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ELEMENTARY
LATIN GRAMMAR.
BV
^)
JAMES DONALDSON,
LL.D.,
-1/
LONDON:
T.
NELSON AND
SONS,
PATERNOSTEE EOW;
PREFACE.
The aim
of this
Grammar
is pi'actical.
ing Latin is so to impress the form aud the meauiug at the same time ou the memory, tliat the one will at once suggest the other, either in trauslatiug from Latiu iuto English, or from
iu this book for words that form the iuflectiou are separated from the stems, aud thus special prominence is given to them. Secoud, the meaning that these inflectional words have iu the sentence is brouglit out as cleaily as possible ; so that as the pupil is advancing, he is learning more aud more of the structure of sentences, and the peculiai- nature of the Latin language as compared with that of Euglish. Thirdly, an attempt is made to make use of a kiud of repetition which will
not be wearisome.
In employing comparative philology in this book, I have always kept in view the practical natui-e of tlie woi'k, aud
therefore have given only so much as I have deemed suitable. In most cases I have stated doubts where doubts exist but iu
;
a few I have said nothing of the matter. Thus I have marked the stems of the verbs in , e, and i of the fourth conjugation
long
imperfect
have made the e of eba part of the word denoting the I have assumed the i in the present of the third
;
all
The names
word
iu the
VI
PREFACE.
sentence, to denote a division of words according to the of their inflections, and to denote a division of words
accoi'ding to
sense.
mode
partly
their inflections and partly according to their great deal of the difliculty has arisen from the ajijili-
cation of grammatical terms appropriately used in an inflected language, like Latin, to a language that has almost no inflec-
There seems to me no doubt that tl)e ti(jns, like English. sentence should always be taken as the unit and that conse;
<piently grammatical names should be given to the functions of words in the sentence, not to classes of words by themselves.
all the functions of words will be words being either subject or predicate, or adjuncts to the subject or adjuncts to the predicate. I have once or twice alluded to this division of functions but I trust that it will be soon worked out more fully in an Enghsh (Iraramar. For my opinions on this subject I think it but right to state that I am under great obligations to Mr. Thomas Nelson, the publisher of this little book who, it seems to me, has seen far into this subject, and who I hope will yet give a
found to be four
all
In compiling this
cent
Grammar
of the
i-e-
Blume, Meiring, MoUex-, Scliweizer-Sidler, Dorschel, Gossrau, Neue, and Merguet. I hope soon to publish an Exercise and Eeadiug Book, adapted to this little Grammar, and peihai^s a larger Grammar on the same plan.
especially
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION,
The Verb,
..
.,
. .
..
. .
..
. .
..
.
.,5
.
5 24 26
. .
. .
. .
. .
The Noun,
The The The The The The The
..
..
..
. .
..
..
. .
.. ..
. .
..
..
. .
..
Nominative,
Accusative,
Genitive,
,.28
. .
3tJ
-11
..
..
.. .. ..
. .
.. ..
..
.
.. ..
.. ..
Dative,
Ablative,
.. ..
. .
43
..
. .
..45
. .
Vocative,
48
Five Declensions,
..
..
..
..
..
III.
The Adjective,
Numerals,
..
..
..
..
..50 ..55
..
IV.
..
..
..
..
..
CS
V. Pkonouns,
..
..
..
..
..
..
C6
PART
I.
II. INDECLINABLE
..
..
PARTS OF SPEECH.
..
Adverbs,
Prepositions,
..
..
II.
,.
..
..
..
..
III.
Conjunctions,
..
..
..
..
..
PART
1.
III.VERBAL
..
.
.
..
.
..77
. .
77
. .
. .
79
80
..
..
..
..
..
..
Vlll
CONTENTS.
Adjectival Parts of the Verb,
Participles,
..
ir.
81
31
of the Verb,
.
.
Compound Tenses
The Gerundive,
83
Infinitive,
..
87
II.
83
PART V
LATI]^
GRAMMAR.
INTRODUCTORY.
1.
of
Latin language was the language spoken by the peojile As a Latium, and consequently by the people of Rome.
The
spoken language
so far as
it
we know, become
existed at a very early period, but did not, the language of literature till the
The first play exhibited at Eonie third century before Christ. was written in 240 B.C. The period of Roman literature exis generally called tending from this date till about 80 B.C. the Ante-Classical. The Classical period extends from about 80 B.C. to 20 B.C. and the principal writers are Cicero, Cjesar,
;
in verse. prose, and Horace and Virgil The Latin language continued to be used for literary purposes the Middle throughout the period of the Roman Empire and
Sallust,
and Livy in
Ages, and
treatises.
is still
sometimes employed in learned and scientific Throughout the long time during which Latin has
it
been used,
its
has varied in
its
alphabet,
its
modes
of spelling,
and constructions, pronunciation, and its grammatical forms To present all these in an Elementary at various periods. Grammar would confuse the learner accordingly, the fonns of
:
the Classical period are selected, and the grammar of the Latin language as it was used by Cicero is given.
The Latin language belongs to the class of languages The English also belongs to this class but its inflections are not so marked as those of Latin, and have a inflected language tendency to fall away. The peculiarity of an
2.
called inflected.
2
is,
that a few important words can in a uniform manner be added to roots so as to modify the meaning of the roots. Thus, in English, "lovest" is composed of two words "love," the " that so which means tkou and ; "lovest," by itself, st," root,
])ropex-ly
means thou
is
love, or,
as
we now
two words "he," root, and composed again, "m," probably meaning to, or towards; and "him," therefore, " means he-toioards, or he-wards, like bad-wards that is, to or " " I am I love him," means in the direction of him." Thus,
"him"
of
So,
in a state of love
it
towards him," or
"
do the act
love so as that
go Sometimes it is impossible to explain the meanings of the little words which have been added to the roots, because these words have undergone so great changes by frequent use that
3.
shall
to him."
But in many cases we can make identify them. out their meaning without any doubt and we know in all others that they must have been distinct words, and had a dis-
we cannot
words are therefore composed of at and the word which modifies Even the uninflected words will be the meaning of the root. found to be forms of inflected words, and to be compounded. Eoots seldom occur by themselves, and then only accidentally. The root is that portion of the word which cannot be divided into two intelligible parts. From the root are formed nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. Thus, from am, love, are formed the words amor, love amo, I Each of these words love amahilis, lovely atnator, a lover.
the
Inflected
root word,
is
The stem
is
which the words producing Thus amor is the stem of amor; ama, of
amo;
amahili, of amabilis.
ALPHABET.
4.
alphabet.
Cicero says that there are twenty-one letters in the Latin These letters are as follows
:
Large A,
B, C, D, E, F, G,
b, c, d, e,
f,
H,
I,
i,
K, L, M, N, 0, P, Q, R,
k,
1,
S, T,
V, X,
Small a.,
g, h,
m,
n, o, p, q, r,
s, t,
u, x.
THE ALPHABET.
The consonants were probably prononncerl
6
in the
as they are usually pronounced in English except that ff was always pronounced as y in game; and c was always pronounced as c in can, and q in the same way. There were thus three
letters
same manner
and
and qwith the same sound x a compound thus: dux = dues; rex=reg-s.
c,
k,
but the
letter
/-
was
is
lettej-,
composed
oi c or g,
0,
u, as 00 in boon.
i.
of
_?/,
and u were also used as consonants ^ had then the sound as eius was pronounced fy;; and u had the sound of iv,
:
as uideo, pronounced wideo. now print this consonantal i as J (ejus), and pronounce it as our own/; and we print the consonantal u as v {video). The pronunciation which we give
to the consonantal
i
We
is
unquestionably wrong.
Some
scholars
maintain that
consonantal
?<
right, or partially right, in giving the the sound of v. But this is doubtful ; and no
ai-e
it
we
one doubts that in the Classical period if not always, the sound of w.
5. The Latin letters were derived from the Greek alphabet. The Greeks borrowed their alphabet from the Phenician and in adopting it, they transferred the Phenician names of the The Romans named the letters letters to fcheir own language.
;
As the vowels can be sounded by themselves, their sounds. to the consonants they added a they required no addition the true Latin pronunciation, we get vowel. Adopting single the following as the names of the lettere
by
: :
ha,
i,
ka,
el,
em, en,
o, pe,
The
lettei-s
Y y,
and
z,
occur in the writings of Cicero and but they are found only in
;
genuine Greek words, and they were regarded as foreign letters. 6. The Romans used six diphthongs; only three of wluL-h
occur in
many words
ae and
oe,
being amalgamations of ai
4
aud
are
QUANTITY.
aud sometimes printed ce and ce; and au. The others ei, and ui. 7. The Latin consonants and vowels undergo changes according to certain hiws. Thus we have in English manly, manli-
eu,
oi,
ness; swim,
sw&m:
scvih-o,
but scri^-him
These changes will come into consideration j&ci-o,J6ci, in-jicio. in the course of the book but at present only two need be
;
noted.
The Latins frequently interchange s and Thus eram is part of a verb whose root is es. The Latins very frequently interchange
other.
8.
and
with each
It is often
;
very important
is,
in
Latin to
know
tlie
quantity
sjdlables are long or short. ~ over it ; thus, in creCivi the a is long syllable has the mark " short syllable has the mark to be pronounced long. thus
of syllables
that
whether the
short.
Aud
sometimes a syllable
may
be pro;
nounced long or short, according to the caprice of the speaker in which case it receives both marks. Thus amo has the o sometimes long and sometimes short, according to the caprice of
the speaker.
doubtful.
The quantity
of the syllable
is
then said to be
THE VERB.
PART
I.
sets of
roots.
adjectives,
and pronouns.
CHAPTER
10.
I.
-THE
;
VERB.
In
:
poses tense
case of verbs, they added words for three purto give the person second, to give the time, or third, to give the passive voice.
tlie
first,
PERSONAL TERMINATIONS.
11.
