILL
BALANCE A
A LOAD 100 Kg LOAD OF
10 Kg OF 10 Kg 100 Kg
HERE HERE
10 1
MULTIPLICATION OF FORCES

13
 hydraulic
advantage

If the surface area of piston “B” is 10 times

the surface area of piston “A”, then the force
applied to piston “A” is multiplied 10 times as
the force exerted on piston “B”. PSI is equal
throughout the system.
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
MOVING THE SMALL PISTON 10 Cm OF LIQUID WILL
10 Cm DISPLACES MOVE LARGER PISTON
1 Cm2 x 10 Cm = 10 Cm3 OF LIQUID ONLY 1Cm.
10 Cm2 x 1 Cm = 10 Cm3

10 Q volume of flow= A x h 100 kg

1 Cm
kg
1Cm2 10 Cm2
10 Cm

WORK DONE = FORCE x DISTANCE MOVED

W=Fxd
W=Fxd W=Fxd
= 10 Kg x 10 Cm = 100 Kg x 1 Cm
= 100 Kg-Cm = 100 Kg-Cm

 ENERGY CAN NEITHER BE CREATED NOR DESTROYED.

 WHAT IS GAINED BY FORCE IS SACRIFICED IN THE
DISTANCE MOVED.
 PRESSURE IN A FLUID COLUMN
1 Cm3 ( 1cc ) OF OIL
WEIGHT ABOUT 0.85
Gms.
1 Cm

2 Cm

1 Cm

A 2 Cm COLUMN WEIGHS
PRESSURE AT
= 2 x 0.85 = 1.7 Gms
THE BOTTOM IS
0.85 Gms / Cm2 PRESSURE AT THE BOTTOM IS
= 1.7 Gms / Cm2
AT THE BOTTOM OF 300 Cms OF OIL THE PRESSURE IS = 300 x 0.85 Gms / Cm2
= 255 Gms / Cm2
= 0.255 Kg / Cm2
P= xh
= 0.85 gms / Cm2 x h ( Cm )
 PRESSURE HEAD
PUMP INLET LOCATIONS

PRESSURE HERE IS
OIL LEVEL ABOVE PUMP 0.85 x 100 gm / Cm2
CHARGES INLET 100 Cm = 0.085 Kg / Cm2

PUMP
INLET OUTLET

INLET OUTLET
PUMP
OIL LEVEL BELOW PUMP
REQUIRES VACUUM TO
“LIFT “ OIL 100 Cm THERE MUST BE A VACUUM
EQUIVALENT TO
0.085 Kg / Cm2 TO LIFT THE
OIL
PUMP MECHANISM CREATES
THE LOWER PRESSURE
CONDITION.
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE CHARGES THE PUMP

EXTERNAL FORCE HYDRAULIC FORCE

TO
ACTUATOR

Eg. : HYDRAULIC
JACK PUMP

PRESSURE DIFFERENCE PUSHES OIL INTO PUMP

RECOMMENDED VACUUM AT INLET 0.2 BAR.
 SPEED REDUCTION DUE TO LEAKAGE
4000 Kgs FORCE

NO LEAKAGE
80 Kg/Cm2 50 Cm2

V=Q PUMP
10 lpm

A
PRESSURE = 4000 = 80 Kg/Cm2
50
4000 Kgs
IF 2 Lpm IS LOST
THROUGH A LEAK
LEAKAGE

80 Kg/Cm2
PRESSURE LOSS 50 Cm2
REQUIRES FULL LOSS PUMP
OF PUMP OUTPUT 10 lpm
STILL A 4000 Kg FORCE ON OIL
AND PRESSURE IS 80 Kg/Cm2
 HOW PRESSURE IS DEVELOPED
NO PRESSURE

PUMP
NO RESTRICTION
RELIEF
VALVE
Set at 100
Kg/Cm2

PRESSURE
BUILDS UP
WITH RESTRICTION PUMP

RELIEF
VALVE
Set at 100
Kg/Cm2
PRESSURE BUILDS
UPTO RELIEF VALVE
SETTING (100 Kg / Cm2)
PUMP
CLOSING
RELIEF
VALVE

Set at 100
Kg/Cm2
 PARALLEL FLOW PATHS

10
THE OIL CAN CHOOSE
A
10 BAR OPENS VALVE A
3 PATHS
PUMP
B
20 BAR OPENS VALVE B

C
30 BAR OPENS VALVE C

IF FLOW IS BLOCKED
OIL TAKES THE BEYOND “ A”
PATH OF LEAST 20
RESISTANCE
OIL WILL FLOW
THRO “B” WHEN
PUMP PRESSURE
REACHES 20 BAR
SERIES RESISTANCE ADD PRESSURE

P1 = 0
A 0
10 BAR

P2 = ( P1 + 10 )
10 = 0 + 10
B
20 BAR = 10 BAR

P3 = ( P2 + 20 )

C 30 = 10 + 20
30 BAR = 30 BAR

P = ( P3 + 30 )
PUMP
60 = 30 + 30
= 60 BAR
ORIFICE
• AN ORIFICE IS A RESTRICTED PASSAGE IN A
HYDRAULIC LINE OR COMPONENT, USED TO
CONTROL FLOW OR CREATE A PRESSURE
DIFFERENTIAL ( PRESSURE DROP )

• AN INCREASE IN PRESSURE DROP ACROSS AN

ORIFICE WILL ALWAYS BE ACCOMPANIED BY AN
INCREASE IN FLOW.

• IF FLOW IS BLOCKED BEYOND AN ORIFICE, THE

PRESSURE WILL IMMEDIATELY EQUALIZE ON
BOTH SIDES OF THE ORIFICE IN ACCORDANCE
WITH PASCAL‟S LAW.

27
 FLOW THROUGH AN ORIFICE AND
PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
P1 P2
PRESSURE
DIFFERENCE
 P = P 1 - P2
Orifice
RELIEF
PUMP VALVE Area - “A”

Set at
100 Kg / Cm2

FLOW THROUGH THE ORIFICE :

Q = K x A x  Where
Q  Flow through an orifice. ( l / min )
K  Constant. ( Depends on Coefficient of discharge, viscosity of oil )
A  Area of Orifice ( Cm 2 )
 PRINCIPLES OF FLOW
 HOW FLOW IS MEASURED ?
 VELOCITY
 FLOW ( FLOW RATE )
 FLOW RATE AND SPEED
 FLOW AND PRESSURE DROP
 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
 BERNOULLI‟S PRINCIPLE

FLOW IS THE ACTION IN THE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

THAT GIVES THE ACTUATOR ITS MOTION.
PRESSURE GIVES THE ACTUATOR ITS FORCE , BUT
FLOW IS ESSENTIAL TO CAUSE MOVEMENT.

FLOW IN THE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM IS CREATED BY THE

PUMP.
PRESSURE INDICATES WORK LOAD.
VELOCITY : IS THE AVERAGE SPEED OF THE FLUID‟S
PARTICLES PAST A GIVEN POINT
OR
THE AVERAGE DISTANCE THE PARTICLES
TRAVEL PER UNIT OF TIME.
Unit :m/Sec or m / min ( Metres / Sec or Metres/min )

FLOW RATE : IS THE VOLUME OF FLUID PASSING A POINT

IN A GIVEN TIME.
Unit: Cm3 / min or l / min ( cc / minute or litres / min )

SPEED OF AN ACTUATOR DEPENDES ON THE ACTUATOR

SIZE AND RATE OF FLOW INTO IT.
Q=AxV
FLOW IN Cm3 / min : AREA IN Cm 2 : VELOCITY IN Cm / min
 FLOW AND PRESSURE DROP
MAX.
PRESSURE
HERE SUCEEDINGLY LOWER LEVEL OF
BECAUSE OF LIQUID SHOWS PRESSURE IS
THE HEAD OF REDUCED AT POINTS DOWNSTREAM
THE FLUID FROM SOURCE.

PRESSURE
GRADIENT

FRICTION IN PRESSURE IS
PIPE DROPS ZERO HERE AS
PRESSURE THE FLUID
FLOWS OUT
UNRESTRICTED

DUE TO EFFECT OF FRICTION RECOMMENDED VELOCITY RANGES ARE :

1.) PUMP INLET LINE  0.6 ~ 1.2 metres / Second
2.) WORKING LINE ( PR. LINES) : 2~6 metres / Second
 NOR DOES A
GRADUAL
CHANGE IN
LAMINAR FLOW DIRECTION.