The mode
in
tlie
personal termination may be represented in English thus Instead of "I love, thou love, he love;" they said, " love-I, loveIf we were to love-he, love-we, love-ye, love-they." c<jntiuue to say these words rapidly, we should corrupt them,
thou,
"
:
lovewe,
what was done in Latin. 12. The words which were added to mean the personal pronouns have come down to us in the following forms, which are
Now,
this
is
exactly
carefully to be committed to
memory
SINGULAR.
THIRD PERSON.
he, she,
t.
it.
they,
nt.
The
first
/,
by the
TEXSE TERMINATIONS.
oue tense the peifect the second pei'son singular appears as sti, and the second person plural as stis. The full table of the personal endings is therefore^
oniissiou of the vi;
in
and
in the habit of rising every morning. And the future means, not that the sun will be rising at a particular time of which we are thinking, but that it will rise regularly every
man was
morning.
15.
The Latin
is
present, imperfect,
this meaning.
There
We
;
say, in
" I did I do love English, when we wish to be emphatic, love ; I %vill love." The Latins express this meaning also by
and
future.
cases a vowel
out.
17.
is
stem
is
struck
The stems
end in
a,
e, i,
u,
and consonants
and
lowing conjugations the a conjugation, the e conjugation, the 1 conjugation, the i conjugation, the u conjugation, and the consonantal conjugation. 18. In the present active of the d conjugation, the personal
terminations are added to the stem without any change, except In the first person the vowel a of the stem in the first person.
is
o.
PLURAL.
it
he, she, or
reigns.
regnd-TxX,
they reign.
rcynd-s
reyn-o
you
reign.
reynd-i\B
reynd-VD.TXS
you
reign.
I reign.
we
reign.
From
things
he
reigning
;
that regnat
may mean
;
three
reigns regularly or, he does the Latin expresses in one word what
19. Form the present indicative active from the following stems of the a conjugation, and give the meanings specta, look ; vola, fly ;
:
8
pwina, fight;
;-(tc//rt,
rebel
command;
conjura, conspire.
20.
])ersonal
lu the pi-eseut indicative active of the e conjugation the terminations are added to the stem without any
Thus, stem Jace,
SINGULAR.
lie
change.
jac^-t
j(ice-B
down
PLURAL.
jnce-nt
jace-tis
yon
1 lie
lie
do\vn.
jacS-0
down.
:
Jdce-mxia
sit
;
we
hid
;
lie
down.
see
; mane, be strong ;
21. Stems for exercise sede, remain pate, lie open ; sile, be silent
;
late,
;
lie
vide,
;
J{o7-e,
flourish
vale,
time, fear
ride, laugh.
The present indicative active of the I conjugation is formed by adding the jiersonal terminations to tlie stem, without any change, excei)t inserting u before nt. Thus
22.
:
SINGULAR.
audl-t
audl-a
he, she, or it hears. you hear. I hear. for exercise
:
ye hear.
audl-O
28.
we
hear.
;
Stems
apcri,
rcni,
;
come
sci,
bind
senti,
feel
open
reperi, find
know.
i
24.
The present
I is
indicative
active of the
a.s
conjugation
I
is
that of the
:
conjugation,
short throughout, as
PLURAL.
it
capl-i
takes.
capi-Vi-n.t
riiphtis
c'(^^t-muB
:
capl-0
25.
we
throw
take.
flee
Stems
for exercise
fadl, dig
faci,
do
jaci,
fiigl,
rapl, snatch,
and u the terminations formed to by joining personal conjugations the stem but wherever the personal termination begins with a consonant, the vowel i is inserted between the stem and the
26.
nt,
when m
is
inserted.
is,
The reason
the
tliat
Eomaus
PLURAL.
falls.
cad-i-t cad-i-s
cad-n-nt
cfftM-tis
cad-0
metu-l-t metu-i-B
cad-i-mu s
metu-yji-nt
we
fall.
he
fears.
fear.
you
metu-l-tis
TJieto-i-mus
metu-o
27.
I fear.
we
;
fear.
;
Steins ending in consonants and in u : vert, turn ger, wear tribu, give ; scrib, write ; leg, read ; add, add ; caed, kill; claud, shut
viinu, diminish
;
Jlu, flow.
28.
active in all the conjugations t {he, she, or it) is added directly to the stems of the conjugations in d, e, I, I; as vola-t, time-t, audi-t, and capi-t. The
vowel i is prefixed to it before it is added to the consonantal and stems as cad-i-t, metu-i-t. nt {thei/) is added directly to the stems in a and e ; as vola~nt, time-nt. u is prefixed to it before it is added to stems in I, i, u, and consonants as avdi-M-nt, capi-n-nt, cad-vi-jit, metu-xi-nt. S (thou) is added directly to the stems in a, e, I, and i; i-s to the stems in u and consonants as vola-a, times, andi-a, capi-s;
^(,
;
but
metu-i-8, cad-i-a.
is
tis (ye)
added
but
metti-i-tis, cad-i-Ha.
o (/) is added directly to stems in e, ^, i, u, and consonants, as time-o, audi-o, capi-o, metVrO, and cad-o but stems in d lose
;
the a before
o,
as vol-o.
in d,
e,
I,
mus
{we) is
^^
stems in
i;
i-mus
to
10
seen
The Imperfect ludicative Active meaus as we have " was doing the deed at some particular time," or, " was
in the habit of doing the deed," or, emphatic, " did do the deed." The original word which indicated this has now the form of ha
or eba, and was probably j^art of a word which is the same as the English word he. Thus t (he), ha (was), vola (flying), became, united backwards, vola-ha-t; literally, flying was he.
The personal termination for /in the imperfect is m. The imperfect indicative active is formed by adding ha to stems in and e, and eha to stems in l, i, u, and consonants.
31.
32.
thus
Stem.
Tenseword.
regno,
jace
audi
capi
was reigning. was lying clown. was hearing. was taking. was fearing. was falling.
eba,
directly to the
stem
i.e.,
to the
:
thus
or
it.
SINGULAR.
she,
PLURAL,
nt, they,
he,
regnd-'ba.-t... i
she, or it
was
regnd-'bii-at ..they
reigning.
yace*ba-t
audi-e\)a,-t
cpi-eba-t mctu-ehsi-t
cac^-eba-t
he was lying down. he was hearing. he was taking. he was fearing. he was falling.
or pou.
reigning. lying dowii.
jace-ha-nt
were falUng.
were reigning,
s, thou,
tis, ye.
were you were jacc-ha.-3 aMc/i-eba-s...you were ropj-eba-B ...you were jnetu-eba-S...y<iu were cad-ehh-s ...you were
regnd-laa-s...yovL
.
regnd-'b&-tiB..you
^ace-ba-tis
hearing.
taking.
fearing.
falling.
11
m,
regnd-ha.-m.
jace-ha.-m.
/.
audi-ehii-m
capi-eba-m
metu-eha,-m cacJ-eba-m
was reigning. was lying down. I was hearing. I was taking. I was fearing. I was falling.
I
I
PLURAL. mus, wc. rcr/nd-hei-mus .we were reigning. we were lying do^\'n. /ace-ba-mus awt^i-eba-mus.we were hearing. fj3i-eba-mii8..we were taking. metu-eba,-m\is .we were fearing. cad-eba-miis...we were falling.
SINGULAR.
re9na-hl.t....\^^'
(
PLURAL.
^^iU
she, or it
regnd-'bn-nt
regnd-hi-tis
regnaAi\-B
regnd-h-5
jace-Vi-t
jace-hi-s
ite,she, or I he down. do
jace-bu-ut
iace-bi-tis
lie
down.
you
will lie
lie
jace-b-6
1 shall
down. down.
lie
iace-bi-mus
we
shall lie
down. down.
The imperfect is, therefore, bd-t, bd-s, ba-m; ba-nt, ba-tis, ba-mus: the future is, bi-t, bi-s, bd; bu-nt, bi-Us, bi-nms. 37. The second form of the future is found in verbs haviuaand consonants. The vowel a is the tensevowel e is the tense-word before all the other pronominal words. Thus
, ^,
stems ending
u,
;
word before
(I)
tlie
SINGULAR.
audi-e-t
awrfi-e-s
PLURAL.
audi-G-nt
audi-Q-tis
awdi-a-m
shall hear.
audi-e-mus
we
shall hear.
12
SINGULAR.
capi-e-t
PERFECT TENSES.
PLURAL.
Crtpi-e-nt
capi-e-B
capi-e-tia
capi-a-m.
metu-e-t
shall take.
capl-e-mMa
nutu-e-nt
metu-e-tis
metu-e-jniis
falL
we
shall take.
metu-e-a
metu-a.-m
cad-e-t
cad-e-S
.1 shall fear.
we
shall fear.
fall.
he, she, or
it ^vill
cad-e-n t
cad-e-tia
th ey will
you
will falL
ye will
fall.
cad-a-m
38.
I shall fall
cad-e-mvia
we
shall
fall.
sees the
This form creates a difficulty for the learner. When he words timet, cadet, he cannot tell from the form whether
they are the present indicative of the e conjugation, or the future He must know the indicative of the consonantal conjugation.
Thus
timet
means
"he
"he
will fall."
We found that the present, imperfect, and future exbut the an action which is, was, or will be going on press form of speech says nothing as to the conclusion of the act. Other forms mark out distinctly that the action is, has been, or These tenses give completed time. The word will be, ended. for "comj^leted" in Latin is perfectum; and so these tenses are
39.
;
and Future
Perfect.
Their names are the Perfect, PluperWe may thus compare them with
:
ACTION INCOMPLETE.
PRESENT.
Pres. I
ACTION COMPLETE.
Perf. I
am
falling.
have
fallen.
PAST.
Perf. I
fell.
Pluperf. I
had
fallen.
FUTURE.