LOW VELOCITY FLOW IN A

STRAIGHT PIPE IS STREAMLINED.
THE FLUID PARTICLES MOVE
PARALLEL TO FLOW DIRECTION.
SO DOES AN ABRUPT
TURBULENT FLOW CHANGE IN DIRECTION.

AN ABRUPT
THE FLOW MAY START CHANGE IN CROSS-
OUT STREAMLINED. SECTION MAKES IT NON PARALLEL PATHS OF PARTICLES
TURBULENT. INCREASE RESISTANCE TO FLOW.
 BERNOULLI‟S PRINCIPLE

THE SUMS OF THE PRESSURE ENERGY AND

KINETIC ENERGY AT VARIOUS POINTS IN A
SYSTEM MUST BE CONSTANT IF FLOW RATE IS
CONSTANT.

KINETIC ENERGY : FLUID‟S WEIGHT & VELOCITY

POTENTIAL ENERGY : PRESSURE

WITH A CONSTANT FLOW RATE , ENERGY IS

TRANSFORMED FROM ONE FORM TO THE OTHER
EACH TIME THE PIPE CROSS - SECTION SIZE
CHANGES.
 BERNOULLI‟S PRINCIPLE

VELOCITY DECREASES IN LARGER

PIPE. KINETIC ENERGY LOSS
MADE UP BY INCREASE IN
VELOCITY IS HIGH PRESSURE.
PRESSURE IS
LOWER

PUMP

A B C
IGNORING FRICTION
LOSS PRESSURE AGAIN
BECOMES SAME AS
THAT OF “ A” WHEN
VELOCITY BECOMES
THAT OF “ A”
 BERNOULLI‟S PRINCIPLE - APPLICATION

AIR STREAM
CARBURETOR
BARREL

BUTTERFLY VALVE

VENTURI THROAT

FUEL BOWL

VENTURI EFFECT IN A GASOLINE ENGINE CARBURETOR IS

AN APPLICATION OF BERNOULLI‟S PRINCIPLE
 FRICTION AND VELOCITY AFFECT PRESSURE

FRICTION REDUCES
THE HEAD AT
SUCCEDING POINTS
DOWNSTREAM
EXCEPT WHERE ....

THE LARGER PIPE

REDUCES VELOCITY
OF THE FLOW

P1
P3
Pressure

P2
 Basic Components

• Reservoir • Lines - pressure,

• Fluid return, intake
• Filter • Pressure Control
• Pump Valves – Pressure
regulating / reducing
• Directional Control
Valves • Flow Control Valves
• Pressure Relief • Actuator - linear or
valve for safety rotary (Fluid motor)
 Fluid
Broad functions / tasks of hydraulic oil
1) Means of transmitting power in form of
Pressure to remote locations.
2) To Lubricate all components.
3) To Dissipate heat and to Cool the
components.
4) Picks up contaminants and carries to
filter for removal.
5) To Avoid Corrosion
 Essential Properties of Hydraulic oils
to Perform its Functions
1) Good Lubricity – Ability to form thin stable film in inter-
surface.

2) Stable Viscosity Characteristics at all operating

temperatures. Low viscosity Index fluids – Viscosity
Changes largely with temperatures. High Viscosity Index
fluids are preferred. High Viscosity – Sluggish flow – less
leakage but more frictional and power losses. Low
Viscosity - Free flow – More leakage but less frictional
and power losses. Hence, optimum Viscosity is essential.

3) Chemical Stability at all operating conditions.

4) System Compatibility to all the materials and components
of the system.

5) Good Heat Dissipation ability.

6) High Flash point – temperature at which flashes will be

generated when the oil is brought in to contact with heated
matter.

7) Low Foaming Tendency – Liquid absorbs portion of air or

gas with which it contacts and accumulation of these affect
smooth functioning of system. The ability of fluid to release
air and other gases with out formation of foam is important.

8) High Fire Resistant – The temperature beyond which oil

burns more vigorously.
9) Able to prevent Rust formation – Presence of Moisture in
oil react with oxygen and cause rusting of iron parts.

10) Good Demulsibility – Dissolved water content of oil

produce corrosion and sludge in the fluid. Fluids with
emulsifiers easily separate water from oil.

11) Low Coefficient of Expansion – to minimize the total

volume of the system required at operating temperature.

12) Non – toxic, easy to handle and available.

 Types of oil used as Hydraulic Fluid

1) Petroleum Based Oil – Petrol as base and additives to

improve Other properties of oil.
Indian Oil Corporation – circulating system oil –
Servosystem 311, 314,317, 321, 328, 517, 526, 533,553 and 563.

2) High Water Based Fluid (HWCF) - Water with additives

Classifications
a) Phosphate esters
b) Water-glycol mixture
c) Transmission fluids
d) HWCF microemulsions
e) HWCF synthetic solutions
f ) HWCF soluble oils
 Reservoir

• Holds fluid for components

• Allows entrained air to escape
• Dissipates heat
• Allows large particles to settle
 Filter

• Removes small particles from fluid -

nominally rated according to the size of
particles that are predominantly
trapped.
• Bypass valves - change filters on a
regular basis.
 Lines

• Convey fluid to remote location

• Dissipate heat
 Pump

• Converts Mechanical Power to Fluid

Power
– HPmech = T*N/63025 (Power Input)
Where: T =N-M torque & N=rpm
– HPfluid=Q*P/1714 (Power Output)
– Where: Q=gal/min & P=delta psi
– Eovpump=Hpfluid/HPmech
 Rotary Motor

• Converts Fluid Power to Rotary

Mechanical Power
– HPfluid=Q*P/1714 (Power Input)
Where: Q=gal/min & P=delta psi
– HPmech = T*N/63025 (Power Output)
Where: T =in-lb torque & N=rpm
– Eovmotor=HPmech/HPfluid
 Linear Actuator

• Converts Fluid Power to Linear

Mechanical Power
– Fextension=P*Acylinder
– Fretraction=P*(Acyl - Arod)
– Hpmechcyl=F*Vel/Units constant
 Directional Control Valves

• Direct flow path of fluid

• System Applications
– Open center systems -
• at idle; maximum flow, near 0 pressure
– Closed center systems -
• at idle; near 0 flow, relief pressure.
 Directional Control Valves

• Open center type

– open port - floating position control
– closed port - locking position control
• Closed center type
– open port - floating position control
– closed port - locking position control
 Pressure Control Valves

• Control pressure in system

• Relief valve is essential for safety - sets
maximum pressure in system
• Other common valves:
– Pressure Reducing
– Sequence
– Unloading
 Flow Control Valves

• Control flow in system (speed of

actuators)
• Check valve - flow in one direction, no
flow in other
• Needle valve - acts like variable orifice
to restrict flow
• Pressure compensated valves -
automatically adjust flow to compensate
for pressure variations
HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

ACTUATORS

ROTARY LINEAR

SINGLE ACTING DOUBLE ACTING

RAM TYPE SPRING TYPE TELESCOPIC TYPE SINGLE ROD DOUBLE ROD
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

CONTENTS

DEFINITION
CONSTRUCTION
FUNCTION
CLASSIFICATION
CUSHIONING
SEALS
CYLINDER PERFORMANCE
TROUBLE SHOOTING
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

DEFINITION : A DEVICE THAT RECEIVES HYDRAULIC

ENERGY AND CONVERTS IT INTO MECHANICAL
FORCE AND LINEAR MOTION OF THE PISTON.

APPLICATION :  LIFTING
 PUSHING
 TILTING
 CLAMPING Etc.,

ADVANTAGES : LARGE FORCE GENERATION

FLEXIBILITY & REMOTE CONTROL OPERATION
 QUICK RESPONSE & PRECISE POSITION CTRL.
 MINIMUM SERVICE REQUIREMENT
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
TUBE
AIR VENT TIE ROD
ROD COVER PISTON
ROD BEARING / B A
BUSHING PISTON
SEAL
PISTON ROD

WIPER SEAL

ROD SEAL CUSHION CUSHION

CUSHION COLLAR RING
CAP COVER
VALVE
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

CLASSIFICATION

ACTION CONSTRUCTION MOUNTING STYLE

SINGLE ACTING TIE ROD TYPE TRUNNION MTG.

DOUBLE ACTING THREADED TYPE FLANGE MTG.

TELESCOPIC MILL TYPE LUG MTG.

WELDED TYPE ANGLE MTG.

CLEVIS MTG.
TIE ROD EXTENSION
TAPPED MTG.
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

ACTION SINGLE ACTING CYLINDERS

RAM TYPE CYLINDERS

Eg. : Elevators, Jacks, Automobile Hoists

 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
SINGLE ACTING CYLINDERS
SPRING RETURN CYLINDERS
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
SINGLE ACTING CYLINDERS
TELESCOPIC CYLINDERS

A3

A2

A1

Eg. : Fork Lift Trucks & Dumpers

 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDERS
SINGLE ROD CYLINDERS Differential Cylinders

CYLINDER FORCE SPEED F=PxA

EXTENDING HIGH  LESS 
V =Q
RETRACTING LESS  HIGH 
A
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDERS
DOUBLE ROD CYLINDERS

Non Differential
Cylinders

TANDEM CYLINDERS
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

CONSTRUCTION

THREADED TYPE

TIE ROD TYPE

WELDED TYPE
MILL TYPE
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
MOUNTING STYLE

INTERMEDIATE
CAP TRUNNION HEAD TRUNNION
TRUNNION

CAP RECTANGULAR FLANGE HEAD RECTANGULAR FLANGE

 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
MOUNTING STYLE

CAP SQUARE FLANGE HEAD SQUARE FLANGE

SIDE LUGS SIDE END LUGS CENTER LINE LUGS

 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
MOUNTING STYLE

SIDE END ANGLES SPHERICAL BEARING

CAP FIXED CLEVIS CAP DETACHABLE CLEVIS

 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
MOUNTING STYLE

TIE RODS EXTENDED CAP END TIE RODS EXTENDED HEAD END

TIE RODS EXTENDED BOTH ENDS SIDE TAPPED

 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
CUSHIONING
Straight Spear and Cavity
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
CUSHIONING
Tapered Spear and Straight Cavity
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

VELOCITY CURVE

CUSHIONING
PISTON VELOCITY

CUSHIONING STROKE
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

SEALS
SEALS

PISTON SEALS ROD SEALS WIPER SEALS STATIC SEALS

Piston Rings
Rubber Seals
Rubber / Fabrics
Plastics
Criteria for Selection :

Operating Pressure Stroke Velocity

Shock Load Vibration
Working Temperature Acceleration Forces
Compatibility of seal to fluid
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

SEALS
PISTON SEAL

Piston
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

SEAL MATERIAL

LEATHER
NATURAL RUBBER
SYNTHETIC RUBBER
VITON
TEFLON
PISTON RINGS
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

SEAL MATERIAL
SL SEAL MATERIAL WORKING MEDIUM SPEED & TEMP.
No M / min °C
1 LEATHER (WAX IMP.) A,O,W (<<°C) 10-12 40
2 LEATHER (RUBBER IMP.) A,O,W (<°C) 10-12 50
3 NATURAL RUBBER Brake fluid, Non Petr. 20 40-50
oils
4 BUNA S W, Water Glycol 20 70
5 BUNA N A,O,W, W / Glycol 20 70
6 SILICONE W,O, Phos. Ester 20 250
7 NEOPRENE W, W / Glycol 20-25 65
8 VITON A,O,W, W/g, Ph./E 25 200
9 POLYURETHANE O 25 90
10 TEFLON O,W, Ph./ E,W/glycol 60 250
A – AIR , O - OIL , W - WATER
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
OUTPUT FORCE OF A CYLINDER
F1
d

D

AREA A1 AREA A2
F2
OUTPUT FORCE = PRESSURE x EFFECTIVE PISTON AREA
F = P x A
( Kg ) ( Kg / Cm2 ) (Cm2)
F 1 = P x A1 = P x  x D2 . . . . . . . . ( While Extending )
4
F2 = P x A2 = P x  x ( D2 – d2 ) . . . . . ( While Retracting )
4
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
SPEED OF A CYLINDER
V1
d

D

AREA A1 V2 AREA A2

SPEED = FLOW RATE V= Q (cm3 / min)

EFFECTIVE PISTON AREA A (cm2)

V1 = Q= Q V2 = Q= Q
A1  x D2 A2  x ( D2 – d2 )
4 4
. . . . . . . . ( While Extending ) . . . . . . . . ( While Retracting )
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
CYLINDER SELECTION CRITERIA

PRESSURE
LOAD AVAILABLE MOUNTING
STROKE PORTING CONNECTIONS
ROD END SIZE & WEIGHT
CYLINDER ACTION EFFICIENCY
DUTY CYCLE SPECIAL FEATURES
SHOCK LOADING INITIAL COST
CUSHIONING SERVICEABILITY
PISTON VELOCITY AVAILABILITY & COMPATABILITY
FLUID MEDIUM
CYLINDER LIFE
 Positive displacement pumps
Positive displacement pumps are used where pressure is the primary
consideration. In these pumps the high and low pressure areas are
separated so that the fluid cannot leak back and return to the low
pressure source. The pumping action is caused by varying the physical
size of the sealed pumping chamber in which the fluid is moved. As fluid
moves through the pumping chamber, volume increases and is finally
reduced causing it to be expelled – alternatively increase and then
decrease the volume. Since the volume per cycle is fixed by the positive
displacement characteristics of the pumping chamber, the volume of fluid
pumped for a given pump size is dependent only on the number of cycles
made by the pump per unit time. Gear, vane, piston, screw pumps are
some examples of such pumps.
Advantages of positive displacement
pumps.

1. PD pumps are widely used in hydraulic system.

2. They can generate high pressure
3. They are relatively small and enjoy very high power to
weight ratio.
4. They have relatively high volumetric efficiency.
5. There is relatively small change of efficiency throughout
the pressure range.
6. They have greater flexibility of performance under
varying speed and pressure requirements.
Non-positive displacement pumps (NPD)

Pumps where the fluid can be displaced and transferred

using the inertia of the fluid in motion are called non-positive
displacement pumps. Some examples of such pumps are
centrifugal pumps, propeller pumps etc.

They are usually used for low pressure (up to 40 bar) and
high volume systems.
Classification of principal types of hydro - pumps
Pumps

Positive displacement Non- positive displacement (rotodynamic)

Rotary Reciprocating (fixed & variable)

Centrifugal Axial flow Radial flow

Gear Vane Screw

Axial piston Radial piston

Ext.
gear
Inline Bent axis Stationery Rotating cylinder
Int. gear
cylinder block block
Gerotor
Fixed Variable
displacement displacement

Variable plate Inclinable Cam/crankshaft

Unbalanced Balanced swash plate driven piston pump
vane pump vane pump
Advantages of non-positive displacement
pumps

1. There is low initial cost.

2. There is minimum maintenance cost.
3. They can be operated quietly.
4. They are capable of handling almost any type of
fluid for example, sludge and slurries.
5. Simplicity of operation.
6. High reliability.
(a)Fixed delivery:

i.e. pumps with fixed displacement (constant delivery) in

which the flow volume is constant and when the speed is
constant. These pumps have no control of rate of flow.

(b) Variable displacement pump:

In variable displacement pumps the output volume, i.e.

the flow rate of the pump is variable, i.e. these pumps the
flow rate is controlled t vary in a certain range at constant
speed as per the demand of the system.
Advantages of rotary pumps over
reciprocating pumps are.

1.Power to wt. ratio is satisfactory.