Fat. I shall
40.
fall.
|
The expression
"
I fell
"
PERFECT TENSES.
iu
13
some past time, but leaves the time entirely indefinite. This form is therefore called the Perfect Indefinite. It is called in Greek the aorist, which means indefinite and so we may speak
;
The exin Latin as the perfect in the sense of the aorist. " " I have fallen implies that the action has just taken pression
of
it
is completed, but has been just comand the effects of it still remain and belong to the present. The form is called the Perfect Definite. " I have While in Greek and English the perfect definite are "I indefinite and the fell," expressed in fallen," perfect different ways, the Latin perfect is used for them both and the reader of a Latin work has to find out from the sense or context whether the Latin writer means to express by the form of
the perfect the perfect definite or the perfect indefinite. The English language, on the other hand, does not always clearly distinguish between the imperfect and perfect inde" He rose I at seven I
finite.
"VVlien
say,
every day
o'clock,"
mean
rose
"
that he
is
was
day
and so
"
he
imperfect. exactly, when a translation is made into Latin, whether the English perfect indefinite means that the event took place once
therefore, to notice
and was completed, in which case the Latin perfect is or that the event took place regularly at fixed times, or that the doer of the deed was in the habit of doing it, in which
for all
used
is
used.
The
Pei-fect Indicative
Active
is
formed
in three ways.
(L) In very many verbs the letters ui are the remnant of the word that indicated the perfect time or tense. The letter u was,
as
we have
it is
seen,
When
a consonant,
we now
write
it v.
Thus
re[ina-\idele-vi-
audl-yi-
14
When
expelled before
as,
is
generally
dom-...tame.
latelie hid.
c7oOT-rii-... tamed,
or have tamed.
lat-ni-
(2.)
The
word which
:
in-
dicated the perfect time. Before these letters are added, howThus ever, a change is often made in the stem.
mane-.
.
.remain.
man-siclau-ai-
. .
claud- ...shut.
sc7ibreg^vl-ite.
scrip-si-
. .
rule.
re-xi-
lu this
5 to
last case
is=-ffs, of
which
ff
the tense-word.
(3.)
The
by
repeat-
ing the word ; thus sta would become stasti. This resulted in a jirocess called reduplication, in which the first letter is doubled
Thus
is
analogous to our
f'u.gi-
see,
Thus:
fled,
flee.
or have
fled.
42.
The formation
and irregular
that no systematic rules can be given for forming it from the The perfect must therefore be learned from the dictionstem.
And therefore it is always ary, or from some other book. given to the scholar. He must not imagine that he can form it for himself. He must commit it to memory.
There are four
pai'ts of
ables one to form all the other parts of the verb. These four parts are, the Present Indicative Active, the Perfect Indica-
Supine, and the Present Infinitive Active. give these parts of a verb is to conjugate it. These parts are to be learned by memory.
tive Active, the
To
15
Stems
of the perfect
16
The
form
belongs
Perfect.
is
now
a matter of no consequence.
s/jfc^a-vi-.
steti-.
Thus
regnd-Yi-.
rer/na-v-era-.
cepi-.
ce/>-era-.
jacni-.
Pluperkect.
Perfect.
specta-v-era,-, sttt-era.-.
gessi-.
jacu-eraaddicO.-.
fluxi-.
Jiitx^exa.-.
Pluperfect.
gess-era-.
addid-eT&-.
46. The personal terminations for the pluperfect are the as those for the imperfect. Thus
:
same
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
reigned.
regna-v-era.-tis...ye
rc'jna -
had reigned.
v - era
mus
ce7>era-t
cep-ersL-s
we had reigned
they had taken.
^^^'
-f^^'
(
^*
^^'^
cep-hxa.-nt
taken
c?/:i-era-tis
ce/J-era-m
ye had taken.
cci3-era-mus
we had
taken.
parison of ; as being over or past in the future before the other is accomplished is called future perfect that is, future past. Like the
pluperfect,
Perfect.
it is
formed from the stem form of the and adding eri. It implies a comtwo future events and the one which is represented
is
perfect.
Thus
smi:
strt-eri:
jacui-,
Future Perfect.
spectd-w-exi-.
Jacu-exi-.
48. The personal terminations for the future perfect are the same as those for the future of verbs in a and e; that the
vowel
remains before
(I).
nt,
and
:
is
The
vanishes before o
Thus
17
PLURAL.
it
regna-veri-t....
regiia-Yeri-s
( (
will
.
have reigned.
regna-veri-nt.
(
they
wiU.
have
reigned.
regrno-veri-tis
rcgna-veT-o
i
regna-veTi-viua
<
..-
x>;
cep-evi(
( (
they
will
have
have taken.
taken.
cep-erl-s
cep-er-6
cep-eri-tis
cep-eri-mus
49.
We
three complete
INCOMPLETE ACTION.
18
PASSIVE VOICE,
PASSIVE VOICE.
50.
is
used
when
the statement
is
made,
in
regard to the subject spoken of, that the action is done to it. " John is struck," it is said of John that Thus, in the sentence
the action of striking is done to John. 51. At the time that the various words were combined so as
form what are now called inflections, the people combining the words thought of all things as having life and as having feeling; just as children of the present day imagine tljat dolls So they had no passor chairs feel the blows given to them.
to
"John gets himself ive; but they spoke of the matter thus " John feels himself struck," or " John strikes himstruck," or
self."
s
Tlie Latin
remnant
the sign of the passive the pronouns, except the pronoun for you, plural.
is
word
r.
And
this letter
the
Thus
BINGDLAB.
t
s
PLURAL.
nt becomes ntur. tis becomes mini.
or.
m
52.
in a,
The present indicative passive of verbs having their stems and I, is formed from the present indicative active by making the changes set down in section 51. Thus
e,
:
ACTIVE.
creort he, she, or !t creates.
crea-tur.
.
PASSIVE.
j he, she,
or
it is
being
created.
crert-nt
they create.
crca-ntur.
...
) '
crea-s
you
create.
c7'fa-ris,or
you
OTo-re..
crert-tis
ye create.
I create.
creft-mini...
c?"e-or
crc-o
crctZ-mus
we
create.
creo-mur.
. . .
19
ACTIVB
deK-i
he,
I
(
PASSIVE.
or
it
she,
^
de-
dde-iux
(Zc?c-iitur
jhe
(.
she, or it
is
being
stroys.
deh-ut
dele-i
they destroy,
you destroy.
ye destroy.
I destroy.
deU-xis, or dffe-re
cZe^e-mini
) 3
dcU-tii
dele-o
dele-OT
am
deZe-mus
we
destroy.
dele-mux
audi-, hear.
we
audl-t
he, she, or
it
hears.
audi-tMT
i
.
heard.
audi-n-nt audl-s
niidi-tis
they hear.
you
hear.
awcZi-U-ntur ....they are being, &c, audl-ris, or | ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^_
aiidl-re
)
ye hear.
I hear.
aiidi-minl
audi-O audi-mvis
audi-OV
audl-in.\ix
am
we
hear.
we
53.
^
and
u,
In consonantal verbs, and verbs having their stems in the vowel i is changed into e before ris and 7-e.
caed-, cut.
caedi-t
is
being
caed-Vi-nt
they cut.
caed-i-S
you
ye
cut.
:}
>
caed-l-tis
cut.
caec^i-mini
caed-or
caed-o
I cut.
caed-i-inus...we cut.
cacd-l-mur
capi-, take.
capi-t
he, she, or
it
takes.
.tmcanj-iur
capp-M-ntVLT cape-vis, or
;
(
he, she, or it
is
being
taken.
capi-u-nt
capi-s
they take.
you take.
ye take.
I take.
cape-re
cojpt-tis
capi-mlni
capi-or
capi-O
am
Toeing, &c.
ciqn-mvLS
we
take.
capl-mvir
we
20
PASSIVE.
mmw-i-tur
t
^^'
. . .
'^^^'
^^ >*
^^
ens.
|
(
^^^"S
lessened.
7?!iM-i-mus..we lessen.
minu-or ?mM-i-mur
am
we
54. The time of the present indicative passive is the same as the time of the present indicative active. But in English various ways are adopted to express the present indicative
passive
indeed,
it is
said
by some not
to
I avoid the passive form. writing a letter Some use the form, " the letter is being written ;" and for grammatical purposes we may adopt this form, but it is rarely
is
:
when I speak of a letter being mention the name of the person who is
Thus,
"
sometimes in English use the employed in good English. present indicative active form with the meaning of the present " indicative passive the ship is building ;" which means as, "the ship is being built." Great care must be taken to see
:
We
whether the words imply that the subject is getting the action done to it; and whether that action is now taking place, or takes place habitually. Thus " John is fighting " is active
"
;
the house
is
present passive "the letter is wi'itten" perfect passive, for the action is finished and complete.
is
making"
is
55.
Crea, create
;
spolia, strip
;
scrm, save
juva, help
habe,
have
frighten; mom, wa,rn;find, cleave; mitt, send; sum, take; spern, despise; fodl, dig; rapt, snatch; stru, build; custodi, \va.tch ;fini, finish;
muni,
fortify.
of
The Imperfect Indicative Passive is formed from the stem the imperfect by adding the personal terminations of the
ntur, they; ris or re,
r,
I;
21
SINGULAR.
crm-ba-tur..
crea-ba-ris,
(
PLURAL.
or
it
he,
she,
was
cj-m-ba-ntur
they
were
being
j
> '
)
being created.
^^^^^^j
or -re
cTca-ba-r
CT'ca-ba-mini ...ye
dele-bahe, she, or
(Zcfe-ba-tur
...{
it
was
dele-h^-ntuT.
being destroyed.
defe-ba-ris,or
>
rfe^e-ba-mini. ...ye
dele-ha,-m}iT
were being,
&c.
dele-ha-r
we were
being, &c.
audi-eba-.
,
.
-, -
awcZ*-eba-tur
{
he, she, or it
was
i*(Zi-eba-ntur
being heard.
-j
[you
I
caed-eba-.
caed-eh^-tur
cae(Z-eba-ris, or -re
., .
(he, she, or
\
>
it
was
being cut.
cut.
caerf-eba-r
was being
cut,
capi-eba-.
( he, she, or it c^i-eba-tur. I being taken.
.
., .
was
mpt-eba-ntur..
they
were being
-J
^^^^^^
capi-eba-ris,
. or -re
>
)
capi-eba-T
57. The imperfect indicative passive is of the same time as the imperfect indicative active, and the observations made in regard to the translation of the Latin present indicative passive
into English, hold in regard to the translation of the Latin imperfect indicative passive into English.