2.Simpler construction.
3.Direct coupling to motor (el).
4.Continuous pulsation-free supply of oil.
Gear Pumps
The basic gear pump consists of two meshed gears, a case
or housing to encompass the gears, and two cover plates
that enclose the ends of the gears. Each gear is mounted on
a shaft which is supported on bearings in the end covers.
One of these shafts, the drive shaft, is coupled to the prime
mover., i.e. the drive motor. Two ports- inlet and delivery
ports and provided. Their exterior position on the pump is
relatively unimportant, but they are most often located on
opposite sides of the gear case. It is absolutely essential,
however, that inside the pump these ports open directly on
opposite sides of the mesh point of the gears. For best
performance, the ports should be as large, straight, and as
unobstructed as possible.
Spur gears and helical gears both are used.
Pumping action
A tooth space of one gear is filled by a tooth of the other
gear. As the mashed gears start rotating one tooth space
after another is evacuated, and in the resulting spaces a
vacuum is created. Atmospheric pressure in the tank forces
the oil into the tooth space from the port located at that point.
This tooth space full of oil is carried around the periphery of
the gear until the teeth again mesh and the oil is forced out of
the space by the meshing tooth and flows out of the delivery
port located at that side of the mesh point. The elimination of
this space prevents oil from crossing over to the intake side,
and thus the pump dispels one toothful of oil per tooth per
revolution. Close fitting covers and other parts prevent
leakage of oil through the mating parts. The line contact of
the gear teeth over one another prevents flow through the
mesh and the close-fitting of the housing prevents flow back
around the periphery.
 Vane pumps
Classification:

1. Fixed displacement, unbalanced pump.

2. Fixed displacement, balanced pump.
3. Variable displacement, unbalanced pump.
4. Variable displacement pressure compensated vane
pump.
Pumping action in a vane pump is caused when the vanes
are allowed to track
along a ring- mostly called a cam ring.
Principles of operation
The rotor is positioned eccentric to the circular ring inside which it rotates.
Since the vanes are free to slide in their slots, they move outward due to
centrifugal force and as the vanes make contact with the inner ring wall, a
positive seal takes place between the vane tip and the cam ring. Thus a
number of chambers are formed between the vanes and cam ring. The
chamber changes their volume continuously because the vanes follow
the inner contour of the ring.

A port plate which fits over the ring, rotor and vanes is used to separate
the incoming oil from the outgoing oil. The discharge and suction side of
the pump are sealed from each other at any time by a least one vane. To
obtain such sealing, it is necessary that the track between the two ports is
slightly wider that the space between two vanes. Hence with six vanes
the angle between the end of suction port and beginning of delivery port
must be atleast 600 and the angle between end of delivery and the
beginning of suction port should be same. This leaves a maximum of
1200 of port length with a six vane pump.
Flow rate
Pumps have to generate hydraulic power and also supply a
volume of oil (Q) at a certain pressure (P) to the system.

The theoretical volume of a pump

Qth = i.v.n = cn
Qth = theoretical flow rate
i = number of pumping chambers inside the pump
per revolution
v = volume of each pumping chamber, dm3
n = pump r.p.m. l/min
c = iv = pump constant (flow rate) for each revolution of the
pump dm3/revolution
 Useful formulas for pump displacement
Useful formulae
External gear pump – two gears
qt = 2 Dp bm
Screw pump – two spindles
qt = [ (d20 - d2i)/4 – (d20/4)
( /180 – sin )] h
Variable vane pump – single cell
qt = 2eb (D – sZ)
Balanced vane pump – two cells
qt = 2  lb (D + 1)
Radial piston pump
qt = (/2) d2 eZ
Bent-axis piston pump
Nomenclature
D – vane rotor diameter cm
Dp – gear pitch circle diameter
Dp = mZ, cm
Dc = center distance between
piston in cylinder block,
Axial – piston / bent-axis pump,
cm
P – pump output power, kW
Pt - input power to pump, kW
Screw, cm (where a, the
distance between the
two screw
Centerlines, and d0 are
interrelated as
Cos /2, a/d0
e =eccentricity of
vane/rotor piston
cylinder block, cm
h-pitch of screw, cm
l= vane stroke, cm
m-gear module, cm
n- rpm
p-pressure, bar
 Useful formulas for pump displacement
Useful formulae
qt – (/4)d2 ZDc sin 
Swash plate, axial piston pump
qt = (/4)d2 ZDc tan 
Hydraulic power
P = (pQ) / 612
Theoretical hydraulic power
Pt = (pQt)/612 = (PQ)/612 v
Input power
Pt = (pt / m) = (pQ)/612 v m
Volumetric efficiency
v = Q / Qt (100)
Overall efficiency
o= P / Pt
Theoretical pump displacement
Qt = (qt) n (10-3)
Nomenclature
Pt = theoretical power of pump,
kW
Q = actual flow from pump, l/min
Qt = theoretical pump flow, l/min
Z – number of gear
Teeth/vanes/pistons
a – axial distance between
screw spindles, cm
b – width of vane/gear teeth, cm
d – piston diameter, cm
dt – core diameter of screw, cm
d0 = outer diamter
qt = theoretical pump
displacement
cm3 / rev
S – vane thickness, cm
q – angle of d0 overlap
as measured at a screw
centerlines, degrees
a - offset angle, bent-
axis pump / tilt angle
Swash plate pump.
degrees
m = mechanical pump
efficiency %
o = overall pump
efficiency %
v = volumetric pump
efficiency %
 Power and Pump Efficiencies

By definition, power is work done per unit time.

Where

P= Force x distance traveled by oil A = area of cross section of

pipe, cm2
time
=FxS S = distance travelled, cm
t = time taken to travel, min
t
FxSxA F SxA
= = x F/A = Pressure = p, bar
txA A t
v
=px where F = Force, kgf S x A = volume of oil = V, cm3
t

= p. Q (Pressure x flow rate)

 Critical pump clearances

Type Clearance,
of Type of clearance micrometers
pump (m)
Gear Radial, between teeth tips and 20-25
housing Axial between gear face 30-50
and end covers Gear shaft and 10-20
bearing
Piston Bore and piston 10-20
Vane Vane and slot walls 10-40
Non-parallelism between slot walls 15-30
 Pump capacities
Pressure Maximum
Flow rate lit/min Speed rad/s Efficiency , %
Type of Bar power,
pump Maxi Common Maxi Common Common
Maximum Volumetric Overall kW †
mum median mum median median
Ext. gear 300 10-100 400 3-100 350 75-200 65-85 60-70 100
Int. gear 350- 300 450 200 300 200 98 85-90 125
400
Fixed 175 125 200 5-150 300 150-200 85-90 75-85 50
vane
Variable 125 75 100-150 300 180 90 85 30
vane
Screw 175 30-60 7500 3-1000 300 150-300 95 75-85 50
Variable 700 300-350 1000 * 350-400 200-300 To 95 85-90 150
axial
piston
Bent axis 700 250-300 800 * 400 200-300 >95 >90 125
piston
Radial 1000 300-400 2000 * 350 150-200 >95 >90 350
piston

* Moderately higher than the other pumps

† general industrial requirement is 25-30 kW
 The gear pump
For simple systems with a relatively low level of pressure (about 140 to
180 bar or 14 to 18 MPa) the gear pump is the most used type of pump.
The gear pump is a very simple, reliable, relatively cheap and less dirt
sensitive hydraulic pump. The pump in the picture is driven in the
indicated direction. As the gears rotate and the teeth at the suction side
come clear of the meshing point, a vacuum is created and oil flows into
the spaces between the teeth. The oil in the chambers is transported to
the pressure side of the pump. There the teeth mesh and the oil is
forced out the spaces between the teeth into the output port of the
pump. The meshing of the teeth prevents the oil flowing back from the
pressure to the suction side of the pump. So the oil is transported from
the suction side to the pressure side along the housing side of the gear
wheels! The pressure at the pressure side is determined by the
resistance in the system. The most important resistance is the load on
the hydraulic cylinder or hydraulic motor. In order to prevent cavitation,
the pressure at the suction side of the pump should not exceed 0.1 to
0.2 bar (10 to 20 kPa) below atmospheric pressure (minimum absolute
pressure: 0.8 bar or 80 kPa).
 The gear pump with three wheels
The drawing shows a gear pump with three wheels. The wheel in the center
is driven by the pump shaft. Comparing this pump with a two wheel pump,
the delivery of this pump is twice as high.
The two suction and pressure ports are internally connected. The
functioning of this pump is just the same as the functioning of the „gear
pump‟
 The axial piston pump

The axial piston pump with rotating swash plate

In hydraulic systems with a working pressure above aprox. 250 bar the
most used pump type is the piston pump. The pistons move parallel to the
axis of the drive shaft. The swash plate is driven by the shaft and the angle
of the swash plate determines the stroke of the piston. The valves are
necessary to direct the flow in the right direction. This type of pump can be
driven in both directions but cannot be used as a hydro motor.
 The axial piston pump with variable
displacement
The animation shows how the displacement of an axial piston pump can be
adjusted. In this example we use an axial piston pump with a rotating
cylinder barrel and a static' swash plate. The cylinder barrel is driven by
the drive shaft which is guided through a hole in the swash plate. The
position (angle) of the swash plate determines the stroke of the pistons
and therefore the amount of displacement (cm3/omw) of the pump. By
adjusting the position of the swash plate the amount of displacement can
be changed. The more the swash plate turns to the vertical position, the
more the amount of displacement decreases. In the vertical position the
displacement is zero. In that case the pump may be driven but will not
deliver any oil. Normally the swash plate is adjusted by a hydraulic cylinder
built inside the pump housing.
The axial piston pump with variable displacement
 The vane pump
On many industrial installations with a maximum pressure of about 200
bar, vane pumps are applied. The advantage of vane pumps is the pulse
free delivery and low level of noise. The shaft of the rotor with the radial
mounted vanes is driven by an engine or motor. The stator ring is circular
in form and is held in an eccentric position. The amount of eccentricity
determines the displacement of the pump. When the amount of
eccentricity is decreased to zero, the displacement of the pump becomes
0 cm3: from that moment on the pump doesn't deliver any oil.
Suction and delivery: The chambers between the vanes rotate with the
rotor. At the suction side the chamber volume increases and the chamber
is filled with oil from the suction line. At the pressure side the chamber
volume decreases and the oil is forced into the pressure line.
The pressure at the pressure side is determined by the resistance in the
system. The most important resistance is the load on the hydraulic
cylinder or hydraulic motor. In order to prevent cavitation, the pressure at
the suction side of the pump should not exceed 0.1 to 0.2 bar (10 to 20
kPa) below atmospheric pressure (minimum absolute pressure: 0.8 bar or
80 kPa).
 The vane pump with variable
displacement
On many industrial installations with a maximum pressure of about 200
bar, vane pumps are applied. This type of pump is also available with a
variable displacement. The shaft of the rotor with the radial mounted
vanes is driven by an engine or motor. The stator ring is circular in form
and is held in an eccentric position. The amount of eccentricity
determines the displacement of the pump. By steering the stator ring
towards the rotor (by hydraulic pressure, working on a piston) the amount
of eccentricity and thus the displacement of the pump is decreased. At an
eccentricity of zero, the displacement of the pump becomes 0 cm3: from
that moment on the pump doesn't deliver any oil.
 The axial piston pump with rotating
barrel.
This axial piston pump consists of a non rotating swashplate (green) and
a rotating barrel (light blue). The advantage of this construction is that
the pump can operate without valves because the rotating barrel has a
determined suck and pressure zone. The animation shows the behaviour
of only one piston; normally this pump has 5, 7, 9 or 11 pistons.
The rotating barrel shifts at the right side over a so called port plate
(yellow) . This port plate is mounted and locked in the housing. View A-A
shows the port plate.

When the angle of the swash plate is adjustable, the pump has a variable
displacement and in that case the pump is often provided with a
pressure or flow control or a combination of both ('Load Sensing' and
pressure 'cut off') .
The pump in the animation can also be applied as a hydraulic motor.
 The gear motor
For simple systems with a relatively low level of
pressure (about 140 to 180 bar or 14 to 18 MPa) the
gear motor is the most used type of hydraulic motors.
The gear motor is a very simple, reliable, relatively
cheap and less dirt sensitive hydraulic motor. In the
animation you can see that the direction of rotation is
determined by the direction of the oil flow. The
pressure at the pressure side is determined by the load
(torque) on the shaft of the hydraulic motor.
 The radial piston motor
Interactive

Place your mouse pointer on the animation in order to

change the direction of rotation of the hydraulic motor!
Radial piston motors are primarily applied there where
high torques at a low speed are required, for example
for a winch drive. Because of the low output speed in
many cases a gearbox is not necessary. The animation
shows how this hydraulic motor operates. The
connecting rods of the five radial mounted pistons are
'pushing' on the eccentric part of the central shaft. A
rotating sleeve valve, which is driven by the central
shaft, is taking care for the proper oil supply to/from the
cylinders. By changing the direction of oil supply to the
motor the direction of rotation can be changed.
An other type of radial piston motor is the one with the
Internal radial pistons
 The internal radial piston motor
The internal radial piston motor is applied there where
high torques are required. Of this type of hydraulic motor
there are motors available with a displacement of 300
liter/rotation and an output torque of more than 1,400,000
Nm! For example, they are used to drive winches,
shredders, wheels, bucket wheels.
The animation shows how this hydraulic motor operates.
The barrel with the eight radial mounted pistons rotates
over a fixed shaft which has the function of a sleeve valve.
At the right moment a piston is pushed outwards and the
roller which is connected to the piston, has to 'follow' the
curved and fixed mounted ring. This results in a rotation
of the barrel; the barrel is connected to the output shaft of
the motor and drives the load. By changing the direction
of oil supply to the motor the direction of rotation can be
changed.
 The radial piston motor as a wheel motor
This radial piston motor has a static barrel and a rotating
housing. It works just like the radial piston motor with the
rotating cylinder barrel. The rotating housing is
connected to a wheel so in fact this construction
represents a wheel with integrated hydraulic motor. The
animation shows how this hydraulic motor operates. The
barrel with the eight radial mounted pistons is fixed; the
housing and the central sleeve valve rotate. The central
sleeve valve takes care for the distribution of the oil.
At the right moment a piston is pushed outwards and the
roller which is connected to the piston, pushes the
housing with the curved ring aside. This results in a
rotation of the housing with the wheel.
By changing the direction of oil supply to the motor the
direction of rotation can be changed.
 The limited angle rotary actuator
The limited angle rotary actuator is applied when the shaft
has to rotate over a limited angle. The animation shows
how this simple actuator works: in this case the shaft can
rotate over an angle of about 270 degrees. This type of
actuator is, among others, used as a rotator actuator on
(small)cranes and excavators.
Draining a hydraulic pump or motor
In hydraulic pumps and motors there always leaks oil
from the pressure side into the housing. If this oil is
not removed, a pressure will be built up inside the
housing with the result that the shaft seal is pushed
out of the housing! Therefore the prescribed
maximum housing pressure (often 2 bar or 0,2 MPa)
should not be exceeded. To prevent this problem
hydraulic pumps and motors generally are equipped
with a drain port. This drainport should be connected
directly to the reservoir and the pump/motor should
be mounted in that position that the drainport is at the
upper side. This to assure that the housing is always
kept filled with oil for greasing and cooling purposes .
If the drain line has insufficient capacity , the pressure
will increase and the shaft seal shall, as you can see
in the animation, be pushed out of the housing as
well.
PRINCIPLE & CONSTRUCTION
OF
HYDRAULIC VALVES

1
 HYDRAULIC
ELEMENTS

PUMPS VALVES ACTUATORS

PRESSURE FLOW DIRECTION

CONTROLS CONTROLS CONTROLS

MODULAR & LOGIC ELEMENTS

2
 VALVES - Principle
1. FORCE BALANCE
 SPRING FORCE F=K.X
 HYDRAULIC FORCE F=P.A

2. FLOW & PRESSURE DROP

Q  A  P1 – P2
3. HEAT GENERATION
H = 1.41 x P x Q Kcal / Hr.
( 1 KW = 860 Kcal / Hr. )
3
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
TYPES

RELIEF
REDUCING
SEQUENCE / COUNTER BALANCE
UNLOADING RELIEF
PRESSURE SWITCH
5
 FORCE BALANCE
SPRING FORCE V/S HYDRAULIC FORCE

P.A = F = K.X
P PRESSURE F FORCE K SPRING CONSTANT
( Kgf / Cm2 ) ( Kgf ) ( Kgf / mm )
A AREA ( Cm2 ) X COMPRESSION
LENGTH ( mm )
6
 REMOTE CONTROL RELIEF VALVE
POPPET SPRING

SEAT PLUNGER

COLLAR Graphic
Symbol
PRESSURE
PRESSURE TANK
PORT PORT ADJ. KNOB

7
 PILOT OPERATED RELIEF VALVE
PILOT POPPET
PILOT SPRING
PILOT SEAT
PLUNGER
PILOT
SPACER
PRESSURE
ADJ.
KNOB
VENT
COLLAR
PORT