22
FUTURE INDICATIVE
PASSIVE.
The Future
Judicative Passive
is
of
the future indicative active, by appending the passive personal In verbs which have hi as tlie tense sign of the terminations. the future, i^ersonal terminations are added as in the present
:
Thus
SINGULAR.
(
PLURAL.
c?'ca-bu-iitur
. . .
be,
crm-bi-tur...|
crca-be-ris, or -re
\
> ^
J
vou
Avill
be created,
crea-b-or
(
I shall be created.
tie, he,
crea-bi-mur
f
we
shall be created.
she,
or
it will
cff?e-bi-tur
cfc?e-be-ris,
-re.
f?fZe-b-or>
...
<
-^ be destroyed.
f/c?e-bu-ntur.
(
.
they
will
be
de-
or
\
you
we
aMfZi-e-ntur
aM(7-e-tur...| audi-G-x\s, or
>
be heard.
audi-e-mini
...ye will
be heard. be heard.
ciit.
-re.
you
will be beard.
audi-a.-T
I shall be heard.
(
audi-e-mviT
we
shall
he, she, or
it
will
cacf^e-ntur
caed-e-mini
they will be
caed-e-tuT....\ caed-e-iis, or )
>
^e cut.
you
will be cut.
ye will be
cut.
caed-a.-r
I shall be cut.
(he,
caed-e-mur
c^i-e-ntur
we
shall be cut.
...
capi-e-ris, or
cain-e-tMV....]^
i
betaken.
>
you
-n will
t, i be taken.
4.
capi-e-miui
capi-e-mvir
capi-a-r
I shall be taken.
we
shall be taken.
59. The i^erfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative and are therefore omitted till passive are compound tenses we come to the elements of which they are composed. One " I of these elements is the vei'b swm, am." This verb is irre;
gular, as in English ; but as it continually occurs, indicative and imperative moods here.
we
give the
SUM.
INDICATIVE.
23
60.
INCOMPLETE TENSES.
PKESENT.
SINGULAR.
est
es he, she, or
it is.
PLURAL.
sunt
estis
I
sum
siimus
we
are.
IMPERFECT.
?ra-t
et'd-s
era-nt
era-tis
you were.
I was.
era-m
FUTURE.
^ri-t
h'i-3
Sru-nt
eri-tis
er-0
1 shall be.
M-mus
COMPLETE TENSES.
PERFECT.
we
shall be.
J.
f.
.
c
.. .<
(^
JWl-Xi
or was.
/i-sti. ...you
fui
/M-erunt, i they have been, or were. or /m -ere) ye have been, or were. /iti-stis we have been, or were. /at-mus
PLUPERFECT.
/it-era-t
he, she, or it
had been.
/M-era-nt....they
/tt-era-tis. ...ye
/w-era-s
/it-era-m.
FUTURE PERFECT.
i
!<.; +
(
it
will
have
/w-eri-nt ...they
.
/M-eri-s
you
will
fu-ei-o
I shall
IMPERATIVE.
First Form.
es
be thou.
Second or
este
.be ye.
Emphatk Form.
estote
esto esto
sunto
24
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
61.
sentence
oi'dered to
shall, or
by must" he
shall
do this
he mv^t do
this."
active in a,
e,
is
and
when the stem of the verb ends and the second person plural is formed by addPLURAL.
ing
te.
SINGULAR.
ama
dele
love (thon).
anm-te
dele-te
love (ye).
destroy (thou).
audi
hear (thou).
audi-te
passive
The second person singular of the first form of the imperative is formed by adding re to the stem and the second
;
person plural
is
indicative passive.
amd-re
dele- e
audi-ie
The first form of the imperative active and passive of verbs having their stems in a consonant or in ^ or u, is produced in but in all the consonantal and ^c verbs the the same way vowel e is added in the singular and the vowel i in the plural
:
and
in verbs in
t,
the
of tlie
stem
is
changed into
4 in the
Thus
25
PLURAL.
ecrf-i-te
cut (thou).
cut
(ye).
be thou cut.
lessen (thou). be thou lessened.
caeci-i-mini
be ye cut.
.
minu-B
minu-i-ie
??iwm-i-mini.
capl-tQ
capi-vavax
.
mmw-e-re
caps
cape-re
.be
the passive ; tote to form the second person plural of the active ; nio to form the third person plural of the active, and ntor to
of the passive. There is no form for the second person plural of the passive ; but the secojid person plural of the future indicative passive may be used
instead.
The vowel
i is
u and in conso:
nants, except before nto and ntor, when tt is inserted u is also inserted before nto and ntor in verbs with stems in I or i.
Thus:
SECOND PERSON.
ama-to amo-tor
dele-to
dele-tor.
SINGULAR. thou shalt love. thou shalt be loved. thou shalt destroy. ( thou be deshalt
l
PLURAL.
ama-tbte
c^fe-tote
audl-to
audi-iox
caed-i-to
caed-l-tor
minur-i-to
audi-tote
ye shall hear.
minu^l-tOT
capl-to
capi-tox
Cftpi-tote
ye shall take.
THIRD PERSON.
ama-to
mrt-tor
dele-to
am((r-Tito
anuv-ntor
dele-nto
rfde-ntor... i
I
:
he shall destroy.
he shall be destroyed.
dele-tOT
(338)
they shall love. they shall be loved. they shall destroy. ^^ '^^*h^y
^^f^
stroyed.
26
THE NOUN.
PLURAL.
audi-VL-nto
audi-to audl-tOT
SINGULAR. he shall hear. he shall be heard. he shall cut. caed-i-to he shall be cut. cec?-i-tor he shall lessen. minu-i-to minu-i-tor ...he shall be lessenerlhe shall take. cajn-to he shall be taken. cajjT-tor
be taken.
is to 04. simple mechanical rule for forming these parts take the third person singular present indicative active, and add o for the second and third persons singular active, or for the second and third persons singular passive, and ote for the
and add
the third pereon plural plural present indicative active for third for the and or person plural imperative imperative active,
passive.
CHAPTER
65.
II. THE
NOUN.
There
The one
word and a pronominal word, or a pronominal The other class of inflected words nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and participles. The
tense
to the root.
;
words consists also in adding a elepronominal element to the root and the same pronominal ments are used in the inflection of all the nouns, adjectives, and participles, and in most of the pronouns.
inflection in the case of these
of
grammar
nouns and adjectives for every probetter comprised in two noun is in usage either a noun or an adjective, and every
;
participle is
66.
it
an
When
itself,
a word
by
that
"
sentence,
/ is
used as a noun as, for instance, in the " I" is used as a noun. The name a pronoun,"
word
is
norm, however,
is
GENDER.
27
are most frequently used as nouus. These words denote persons or things that exist by themselves, or are conceived to exist by themselves.
the other hand, a word or phrase is used adjectively when used to give the quality of or to describe that about which an assertion may be or is made as, " the eagle, king of birds,
it is
On
flies
swiftly"
is
added adjectively to
eagle.
words that are most frequently used as adjectives and these words denote qualities, or in some way go along with nouns to mark out some feature of the objects which the nouns denote. In other words, nouns are fixed in form they denote a definite object they have a definite gender and they can with a verb make a complete sentence.
adjective to a set of
;
But we generally
word
An adjective, on the other hand, is always added to a noun It depends for which, however, need not be always expressed. its form on the noun to which it is added and thus is vari; ;
able,
of
it
agrees.
So if pronouns stand by themselves, and are fixed and definite, they are noun-pronouns and if they go along \ni\x nouns, pointing to them and defining them, then they are adjective;
pronouns.
GENDER.
their gender fixed ; but as adjectives may have to go with nouns belonging to any of the three genders, they must have forms to suit these difiei'ent genders.
67.
In English the law in regard to gender is quite simple. All nouns denoting males are masculine, and all nouns denoting
females are feminine
neuter
that
So
life
are
is,
neither.
But
At
the early stage of the Latin language, when genders were given to nouns, people were like children who believe that everything
has
life.
We still speak
dour
;
objects were divided into males and females. sun in his glory, and the moon in her splenbut this mode of speaking was then api>lied to everything.
all
of the
But in
came to think
of
28
having
there
life
;
NOMINATIVE CASE.
aud
so neuter
nouns
ai-ose.
is
a considerable
number
of neuter
words which are neuter in English are either masculine or feminine in Latin. Things, for instance, which were strong and vigorous like males, were thought of as males such as the winds and the nouns denoting them were made masculine and other things which were weak and j^atient as trees were thought of as females, and the nouns denoting them were made feminine. Accordingly in Latin we have this rule All nouns denoting males are masculine, and all nouns denoting females are feminine but nouns which are neuter in English are not necessarily neuter in Latin, but may be masculine or feminine. Often the gender of the noun has determined the termination of the word, and so we may learn from the termination what
the gender
is.
NUMBER.
68.
in English
singular
and
plural.
NOMINATIVE CASE.
69.
If
we
take any sentence in any language, we find that it the one part gives us the subject
:
which an assertion is made that person or thing of which we speak; and the other gives us the statement in that which we say about it. regard to the subject of our talk The word which makes the assertion, or which makes the essenThe word which contial portion of the assertion, is a verb.
tains the subject is a noun in the nominative case, or a word used as a noun in the nominative case. The case should there-
Thus
in the sentences
which
;
we have
had,
at least
two parts
as in
pugnat {pugna,
70.
t,
he),
where
t,
In English
:
we
generally put the nominative, or subject, the verb then follows and if the verb is a
;
NOMINATIVE CASE.
29
transitive verb, the woi'd expressing the object comes after it. " Thus in the sentence John strikes William," we know that it
is
John that
strikes
William because the word John is put first. " William strikes order, and say entirely, and make William the
The ancients did person striking, and John the person struck. not follow this plan in fact, this plan could occur only to a people that has long existed in the world. The English order If we saw John strike WUliam, the is not the natural order.
first
thing
we should
we must
William.
see
see would be either John or William, and them both before we can say that John strikes
should therefore say, following the order of our " John William strike." But here we should be in observation, a difiiculty as to which struck and which was struck; so, to make this always clear, the ancients adopted the following
:
We
They added a word to the noun to the word denoting plan which indicated that he was the doer .the doer of the action of the action; and they added a word to the word denoting
the receiver of the action, which indicated that the action fell on him. may represent this method in English thus: " doer" to the word denoting the Suppose we put the word " he" as many think was doer, or suppose we put the word
We
the meaning
of the
word attached to the noun to make the " towards" to and suppose we add the word
whom
we
could say,
John-doer (or John-he) William-towards is striking." This words in any plan has this advantage, that you may place the
order you " Is
that
like,
and they
will
John
is
;
the action
and
the doer, the "towards" that William receives " John strikes so the sentence must mean,
William."
are formed
They by adding small words to noun-stems to point out some connection which the word has with the other words of the sentence. These case-words have been worn down to a very great extent, and there is great discussion as to what they But though we cannot settle what was the originally meant.
From
30
NOMINATIVE CASE.
purposes they
to do.
exact form of these woi'ds originally, we know very well what now serve ; and it is with this we have specially
Each case- word or case-ending has a special meaning or meanings of its own, wherever it be in the sentence and hence the vast importance of knowing these most accurately.
;
PERSONS.
There are three persons. / and we are the first person, and no other words are of the first person. So thou, you, and ye are of the second person, and no other words are of the second And, consequently, all other words nouns and properson. nouns are of the third person. "When a noun is put to a verb as subject, the pronoun of the third person, t, is added to the Thus Dominus regnat means " the Lord reigns;" but if verb. we translate it fully, it means " the Lord-he reigns-he." "We
71.
The word reigns means "reign-he;" and when we say "the Loixl reigns," it " the Lord reign-he :" and in some old ballads we really means " the Lord he reigns.'' find such constructions as
have something of a similar nature in English.
ARTICLE.
72.
There
is
no
article in
tence,
Dominus
Lord
have
a Lord reigns," or " Lord reigns." reigns," or to find out from the connection which of these the writer
to say.
regnat, "
sen"
the
We
meant
73.
"We divide nouns into the same number of classes as verbs, The stems end in
u and consonants. e, i, 0, The case-words have undergone most change when added to stems in a and o. Indeed, the change is so great that if we
were not assured, by the existence of earlier forms, and by the cases of cognate languages, we might doubt whether the same case-words were added to these as to stems ending in consoThis great change has arisen from the amalgamation of nants.
the vowel of the stem with the vowel of the case-word.
NOMINATIVE CASE.
31
On the other hand, the noun-stems ending in a consonant have undergone great changes when combined with the word which gives the meaning of the nominative to it and therefore it is often impossible to learn from the nominative of these words what is their stem. In other words, the nominative in consonantal stems is the most corrupt, and therefore most difficult, case, 74. Generally speaking, the nominative singular of masculine and feminine words is formed by adding s to the stem and the nominative plural, by adding es. But as these words are moditied to a large extent, it is necessary to go over each form of stem particularly. 75. Stems in a have the stem for the nominative singular. For the nominative plural, e is added to the stem; and the vowels a and e are combined so as to form a diphthong. Thus
;
Stem.
32
78.
NOMINATIVE CASE.
Stems
for practice
:
agno-,
asino-, ass
caiwpo-,
plain; fumo-,
smoke;
liipo-,
wolf; oculo-, eye; ramo-, branch; sono-, boar; magistro-, master; genero-, son-in-
of
masculine
and
u, is
The nominative plural is formed by adding es to the stem. But the vowels amalgamate ee becomes e, ie becomes e, and ue becomes u. Thus
: :
Stem.
re,
thing.
re-a.
fructu, fruit.
fructu-s.
res.
naves.
fructus.
Stems
day;
fide-,
bee;
sheep;
jpe^Zi-,
skin;
valli-,
army;
81. Stems ending in consonants are very irregular in the formation of the nominative, and most regular iu the formation of
The nominative singular of masculine and feminine nouns having consonantal stems is formed by the addition of s to the stem. Sometimes this combination takes place without any change sometimes the s amalgamates with the previous consonant sometimes the previous consonant is omitted before the s; sometimes the s disappears; and frequently the vowel before
;
;
is
i is
changed into e. Consonants are divided into two classes miites and liquids. The mutes are divided into three classes, accordinf to
(1)
ji),
h;
(2)
c,
cj;
Wlien
s is
place, or only
Stem.
princip, chief
pi-incep-s.
man.
NoM. Sing.
NOMINATIVE CASE.
(2.)
33
ff-
When
Stem.
s is
added to a stem iu
due, leader.
reff,
or
cs
or gs becomes x.
Thus:
king.
pac, peace.
NoM.
Sing.
dux.
is
rcX.
pax.
chauged
as
Stem.
apic, point.
(3.)
When
:
s is
added
to
or d, the
or
d vanishes before
the
s.
Thus
Stem.
pont, bridge.
Sing. pons.
vad, surety.
vas.
dot,
NoM.
Stem.
quid, quiet.
pcd, foot,
pes.
lapid, stone,
lapis.
dowry,
dos.
KoM. Sing,
i is
changed into
e; as
horseman.
The
(1.)
liquids
are (1)
I; (2)
m;
I.
(3)
n;
:
(4) r.
The
disappears after
sal, salt.
Thus
sol, sol.
Stem.
sun.
Nom.
(2.) s is
Sing.
sal.
added to m.
Stem.
Thus
(3.)
Wlien
s is
added to
o.
n,
:
both
nominative ends in
Stem.
Tlius
NoM.
Sing.
lean, lion.
IcO.
is en.
Thus
pectin, comb.
piect^n.
NoM. Sing,
34
NOMINATIVE CASE.
(4.) The letters s and r are continually interchanged in liatiu. Accordingly in the nominative singular the s disapjjears after /,
or
it
stands instead of
tor, lar.
r.
Thus
Stem.
household god.
o?'dto?',
orator.
rz<?i',
vulture.
NoM. Sing.
Stem.
orator.
vultur.
glir, glis,
NoM.
Sing.
dormouse,
Veiy many nouns that have their stems Thus the t and r in the nominative.
:
in tr insert
between
Stem.
patr, father.
ptat^r.
NoM. Sing.
fratr, brother.
frater.
form the
final letter of
the stem.
Thus
Stem.
hov,
ox or cow.
niv,
snow.
ass,
as.
a coin.
NoM. Sing.
60s.
nix.
all
is
formed by adding
es to
the stem.
Stem.
NOMINATIVE CASE.
CONSONANTAL STEMS.
35
36
ACCUSATIVE CASE.
The nominative in es may be from a stem in e, a stem in i, a stem in d, a stem in t, and a stem in r. The nominative in is may be from a stem in i, a stem in d, a stem in t, and a stem in r. The nominative
stem in
83.
t,
in as or os
r.
may be from
a stem in d, or a
or a stem in
The nominative
case
or, in
is
And
it
may be used
and thereadjective either to describe more fully the subject fore it agrees with the subject or it may be used to fill up the assertion. Thus Joannes, pater, regnat, " John, the father,
as
an
where the word pater describes Joannes more fully, and jmter is therefore put in the same case as Joannes. Or we may say Joannes est p>ater, "John is father;" where pater is part of the predicate, and refers back to Joannes just as if it were an adjective, and therefore agrees with it.
reigns
;
"
THE ACCUSATIVE
84.
CASE.
to
The
original
meaning
of the
is
called the accusative case, seems to have pointed out direction to or toioards. And a remnant of this appears in the circumstance that, with names of " to a place" is expressed by the accusative. towns, Thus, if I were to say in Latin, " I went to Kome," I should put " to
now
Rome" in the accusative and the Latin words seem really to have meant, " going- was-I Eome-towards (or Eome-to)." From this first meaning of the accusative- word theie followed another, which is now by far the commonest. "We now divide verbs into transitive and intransitive. We call " sit" an in;
transitive verb, because when I say I sit," I require to say " I kill" is transitive, because nothing more to make sense ; but
"
add the name of some person or animal that I am But originally all verbs seem to have been intransitive. Thus I kill" seems to have meant " I am in the act of killing ;" and if I wished to state to whom my act was directed, I should
I require to
killing. "
ACCUSATIVE CASE.
" have had to say I
37
am in the act of killing towards the lion," or, " kill-I lion-towards." The accusative came in the Latin form, in this way to be tlie mode of stating the person or thing on whom the action of the verb falls to whom the action of the
Hence
in English the case is called the obsay that the object of a transitive verb is
is the remnant of the word that denoted to 85. The letter " him." Accordor towards^ and is found in the English word and feminine nouns of masculine accusative the singular ingly, to vowel is formed by adding em to consonantal stems and
stems.
The
accusative plural
s to
is
formed by adding
es
to con-
vowel stems.
Thus
38
tiuctly.
ACCUSATIVE CASE.
This was done by means of words which are
now
called prepositious. Thus the sentence, "I removed towards or in the direction of the town," does not say distinctly whether " I went into the town or not ; and so tlie Latins said, migi-avi
removed-have-I into of motion was implied in the migmvi: it was a removal " into." The m of the accusative points out that towards which this motiou-into
literally
in
oppidum," which
means,
"
towii-towards."
The word
in tells really
what kind
was
directed.
Therefore " into" in English, and the in in Latin, of the accusative retains its
say that in is a preposition, and " governs the accusative in the sense of into." 87. There are about thirty-four words of this nature whicli
are followed
by the accusative
:
apud, with or at
contra, against
migravi ad urhem, I removed to the cit}'. migraviin wrfeem, I removed into the city. habitavit apud considem, he lived with the consul that is, at the house of the consul, .pugnavit contra rcgem, he fought against
the king, extra, without, outside of. .^)W5ri-/ extra portaa, he fought outside of the gates.
intra, within
infra, beneath
portam, he
is
buried below
the gate.
superand supra,
inter,
above.... swi>ra
moon
between
place
Tibcrim
est,
this
ante, before
between the city and the Tiber. Hannibal est ante par tB.s, Hannibal is before
post
the gates. Ciceronem. erat Aegina, Aegina was behind Cicero ; 2^ost paucOB dies, after a
few days.
per, through
jacent 2xr herba,m, they He along the grass; per multOB annos, during many years.