PRESSURE SPACER
PORT MAIN SPRING
MAIN PISTON
SEAT
Graphic Symbol
TANK
PORT Using
Vent
Port

10
3 – PRESSURE CONTROL OF
RELIEF VALVE
50 Kgf / Cm2 70 Kgf / Cm2

100 Kgf / Cm2

13
TYPES OF MOUNTING

THREADED MOUNTING

GASKET MOUNTING

SANDWICH MOUNTING

SLIP IN TYPE

FLANGE MOUNTING

14
 PRESSURE REDUCING VALVES
PILOT POPPET
REMOTE
CONTROL PORT PRESSURE
ADJ.
PILOT SEAT
KNOB
DRAIN PORT
PLUNGER
PRIMARY
PILOT SPRING
PRESSURE
PORT
SPRING
SECONDARY SPOOL
PRESSURE
Graphic Symbol
PORT

Using Remote
Control Port
15
 REDUCING VALVE - APPLICATION
Clamp Cylinder
Feed Cylinder

REDUCING
VALVE

16
 HC TYPE PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE
Graphic Symbol PR. ADJ. SCREW

SPRING
SPOOL
POPPET
Drain Port SPRING
( External Drain models only )

Secondary Pr. outlet

or Free Flow Inlet
Port “B”

Port “A” Auxillary

Pilot
Primary Pr. Inlet or Port
Free Flow Outlet “Y”

Pilot Port “X”

( External Pilot Models Only )
PILOT PISTON
17
 HC TYPE PRESSURE CONTROL
- Controls
Type 1: Type 2:
Valve Type Counterbalance Valve Sequence and Check Valve
Internal Pilot-Internal Internal Pilot-External
Pilot-Drain Type
Drain Drain

Operations

Graphic Symbols 1
8
1
8

With auxiliary pilot port With auxiliary pilot port

18
 HC TYPE PRESSURE CONTROL
- Controls ( Cont.,)
Type 3 : Type 4 :
Valve Type Sequence and Check Valve Counterbalance Valve
External Pilot-External External Pilot-Internal
Pilot-Drain Type
Drain Drain

Operations

1 1
Graphic Symbols 8 8

With auxiliary pilot port With auxiliary pilot port

19
COUNTERBALANCE VALVE -
APPLICATION

COUNTER BALANCE
VALVE
w

20
 SEQUENCE VALVE – APPLICATION
4
1
Clamp

3
2
Drill
1

SEQUENCE
VALVE 2 4

SEQUENCE VALVE
Sequence of Operation Sequence of Flow
1 2 3 4
1- CLAMPING
2- DRILLING
M
3- DRILL RETURN
4- DE CLAMP

21
 UNLOADING VALVE - APPLICATION

HIGH PR.
RELIEF
VALVE

To System

PR.
UNLOADING MAINTAINING
VALVE PUMP
M

MAIN PUMP

22
 UNLOADING RELIEF VALVE
PILOT SEAT
DRAIN PILOT SPRING
ACCUMULATOR PILOT PISTON PORT PLUNGER
TO
PRESSURE
PILOT
PORT ADJ.
TO SYSTEM

KNOB

ACCUMULATOR PILOT
PORT
POPPET
INLET PISTON
PORT
SPRING
SEAT
Graphic Symbol
TANK
PORT

23
 HEAT GENERATION
To System

8 KW

2 KW

H = 1.41 x P x Q Kcal / Hr
10 KW ( 860 Kcal / Hr = 1 KW )

24
 UNLOADING RELIEF VALVE - APPLICATION

UNLOADING
RELIEF
VALVE

25
 PRESSURE SWITCHES
SENSITIVE SWITCH

PRESSURE
PORT
DRAIN PORT

PISTON
PISTON HEAD
SPRING

SPRING Graphic Symbol

FOLLOWER

PR. ADJ.
Low High
SCREW
Pressure Pressure
26
PRESSURE SWITCH - APPLICATION
To System

27
 FLOW CONTROL VALVES
TYPES
THROTTLE
FLOW CONTROL
( Pressure & Temperature Compensated )

DECELERATION
FEED CONTROL

28
 THROTTLE VALVE

FLOW ADJ. HANDLE PUSH ROD

SPOOL

OUTLET INLET
PORT PORT

Graphic Symbol

SPRING

29
 THROTTLE & CHECK VALVE

FLOW ADJ. HANDLE

PISTON

SPOOL

CONTROLLED CONTROLLED
FLOW OUTLET FLOW INLET
OR OR
FREE FLOW FREE FLOW
INLET OUTLET
Graphic Symbol

SPRING

30
THROTTLE VALVE - APPLICATION

CONSTANT
LOAD

THROTTLE
VALVE

32
 PRESSURE DROP & FLOW
A

P1 P2

Q = K . A .  P1 - P2
Q Flow A Area
K Constant P1 , P2 Pressures
33
 FLOW CONTROL VALVES

PRESSURE
INLET COMPENSATOR
PORT PISTON

FLOW ADJ.
DIAL

ORIFICE
SLEEVE

OUTLET Graphic Symbol

PORT

THROTTLE

34
 FLOW CONTROL VALVE
PRESSURE
COMPENSATOR
PISTON
Ap
Variable
Orifice P1
x
a(x)
K

P2

Flow Control
P3 Orifice
a’ (x)
35
 FLOW CONTROL VALVE- APPLICATION

FEED

FLOW CONTROL
VALVE

37
 DECELERATION VALVES
• Normally Open Type
Graphic Symbol
ROLLER
Cam

SPOOL
Normally Normally
Open Closed
Type Type
• Normally Closed Type
PORT “A”

PORT “B”

DRAIN
PORT “DR”

SPRING
38
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
TYPES

CHECK
SOLENOID OPERATED
SOLENOID CONTROLLED
PILOT OPERATED
MANUALLY OPERATED
MECHANICALLY OPERATED
41
 CHECK VALVES
Inline Type Right Angle Type
OUTLET PORT

SPRING

OUTLET
POPPET PORT
SEAT

Graphic Symbol

INLET PORT INLET PORT

42
 PILOT CONTROLLED CHECK VALVES
SPRING

POPPET
SEAT REVERSE
REVERSE CONTROLLED
CONTROLLED FLOW INLET
FLOW
OUTLET
FREE
FLOW
INLET FREE
PISTON SPRING FLOW
ROD PISTON OUTLET

SPRING PILOT PORT

FOLLOWER
At Reverse At Free Flow
Graphic Symbol
Controlled Flow

Ext. Drain Int. Drain

43
 PILOT CONTROLLED CHECK VALVES
Cont..
Decompression Type

DECOMPRESSION POPPET
POPPET

44
 PILOT OPERATED CHECK VALVE -
APPLICATION

PILOT OPERATED PILOT OPERATED

CHECK VALVE CHECK VALVE

45
 SOLENOID OPERATED DIRECTIONAL VALVE
SPRING
RECEPTACLE FOLLOWER
SPRING
SOL a SOL b
PLUNGER

PUSH PIN
T B P A NUT
SPOOL
COIL ASSEMBLY
IRON CORE
ASSEMBLY

SOLENOID
ASSEMBLY
50
 SOLENOID OPERATED DIRECTIONAL VALVE
SOL a is energised
At Center Position
SOL a SOL b

SOL a SOL b
T B PA

SOL b is energised
T B P A

SOL a SOL b

Graphic Symbol
A B
T B PA
a b

P T

51
 MAGNETIC FIELD

ELECTRO MAGNET

PERMANENT MAGNET

52
 PRINCIPLE OF BASIC SOLENOID OPERATION

NO ELECTRIC
CURRENT
PLUNGER
COIL

Magnetic Field created

ELECTRIC which must travel
CURRENT through air.

1.) Attracts Plunger to an

ELECTRIC equilibrium position.
CURRENT
2.) Creates an output force.
3.) so that magnetic field can
pass 100% through the iron.
53
 SOLENOID CONTROLLED PILOT OPERATED
DIRECTIONAL VALVE

SOL a SOL b
PILOT VALVE

Graphic Symbol

b
a
SPRING

SPRING Y T A P B
FOLLOWER
SPOOL

57
 MANUALLY OPERATED DIRECTIONAL VALVE
#2
No – Spring
Detented Models #1

#3
P
A B
LEVER

Graphic Symbol
#1 #2 #3
A B
SPOOL T
DETENT P T

59
 MECHANICALLY OPERATED
DIRECTIONAL VALVES
Cam Operated Type
ROLLER

Cam LEVER PUSH PIN

Graphic Symbol

A B
SPOOL SPRING
T B P A
P T

62
 MODULAR VALVES

Features

STACKABLE UNITS
– MAINTENANCE AND SYSTEM CHECK UP MADE
EASY.
INSTALLATION AND MOUNTING SPACE MINIMISED.
PIPING ELIMINATED
- OIL LEAKS, VIBRATION AND NOISE CAUSED BY
PIPING MINIMISED.
NO SPECIAL SKILL REQUIRED FOR ASSEMBLY AND
ANY ADDITION OR ALTERATION OF THE HYDRAULIC
CIRCUIT CAN BE MADE QUICKLY AND EASILY.
65
 1 / 8 RELIEF MODULAR VALVES
SPOOL Graphic Symbol

SPRING For “ P – Line “

FOLLOWER
SPRING
P T B A

For “ A – Line “

P T B A

For “P-Line” B A
PLUNGER For “ B – Line “
T P
PRESSURE
ADJ. SCREW
P T B A

66
 The pressure relief valve
Drawing and simulation of a direct operating pressure relief
valve: left: valve closed; middle: symbol of a direct
operating pressure relief valve according to ISO 1219; right:
simulation of an operating pressure relief valve
Description:
The pressure relief valve is mounted at the pressure side of
the hydraulic pump. It's task is to limit the pressure in the
system on an acceptable value. In fact a pressure relief
valve has the same construction as a spring operated check
valve. When the system gets overloaded the pressure relief
valve will open and the pump flow will be leaded directly
into the hydraulic reservoir. The pressure in the system
remains on the value determined by the spring on the
pressure relief valve! In the pressure relief valve the
pressure (=energy) will be converted into heat.For that
reason longtime operation of the pressure relief valve
should be avoided.
The pilot operated pressure relief valve is applied in systems with a
considerable amount of flow. It's task is to limit the pressure in the
system on an acceptable value.
Description: The pilot valve is adjusted at 150 bar. The pressure below
the main valve is equal to the pressure above the main valve, for
example 100 bar (determined by the load on the hydraulic motor). The
spring on the main valve (about 1 to 5 bar) keeps the valve in the
closed position. As long as the pressure in the system does not
increase the adjusted pressure, the pump flow goes to the hydraulic
motor. When the hydraulic motor is overloaded, the pressure will
increase and the pilot valve will open. From that moment on the
pressure above the main valve is limited on 150 bar. However, the
pump flow cannot be drained by the small throttle in the by-pass
canal, so the pressure below the main valve will increase with the
spring pressure of about 1 to 5 bar (the pressure below the main valve
will increase to 151...155 bar). Then the main valve opens and the
majority of the pump flow will be drained by the main valve.

The symbol of the pilot operated pressure relief valve according to

NEN3348 and ISO 1219 (complete and simplified)
The pilot operated pressure relief valve
as an unloading valve

The pilot operated pressure relief valve can also be

applied as an unloading valve. Normally the 2/2-
direction control valve is activated and the opening
pressure of the main valve is determined by the pilot
valve. If the 2/2-direction control valve is NOT
activated the pressure at the upper side of the main
valve will become zero. The pressure at the bottom
side of the main valve will open the main valve: the
pressure needed to do this will be about 3 bar (almost
zero). From that moment on the majority of the pump
flow will be drained towards the reservoir by the main
valve.
The pressure relief valve in the motor circuit
The diagram shows a hydraulic motor circuit; the direction of
rotation of the motor is determined by the position of the 4/3-
direction control valve. In the central position of the valve all ports
are closed. After activating the left side of the valve, the hydraulic
motor starts rotating in the pointed direction.
Generally in hydraulic systems the moment of inertia of the driven
load is of a considerable level, so at the moment the 4/3-direction
control valve is pushed in the central position the hydraulic motor
starts acting as a pump, driven by the load. This will cause a
tremendous increase of pressure at the right side of the hydraulic
'motor' and if there was no safety valve, the weakest component
would break down or explode! In this system however the pressure
relief valve will open and the oil flows back to the left side of the
hydraulic motor. Because of the pressure at the right side of the
motor the speed of rotation decreases to 0 rpm.
The hydraulic motor has an external leakage line so there will
disappear oil from the motorcircuit. This may cause cavitation at the
left side of the motor. In this system however the circuit is protected
against cavitation by the check valves (suction valves).
The diagram on this page forms a basic diagram for most motor
circuits.
 Cavitation
An undesired phenomena in hydraulic system is cavitation. Most of the
time cavitation occurs in the suction part of the system. When cavitation
takes place the pressure in the fluid decreases to a level below the
ambient pressure thus forming 'vacuumholes' in the fluid. When the
pressure increases, for example in the pump, these 'vacuumholes'
implode. During this implosion the pressure increases tremendously and
the temperature rises to about 1100 degrees Celcius. The high pressure in
combination with the high temperature, causes a lot of damage to the
hydraulic components. A cavitating pump might be completely damaged
in several hours and the wear parts may cause damage in the system.
cavitation can be caused by:
acceleration of the oil flow behind a throttle or when the oil contains water
or air
high fluid temperature
a resistance in the suction part of the system
a suction line which is to small in diameter
a suction hose with a damaged inside liner
a suction filter which is saturated with dirt (animation)
high oil viscosity
insufficient breezing of the reservoir
 The direction control valve (DC)
DC valve determine the direction of the flow and therefore the
direction of operation of a hydraulic motor or cylinder. In the
animation we use a so called 4/3-direction control valve ; the
4/3 comes from: 4 line connections and 3 positions.
The housing, commonly made of cast iron, with 4 line
connections contains a spool of steel. This spool, which is
kept in the centre of the housing by two springs, can shift in
the housing. In the drawn position, middle position, P-port is
closed so pump flow has to flow to reservoir through the
pressure relief valve. This generates a lot of heat and be
avoided if possible. A and B-ports are closed as well so in
this case a cylinder will be hydraulically locked in its
position. By shifting the spool to left cylinder will make its
outward stroke. The oil flows from Port P to A to the cylinder
and the oil from the rodside of the cylinder flows via port B to
T back to the reservoir.
 The pressure relief valve (PR)
Drawing and simulation of a direct operating PR valve:
left: valve closed; middle: symbol of a direct operating
PR valve; right: simulation of an operating PR valve
Description:
The PR valve is mounted at the pressure side of the
hydraulic pump. It's task is to limit the pressure in the
system on an acceptable value. In fact a PR valve has the
same construction as a spring operated check valve.
When the system gets overloaded the PR valve will open
and the pump flow will be leaded directly into the
hydraulic reservoir. The pressure in the system remains
on the value determined by the spring on the PR valve! In
the PR valve the pressure (=energy) will be converted
into heat.For that reason longtime operation of the
pressure relief valve should be avoided.
 The flow control
Simulation of a simple system with a flow control
In order to control the velocity of a hydraulic motor or
cylinder you have to control the flow. In this example the
flow to the cylinder is controlled by a simple flow
control. .
The pressure behind the flow control is determined by
the load on the cylinder and is in this case 80 bar. De
flow control is adjusted on a flow of 8 l/min. The
hydraulic pump delivers 12 l/min so a part of the pump
flow, 4 l/min flows through the pressure relief valve back
to the reservoir. The pressure before the flow control is
determined by the pressure relief valve, in this case 120
bar. The pressure drop in the flow control (40 bar) and in
the pressure relief valve (120 bar) is converted into heat.
This kind of flow control is relatively cheap but has a
low energy efficiency.
 The pilot operated checkvalve (CV)
Picture of a pilot operated CV; at the right: application of a
pilot operated CV on the cylinder of the outrigger legs of a
crane.
A pilot operated CV is used to keep a part of the system free
from internal leakage for example a hydraulic cylinder or
motor. A good example is application of pilot operated CV on
the cylinder of outrigger legs of a crane. The cylinder is
connected to port B of the CV. When oil is supplied to port A
the oil can flow freely towards port B and to cylinder. When
the leg has to be retracted oil is supplied to te rodside of the
cylinder. The pressure at the rodside of cylinder is used as
pilot pressure on port Z for opening CV. Now oil can flow
back from port B to port A. The pressure at port Z needed to
open CV against cylinder pressure behind the main valve is
about 1/3 to 1/10 (called opening ratio) of cylinder pressure.
 The counterbalance valve (CBV)
Cross section of a counterbalance valve
In fact a CBV is an improved pilot operated CV . An important
and major difference between these two valves is:
- the opening pressure of a CV depends on pressure (applied by
the load) behind the valve;
- the opening pressure of a CBV depends on the spring pressure
behind the valve.
Dynamic performance of CBV is many times better than the
dynamic performance of a CV
The balancevalve is applied as a 'brake valve' on relatively small
crane systems in order to get a positive control on a hydraulic
cylinder or motor with a negative load.
Functioning (see diagram):
When the left side of the 4/3-direction control valve is activated the
cylinder will make its 'OUT-stroke'. The oil flows through the checkvalve
which is integrated in the housing of the balancevalve. In order to lower
the cylinder, the right side of the 4/3-direction control valve has to be
activated. From that moment on pressure is built up at the rod side of the
cylinder. This pressure opens the balancevalve and the oil at the bottom
side of the cylinder flows through the balancevalve and the direction
control valve back to the reservoir.
As the load helps lowering the cylinder, the cylinder might go down faster
than the oil is applied to the rod side of the cylinder (the cylinder isn't
under control at that moment). However, the pressure at the rod side of
the cylinder and therefore the pilot pressure on the balancevalve will
decrease and the spring moves the balancevalve to the direction 'close'
as long as it finds a new 'balance'.
When the direction control valve is suddenly put in the middle position
while lowering the loaded cylinder, the counterbalance valve closes
immediately. This will cause an increase of pressure at the bottom side of
the cylinder. However, the counterbalance valve will open at the adjusted
pressure and thus protects the cylinder against overpressure!
 The accumulator
Accumulators are used:
when the system needs a considerable flow during a short period;
when the system or a part of the system has to be kept under pressure;
to accumulate peak pressure or pressure vibrations;
as a cushioning element.