88.
or the
amount
of space
ACCUSATIVE CASE.
through which a person or thing went.
39
ten years;"
till
say in English, the Latins said, "the king " ten years) rex decern annos
We
" say in English, he travelled a mile;" the Latins niille passes meaning a thousand said, iter fecit mille passus " the river is a hwidred paces-towards. say in English, broad the Latins est centum passu% latus ;" said, Jiuvius paces
We
We
NEUTER NOUNS.
supposed that, when things began to be conceived as being without life, these things were spoken of in the accusaThere is no doubt tive, and that they had no nominative.
89.
It is
way
of looking at things
for a thing without life cannot really do anything it has no real activity in it. So the mode of thought would have been thus for instance, instead of saying, as we now say, " the " as to the temple building went temple was built," they said,
;
on." Be tills as it may, there is no doubt that the nominative and accusative of iieuter nouns are always the same. The nominative singular of neuter nouns is either the accusativeform or the pure stem. The pure stem may remain unaltered, or it
may undergo slight alteration, but we can see that nothing is added to it. The nominative and accusative plural of aU neuter nouns end in a. There are no neuter nouns with stems ending in a and e. Stems in o have the neuter in the accusative form Mm. Thus:
Stem.
temj^lo,
temple.
tevi2d\xn\.,
tcmpla,.
in
Thus
cornu, horn.
NoM. AND Ace. Sing. co?*nu. NoM. AND Ace. Plur. cornu-k.
in i
in
40
(1.)
ACCUSATIVE CASE.
Sometimes the stem forms the neuter, with the change
S.
of
Thus
Stem.
mari, sea.
NoM. AND Ace. SiNO. mavB. NoM. AND Aco. Plur. mari-B,.
(2.)
all
and an,
the
i is
Thus
Stem.
calcari, spur.
calcar.
calcari-a..
The endings of the consonantal stems are numerous but in some there are only two or three words having these endings. Stems in t and d ai'e exceedingly few. One neuter word is the simple stem with the change of the vowel that precedes the
;
final letter.
Thus
Stem.
capit, head.
NoM. AND Aco. SiNO. capUt. NoM. AND Acc. Plub. capit-&.
This
is
the only
Another word
t.
Stem.
milk.
lac.
(No
plural.)
c.
This and another are the only nouns whose nominatives end in There is only one neuter word with the stem in d. It is
Stem.
cord, heart.
cor.
coixl-a,.
AH the
ing in a liquid.
Thus
Stem.
carmin, song.
carmeii, song. carmln-B,.
fulgur, lightning.
fulgur.
fulgur-a.
GENITIVE CASE.
Stem.
gencr, race, kind.
</c>ius.
41
corpor, body.
corjjViS.
corpft'-a.
Most of these words make their simple stem the nominative and accusative singular. Those whose stems end in in have en in the nominative and accusative singular. Some whose stems end in er and &r have us for the nominative and accusative singular.
90.
ablative.
The other cases that remain are, the genitive, The words which went to form these
to the
of the nouns.
dative,
and
cases were
added
stem in the same way, whatever might be the In other words, the genitive, dative, and gender ablative singular and plural are formed in the same way, whether the nouns be masculine, feminine, or neuter.
The
simply added
s.
STEM IN
A.
42
GENITIVE CASE.
CONSONANTAL STEMS.
Stem.
Giaj.
urb.
virtut.
sermon.
Pluk. Mr6-i-um.
cajnt.
virtut-um.
corpor.
sermon-um.
gener.
Stem.
corpSr-um.
gener-um.
It will be noticed that there is an i inserted between the stem and the iim of terbium. The insertion of this i takes place
in a number of words, especially those which are monosyllabic and some have been inclined to j^lace these words amongst words that have the stem in i. Which consonantal stems have i-um in the genitive plural, and which have um only, can be leai'ned from observation of the usage in classic writers, and by rules and lists made to embrace all the instances. 93. There can be no doubt that the is of the genitive singular in words in the consonantal stems is the real remnant of the word which was originally used to combine with the stem.
;
Some think
;
that the
ing vowel but all agree that the s is part of the word which gave the idea contained in the genitive case and in the Latin writings and inscriptions of an early date, there are instances of
;
nouns with stems ending in a and e, having the genitive case in s. The oi'iginal meaning of this s is uncertain. In Latin, it connects the word to which it is attached with another noun, and implies that the notions expressed by these words are somehow or other What the nature of related to or connected with each other. this connection is, must be found out from the context or the Thus in the sentence Joannes est pater nature of the case.
Jacobi,
father of James," the genitive, Jacobi, gives John stands in the relation of father. " John is the son of est Jilius Jacobi, the the person to whom John James," genitive, Jacobi, gives In the sentence habes librum stands in the relation of son. " Joannia, you have John's book," the genitive, Joannis, exis
"
John
mm,
of connection
kostiuva. time-
injuries of the enemy," the genitive, hostivLva, enemy are the doers or active agents in pro-
DATIVE CASE.
diicing the injuries.
If
43
we
rum punimus, the meaning is ambiguous, as the last really was There are two notions too, as far as the form was concerned. " " and " friends " {amici). The connection behere, injuries tween these may be twofold, " the injuries done by friends," and " the injuries done to friends ;" and we cannot determine which is meant excei)t by the context or general sense. Most " the injuries done likely in the sentence given it would mean to friends," because it is more natural that we should punish
the injuries done to friends, than the injuries done by friends. So also, amor Dei may mean three things at least " the love
:
"the love which God produces," "the In fact, the genitive simply feel to God." intimates a connection with some other noun but the nature of that connection must be ascertained from the context
feels,"
;
is said that the genitive is to be translated by But care must be taken to get hold quite true. of the thought that is expressed by the genitive, and then it is no matter how the thought be expressed, provided that it be
"
of."
Generally This
it
is
adequately expressed. Other prepositions may be used as well as "of." Thus in the sentence quoted above, injurias amicoxuva.
to
friends," or
"
injuries
done by friends," according to what the writer really meant. So we say, mediclna doloris, " a cure for pain ;" fuga periculi, " flight /rom danger;" via morti%, "the way to death ;" joes^/s " a plague to men " Jidiicia viri-am, " confidence in hominviva.,
;
strength;" opinio virtutia, "an oi^inion that some one is virtuous ;" error cursuB, " an uncertainty as to which way to go ;" ira Virginia, " anger on account of the virgin."
THE DATIVE
94.
CASE.
The dative singular is formed by adding i to the stem, and the dative plural by adding bzis or ibus to the stem. But with stems in a, the i of the dative singular amalgamated with the a, and ae diphthong was formed the i of the dative singular of stems in o vanished and i of stems in i combined with the
; ;
44
i
DATIVE CASE.
and made one I. Stems in a and o had origiuthem for the dative plural as filid-\iMS, c^MO-bus but there ai-e only a few words that now retain this termination. The dative plural in stems in a and o is formed by striking off the vowel of the stem and adding is. Thus
of the dative,
ally
hus added to
;
ABLATIVE CASE.
45
" I the book," means gave the book to John or for John, so " " " therefore John is in the dative case that John might enjoy it " this book is useful to So again, in the sentence in Latin. " me," "to me" means for my benefit ;" and accordingly in Latin it is put in the dative.
:
very frequently use the objective case in English where the Latins use the dative, because actions may be conceived in Thus I say in English, " I favour John," where two ways.
" But in Latin favour." in the objective after " I am in a favourable state ;" and so I faveo seems to mean " What say Joanni faveo, I am in a favourable state for John." verbs are thus joined with the dative and what with the accusa"
We
John "
is
tive,
to
memory.
Some general rules can be given but there are no rules without many exceptions, because so much depends on the mode of
thought, which
is
Thus
in Latin
;
they said stultura. risi, where risi is joined to an accusative " If I wish to I laughed at the fool." but we say in English " say I laughed to the fool," I use the dative, stidto risi.
It will be seen that the
is to
or for.
THE ABLATIVE
96.
CASE.
ablative singular was originally formed by adding d This d has completely vanished in the Classical to the stem.
The
period
and accordingly the ablative singular is simply the stem lengthened where the stems end in a vowel, and the stem with the addition of e where the stems end in a consonant.
;
Thus
Stem.
ala.
al2L.
re.
nam.
navl.
corpor.
fructu.
Abl. Stnq.
Stem.
re
fructu.
domino.
sermon.
sermon-e,
Abl. Sino.
domino.
corpor-e.
i
The
i of
was
or
frequently changed into e: thus the ablative of 7iavis nave. In many words the form in e alone occurs.
is 7iavi
The
ablative plural
is
46
ABLATIVE CASE.
shall find that the
We
meanings
of the ablative
insert prej^ositions along with the ablative to express exactly what is meant ; as ex urbe migravit, " he removed out of the
city."
The prepositions that govern the ablative are fourteen in number; but of these the principal, in the true sense of the de, from, concerning, down from a, from, by ablative, are
:
city" that is, urbe misit, "he sent a man down from the city;" urbe misit, "he sent a man from the city" that is, " he is loved by a inside of the city ; a viro amatur,
As virum
:
" ah urbe misit, he sent a man from the neighbourhood of the city;
man;" librum scripsit de morte, "he wrote a book on death;" " poma pendent ex arbore, apples hang from a tree." 98. The words which combined vath the noun-stems to make what are now called cases must have been originally small words and they became by firequent use smaller and smaller,
;
As
this corruption of the little words become more like each other, and
would sometimes they would be "We have already found this in domino for dative identical. and ablative singular, and dominis for dative and ablative In this way two cases which are found in some cogplural. nate languages quite distinct have been absorbed in the ablaThese cases are the instrumental and locative. tive.
went
THE INSTRUMENTAL CASE. The instrumental case is the case in which a word is put when it expresses the manner in which, or the means by which,
99.
ABLATIVE CASE.
:
47
" an action is done. Thus vir carriB alitur, the man is fed on " he lives after the manner of wild fiesh ;" more ferarum vivit, " he strikes the man with a beasts ;" hominem scipione ferit,
staff."
The
is
mination
locative case originally ended in i, and this terretained in a few words of frequent occurrence.
is
" in the country." So also when we say that a thing takes place in a town or city, and mention the name of the town or city, we use a form or case which
Thus, domi
;"
rwi,
in the a
and
o declensions
case,
and in
or ablative,
but which
is
the locative.
properly a case different from them all, namely Thus Roma,e habitat, "he dwells in Eome;"
" "
he dwells in Corinth;" Carthagini or Carhe dwells in Carthage." There are no names When the names of towns of towns with stems in e or u. " occur in the plural only, as Athenae Jiorent, Athens flourishes," is then used to express in the the form of the dative or ablative
Corinthi habitat,
thagine habitat,
"
he dwells in Athens."
is
But
in other
used with the prepoIn urbB habitat, "he dwells in a city;" in campo sition in. " " " he lies down in a in lacvi latet, he lies concealed plain jacet,
words
in a lake."
omitted
In a few instances the preposition in may be " he conquers by land and by terra, marique vincit,
"he
fights
on favourable ground."
ABLATIVE OF TIME.
101. Just as the accusative
is
and duration of time, so the ablative is used for point of space and point of time. But the ablative of time requires no preposition: octavo die fecit, "he did it on the eighth day;" Plato uno et octogesimo anno decessit, "Plato died in his one and
eightieth year.''
48
VOCATIVE CASE.
THE VOCATIVE
"
CASE.
102. In the sentence, Marcus Tullius, I appeal to you," the words Marcus Tullius are used to single out the person and to address him. These words are said to be in the vocative
The vocative case is used in addressing a person when, by using his name or some designation, the speaker summons him to attend to the statement or order that is to foUow. In
case.
English
also the
we
is
use the nominative case for this purpose. In Latin nominative case seems to have been used, and so the
the same as the nominative.
vocative
But
e.
in one instance
the nominative singular underwent a change. words having the stem in o, the us passed into
NoM. Sing,
Voc. Sing,
In most of the
Thus
dominus, ventus.
domine,
vente.
ius,
with the
:
i short,
and
injilius
off.
Thus
Vergilius, filius.
fili.
"We have found six cases oiominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative, and vocative. The vocative we have found identical with the nominative in
103.
We have now
gone over
:
form, except in one set of instances. The accusative singular of neuter nouns is also identical with their nominative. Tlie
and ablative, singular and plural, are formed from the stem, whatever be the gender of the noun. The accusative singular, and the nominative and accusative plural, have different forms, according as the nouns ai'e mascuWhen the nouns are masculine or line or feminine, or neuter. feminine, the accusative singular ends in m, and the accusative when the nouns are neuter, the accusative singular plural in s is like the nominative, and the accusative plural, like the nomigenitive, dative,
directly
native plural, always ends in a. 104. As the words which have given rise to the cases are the links by which the various words in the sentence ai-e connected
it
is
VOCATIVE CASE.
49
smallness of thoroughly fixed in the miud. But owing to the these words and the decay which they have undergone, many of them which were unlike each other have become like or It is therefore necessary to keep clearly in the identical.
memory
different senses.
The personal-terminations
in
t,
seldom likely to
and unt,
in t
the singular in at, et, it, and the plural in ant, ent, int, The only noun that ends in oue instance in ere.
in
is capiiX.
s,
is,
and
may
It is the sense and the knowledge of words that will enable one to know whether these are noun-
terminations or verb-terminations.
The
of
first
termination
nouns masculine and feminine also of the genitive plux^al and also of the nominative and vocative singular of neuter nouns with the stem in o. i also occurs in nouns in genitive masculine and singular and nominative and vocative plural of feminine nouns with the stem in o. It is also the sign of the dative singular of nouns having their stems in a consonant, in u, and in e. The first person plural of verbs ends in mus. US may be the termination of the nominative singular of nouns with the stem
;
;
in
it
may
also indi-
cate the genitive singular, and the nominative, accusative, vocative plural of nouns having their stem in u ; but the
and
of
short, the
is
long.
list
nouns in
and
in nominative, accusative,
50
105.
FIRST DECLENSION.
all
the
other cases singular and plural, he is said to decline the word. There is properly speaking only one declension, because there is only one set of words added to roots to form the cases of all
nouns
but this fact and indeed the nature of case were unto earlier grammarians.
known
fourth,
and
fifth.
arbitrary order
tive,
second, third, They also arranged the cases in the following nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocafirst,
made
five declensions
at
It is usual also in declining to attempt to give the meaning of the cases by means of English prepositions, though, as we have seen, this method is necessaiily defective,
and
ablative.
of a case
FIRST DECLENSION.
106.
Stem
in
a.
Almost
all
nouns of
feminine, except
when
SECOND DECLENSION.
SINGULAR.
51
PLUKAL.
NoM.
Gen.
ve7iii,
the winds.
the wind.
Dat.
Aco.
Voc.
the winds.
wind
venfi,
winds
Abl.
by the
winds.
NoM.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.
puerbs, boys.
pueri,
2JMcris,
Voc.
puer,
O boy
boys
Abl.
or
by
a boy.
boys.
NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
liber,
a book.
libri,
books.
libru-m, a book.
liber,
Voc.
Abl.
book
O books
librb, with,
from,
in,
o?'
by
?i6)is,
a book.
in,
or
by
NoM.
Gen. Dat.
Ace. Voc.
templu-va.,
templb, temples.
templbxMxa., of temples.
templa, temples.
!
templu-m,
temple
from,
templa,,
in, or
tenij^lis,
temples
Abl.
templxt, with,
by
by a temple.
temples.
THIRD DECLENSION.
108.
i;
x.
Nominative,
o,
c,
I,
n, r,
s,
t,
many
exceptions.
Nouns
in o,
er.
52
or,
THIRD DECLENSION.
;
as,
is,
aus,
and
x,
feminine
PLURAL.
consM-e%, the consuls. consuUnva., of the consuls.
NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Acq.
consul, a consul.
consUlAs, of a consuL
consul-i, to or for a consul.
consul-Qva.,
a consul.
!
the consuls.
consuls
!
Voc.
consul,
consul
consul-^s,
co)zsiiZ-ihus,
Abl.
with, from,
in, or
by the
consuls.
NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
virffo,
the virgin.
Voc.
virgin
virgin-es,
virgins
Abl.
by the
NoM.
Gen.
virgin.
by the
virgins.
patr-es, fathers.
patr-um, of fathers.
2Mtr-ibns, to or for fathers.
j?ja<r-es, fathers.
Dat.
Aco.
the father.
Voc.
father
2xitr-ea,
o?
fathers
Abl.
by
fathers.
NoM.
Gen.
rex, a king.
?'er/-is,
reg-ea, kings.
Dat.
Ace.
7-cg-i,
rcg-em., a king. JT X,
kings.
Voc.
king
reg-ea,
in,
kings
Abl.
reg-e, with,
from,
oj'by
9'e.7-ibus, %vith,
from,
in,
or
by
a king.
kintrs.
NoM.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.
carmen
carmln-a,, songs.
carmhi-um, of songs.
carmi7i-ibus, to or for songs.
carmhi-a., songs.
Voo. Abl.
song!
in,
carmhi-a,,
songs
by
son^s.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
SINGULAR.
53
PLURAL.
NoM.
Gen. DAT.
Ace.
mare
mari-k, seas.
mari-Mxa., of seas,
wiaj-i-hus, to or for seas.
maris, of the
man,
murS,
Voc. Abl.
seas
from,
orby
w by
the sea.
NoM.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.
animal
(neut.),
an animal.
Voc. Abl.
animal
animali-k,
in,
o?*
animals
by
by animals.
NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
calcari-a,, spurs.
Voc. Abl.
spur
spur.
calcari-a,
calca7'i-bvis,
spurs
by a
NoM.
Gen.
Dat. Ace. Voc. Ael.
su-S, a
by
spurs.
su-is, of
sw-i,
for
sow.
boars or smne.
SM-es, boars or swine. su-es,
boars or swine
by
a boar or sow.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
109.
All stems in u, except monosyllabic. Nominative, us, u. us are masculine, a few feminine ; all nouns
54
FIFTH DECLENSION.
56
THE ADJECTIVE.
But with our senses we pergreat deal more with good reason. ceive nothing but qualities or activities. If then we were now to
for an object, it would be natural to select one of which strikes us most, and call it by a word indicating that quality. Ajid this no doubt was the case in earliest times so that in fact a noun, an adjective, and a vei'b all express the same thing, but are used for diflfereut purposes, or perform
its qualities
;
create a
name
If I fix that
plat,
and
is
word a noun
as,
keep
it
movable, so that it may go with any object that " it is an adjective, and I can the green say,
hand."
I
he greened might also make it into a verb, say, meaning he made it green, as the poet Thomson does. And the Latins said, arbor viret, " the tree is green," where is green is a verb. The same root, therefore, may be used as a noun, an adjective, or a verb, according as we fix it down to
this wall,"
when
it
;
becomes a noun
leave
it
it
mov-
it it
or associate with
the idea of
adjective therefore is a movable word, which has to be joined to some word denoting an object. In English, as we have seen, the sense is determined by the order. In the sen" the good father loved the bad son," we know that it is tence,
114.
An
the father
father.
way.
who is good, because the word good is placed before But the Latins did not depend on the order in this The plan they took was to afiix the case-woi'ds to
adjectives as
weU
adjectives just as they declined nouns, and to give them terminations expressive of gender and then they made the ad;
jective agree
that the adjective qualified the noun. For instance, in the English sentence quoted above, "father" is nominative and " son " is accusative therefore the Latin is jyater and filiuva.. Now the word for " good " must be in the nominative mascu;
line, to
for
"
bad
agree with pater ; therefore bonus 2Mter: and the word " will be in the accusative masculine therefore
;
malum Jilium.