In hydraulic systems the following types of accumulators are used:

the piston accumulator; animation (to supply oil; reliable; relatively slow accumulator
as a result of friction between piston and cylinder)
the bladder accumulator (to supply oil; 'fast' accumulator)
the diaphragm accumulator (cushioning element; pressure compensator)
This example explains the functioning of the piston accumulator (animation) ; the
functioning of the other types is similar to this one. At one side of the piston the
accumulator is filled with nitrogyn gas. The pressure of the gas at the gas side of the
accumulator has to have a certain pressure, in this case 80 bar (8 MPa). This
pressure, prescripted by the manufacterer of the system, has to be checked when
there is no oil at the other side of the piston.
At the moment that the accumulator is filled with oil, the pressure at the oil side
increases to the level of the gas pressure immediately. In the animation you can see
this happen. For an appropriate functioning of the system, the gaspressure has to
have the right value. The manufacturer prescribes how often the pressure has to be
checked.
Watch out: accumulators accumulate hydraulic energy and therefore can be very
dangerous, especially when you are not familiar with the system and accumulators!!
When repairing or modifying a hydraulic system be sure that the accumulator is
drained and shut off as instructed by the manufacturer!
The cilinder with end position cushioning

Animation of a cilinder with end position cushioning

When a cylinder reaches the end of the stroke the

piston and rod are decelerated to standstill. The
kinetic energy resulting from this, must be absorbed
by the end stop, the cylinder head or cylinder cap. Its
capacity to absorb this energy depends on the elastic
limit of the material. If the kinetic energy exceeds this
limit the cylinder needs an external or internal end
position cushioning. In this example we use an
internal end position cushioning. When the piston with
the cushioning bush travels into the bore in the
cylinder cap the fluid must exhaust from the piston
chamber by means of the adjustable throttle valve.
This throttle valve regulates the degree of cushioning.
 Cavitation
An undesired phenomena in hydraulic system is cavitation. Most of the time
cavitation occurs in the suction part of the system. When cavitation takes
place the pressure in the fluid decreases to a level below the ambient
pressure thus forming 'vacuumholes' in the fluid. When the pressure
increases, for example in the pump, these 'vacuumholes' implode. During
this implosion the pressure increases tremendously and the temperature
rises to about 1100 degrees Celcius. The high pressure in combination with
the high temperature, causes a lot of damage to the hydraulic components.
A cavitating pump might be completely damaged in several hours and the
wear parts may cause damage in the system.
cavitation can be caused by:
acceleration of the oil flow behind a throttle or when the oil contains water
or air
high fluid temperature
a resistance in the suction part of the system
a suction line which is to small in diameter
a suction hose with a damaged inside liner
a suction filter which is saturated with dirt (animation)
high oil viscosity
insufficient breezing of the reservoir
 Compressibility of fluids
Many people think that a fluid is incompressible.
However, fluids are, like any material, in a certain
amount compressible. In calculations the amount of
compressibility of fluid is considered to be 1 volume-%
per 100 bar . This means that for example when there is
fluid supplied to a 200 litre oil drum which already is
completely filled with fluid (see animation), the pressure
increases with 100 bar for each 2 litre of extra supplied
fluid. When we supply 3 litre of extra oil the pressure
increases with 150 bar. The compressibility of fluid
plays a key role in for example fast hydraulic systems
like servo-systems of a flight simulator. To obtain a
maximum dynamic performance, the compressibility
should be as less as possible. This is achieved by
mounting the control valves directly on the hydraulic
motor or cylinder. In that case the amount of fluid
between the control valve and the motor/cylinder is as
less as possible.
 THE ESCHER CILINDER

The image at the top shows an impossible construction

called the 'Escher cilinder'. I named this cilinder after
Maurits Escher (1898-1972) who was a Dutch artist in
graphics; he is the designer of impossible constructions
like on the image at the left.
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
UNLOADING CIRCUIT
Manual Manipulation
To Circuit

4
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
UNLOADING CIRCUIT
Circuit using Pressure Compensator Pump

5
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
UNLOADING CIRCUIT
Open Centre Circuit

6
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
UNLOADING CIRCUIT
Circuit using Accumulator

Detection of
Pressure by
Pilot Op. Relief
Valve
M

7
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
UNLOADING CIRCUIT
Circuit using Accumulator

Detection of
Pressure by
Pressure Switch

8
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
PRESSURE CONTROL CIRCUIT Remote Control Circuit
70 Kg/Cm2 50 Kg/Cm2

100 Kg/Cm2

13
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
PRESSURE CONTROL CIRCUIT 2 Operating Pressure Circuit

1
2

14
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
PRESSURE CONTROL CIRCUIT Low Pressure Return Circuit

2
Pilot Relief
Valve

Main Relief
Valve
1

15
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
PRESSURE CONTROL CIRCUIT 2 Pressure Circuit using a
Reducer Valve

Cylinder B

Cylinder A

16
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
PRESSURE CONTROL CIRCUIT Surge Pressure Control Circuit

17
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
PRESSURE CONTROL CIRCUIT Decompression Circuit

18
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT Meter – in Circuit

19
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT Meter – out Circuit

20
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT Bleed – off Circuit

21
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT Deceleration Circuit

22
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT Hydraulic Motor constant
speed circuit
Auxiliary
Pump

23
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT Auxiliary Cylinder oil supply circuit

24
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT Variable displacement pump circuit

25
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SPEED CONTROL CIRCUIT Feed speed varying circuit

26
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUIT Series coupling circuit

27
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUIT Mechanical Coupling

28
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUIT Circuit using 2 Hydraulic Motors

29
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUIT Circuit using 2 flow regulator valves

30
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUIT Circuit using 2 Pumps

31
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SEQUENCE CIRCUITS Continuous reciprocating circuit

32
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
SEQUENCE CIRCUITS Automatic control circuit
Small Load

Large Load

32
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
4
SEQUENCE CIRCUITS 1
Clamp
Circuit using
Sequence
3
Valve 2
Drill
1

SEQUENCE
VALVE 2 4

SEQUENCE VALVE
Sequence of Operation Sequence of Flow
1 2 3 4
1- CLAMPING
2- DRILLING
M
3- DRILL RETURN
4- DE CLAMP

32