And
having ascertained
this,
we may
aiTange
THE ADJECTIVE.
57
the words iu any order we like, and the word bonus will always go in sense Mvith. j^ater, and malum -with Jilium. Thus we
say, bonus
might
pater filium amavit. This is correct Latin, though the juxtaposition of the words would lead you to conceive the words to mean, " it was the good man that loved the
Ijad,
malum
would
malum
bonus comes immediately before filium, yet the termination of bonus shows that it goes with pater.
115. The Latins used adjectives in the tw^ofold way in which we do in English. We say, " a good father loves his son ;" and we also say, " the father is good." In the first instance, the
adjective goes directly with the noun, and helps to fill up or complete the notion given in the noun. This is the proper
function of an adjective and an adjective so used is said to be used attributively. In the second instance, father is one notion and good is another, and the two are united by is. The word
;
good thus completes the notion given in is, and is good is conseijuently properly a verb, and the word good supplements the
verb
is.
predicatively.
In this instance we say that the word good It forms part of the assertion.
is
used
iu
These two uses are quite distinct, and the same words used both ways might have been treated differently, according as
they are used for the one purpose or the other. This is the case in German. But in Latin no distinction is made. An adjective agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case, whether it be used attributively or predicatively. Thus pater
may mean he is a good father," or the father is good," and you cannot know which is the meaning except from
bonuB
est
"
"
tlie
context.
Latin adjectives have their stems in a, 0, i, and consoThere are no adjectives with stems in e or u. Adjectives with the stem in a are feminine, and therefore go with feminine nouns only. Adjectives with stems in o may be mascu116.
nants.
line or neuter.
Adjectives w^th stems in i and consonants are "We thus get three classes of adjectives.
(333)
58
117.
Masculine and
neiitei-
stem
in o, feminine in a.
Nomi-
59
60
119.
acer
(keen), masculine;
COMPARISON OK ADJECTIVES.
PLURAL. Fem.
Gl
Masc.
Neut.
prudentia,.
NOM.
Gen. DAT.
Ace.
pi'udentea,
prudenta,
prudentiViVa..
prudentiMVU.
prudenti\)M8.
prudenti\xm.
prudentihus.
prudentes,
prudentes.
prude7iti\}\x.B,
prudentibus.
prudentia,. prudentia,.
prudentee.
Voc. Abl.
prudenths.
pradeniVoMS,
filiae
prudentlins.
"
Thus
121.
prudent daughters
In English we occasionally use adjectives as nouns. " the good love the good." This usage is much " a good in Latin. We can say, hoyius boimm amat, " loves woman a bonam man loves a good man ;" bona mnat, good " he gives good things to his son." a good woman ;" datfilio bona,
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
122.
of comparison
is
radically the
as the English. The English er is in Latin ior, est is issimo (nominative, issimus).
The comparative degree is formed by adding ior to the consoand by striking off the vowel of vowel-stems and adding tor, Thus:
nantal-stems,
STEM WITHOUT VOWEL.
alius, high.
alt-
COMPABATIVK.
altior.
dulcis, sweet.
dulc-
dulcior.
prudens, prudent.
prudent-
prudentior.
:
The comparative
Masc.
is
thus declined
SINGULAR. Fem.
a^dor.
altioris.
altiovi.
Neut.
altins.
altioiia.
altioTi.
alti\xs.
NOM.
Gen.
altiOT.
altibria.
DAT.
Auc.
a/dori.
a^dorem.
altior,
a^dorem.
a?dor.
Voc. Abl.
aZdus.
aJtibre, or
altioTi.
altiove, or
altibxi.
a^dore, or
altibvi.
62
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
NUMERALS.
125.
;
63
Many
way such
adjectives cannot be compared in the common as those which have a vowel in the nominative before
the M5, as idoneus. Accordingly the words magis (more) and maxime (most) are used to form the comparatives and superlatives of these as
:
POSITIVE.
COMPARATIVE.
inaffis idoneus, fitter.
SUPERLATIVE.
idoneus,
fit.
maxime
idoneus, fittest.
The u in adjectives ending in icus, ids, Thus possess the force of a vowel.
:
POSITIVE.
COMPARATIVE.
strenuior.
tenuior.
strenuus, vigorous.
tfmiis, thin.
strenuisslmus. tenuisslmus.
aequissh7iu3.
acquits, fair.
aequior.
CHAPTER IV.-NUMERALS.
12(
()+
NUMERALS.
This form
pears in a
of the genitive is
65
number
any
;
of indefinite
uter,
whole
ullus,
which
;
of the
two
alter,
other of two
neuter, neither
and
alitis,
another.
Alius haa
aliud in the nominative and accusative singular neuter. It appears also in the genitives of other pronouns as ems, cuius, illius, &c. though sometimes the i is written as a j, as in ej^(s.
129,
66
PRONOUNS.
CHAPTER V.-PRONOUNS.
131.
We have
pointed out that it is generally agreed on now two kinds or classes of roots. The one class
or activities
;
comprehends
us,
all qualities
the other
is
that before
the pronominal.
We
qualities.
have found already that all that a person perceives is At first when a child looks out on an object, he
thinks only on the object. He sees, for instance, a tree before him. He thinks of the tree, and nothing else. But by degrees
feel that there could be no perception of a tree was something else namely, himself and in this way he becomes conscious of himself, of his own personality or This consciousness is expressed by the word individuality. "I." It is sometimes said that a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun but though this may be true of some pro-
he comes to
unless there
" I but that nouns, yet no other word can express the idea of word itself. It is the word used by the person speaking, con"
scious
of
his
own
himself from
all
individuality, and consciously separating So the second personal pronoun other objects.
"thou"
speaker
;
or
by the
and so
The person speaking makes himself, as it were, the centre in the measurement of space, and he selects two other points. " " " There are thus first I," and the things round the I " this " this thing beside me," pointing to the objects. thing here"
Secondly, there is the person to whom he speaks "you," and the " things beside you." And thirdly, there is the person or there are the persons neither the speaker nor the person spoken to
" those persons there," those things there." Roots expressive the person speaking, the person spoken to, of these subjects and the person spoken about, and the localities connected with "
such
are pronominal elements. Nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed by the combination Pronouns are formed of a quality root with a pronominal root.
by the combination
of
pronominal
roots.
NOMINAL PRONOUNS.
67
132. Grammatically, pronouns may be divided into two olasses the fixed and the movable or, in o her words, nouns
;
and
adjectives.
NOMINAL PRONOUNS.
133. Fii-st personal
pronoun,
ego, I
SINGULAR,
PLURAL.
DOS, we. nostri, or nostrum, of us. nobis, to us.
iios,us.
in, or
XoM.
Gejj.
ego,
I.
DAT.
Ace.
Abl.
134.
by me.
by
us.
tu,
thou
PLURAL.
v6s, ye, or you. vestrum, or vestrl, of you.
vobis, to you.
NoM.
Gen.
DAT.
Ace.
te, thee.
vos, you.
in, or
Voe. Abl.
tu,
thou.
te, -with,
from,
by
In regard to the third per135. Third personal pronoun. sonal pronoun, the Latins made a distinction which we do not " John inIf I use the words, always observe in English.
vited William to his house," I gather from the sense that it is But if I say, to his oivn house that John invited William. " John saw William and went to his house," the probability is that by his house is meant William^s house. The Latin lan-
guage does not permit this ambiguity. It uses one word for his when it refers back to the subject of the sentence, and
another
when
it
does not.
for the third personal pronoun when it refers back to the subject of the sentence is sui. It of course cannot for it always refers back to the have a nominative case nominative case, and therefore presupposes the nominative case. Sui is called a reflexive pronoun. It is the same for all genders
and
for both
numbers
6S
Gen.
ADJECTIVAL PRONOUNS.
sui, of himself, of herself, of itself, of themselves.
DAT.
Ace.
Abl.
themselves. or sese, himself, herself, itself, themselves. Be, or sese, from himself, from herself, from itself, from themselves.
Be,
the pronoun does not refer back to the nominative, an adjectival pronoun, ille or is, are used. Here again the nominative is unnecessary. The personal terminations of the verb t and nt sufficiently express the
tlien the cases of
When
nominative
Gen.
D\T.
Ace.
SINGULAR.
ejus, his, hers, its. ei, to him, to her, to
;
it.
Abl.
eum, him earn, her; id, it. eo, from him; ea, from her;
PLURAL. edrum, of them {tnasc. and els, or iis, to them.
eos,
eo,
from
it.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
neut.);
earum,
of
them
{ftm.
).
them
[tnasc); eas,
them
(/em.); ea,
them
{nmt.).
Abl.
from,
in, or
by them.
ADJECTIVAL PRONOUirS.
136.
I.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
-um, mine. -um, thine. -um, his owti, her own,
your,
Tneus, -a,
tuMA, -a,
auus, -a,
its
noster, nostra.,
II.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
:
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
138, Iste, that beside
69
you
son
RELATIVE PROXOUX.
141. Ipse, self;
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
clause.
71
its
Its
number and
is
but
its
case
antecedent,
The Latin
relative is "
who, which
he."
which
in all pi'oba:
bility originally
meant
and
It is thus declined
72
PART
II.
to
be four indeclinable
jjarts of
speech adverb, preposition, interjection, and conjunction. The interjection is properly speaking a cry, and does not
of a sentence.
it is
common
to
man and
three pai'ts of speech we place here because they are really nominal, or parts connected with the noun. have already found that a sentence may be analyzed into two
The other
We
pai'ts,
the subject and the predicate and that the subject in its simple form is a noun, and the predicate in its simple form is a now add that every word in the sentence grou})s verb.
;
We
itself either
around the
U(-)uns
it is
If
it
con-
of the nature of
then
to complete the notion given us by the verb. If we examine the cases from this point of view, we shall find that the genitive is of the nature of an adjective, and fills
it is
of the nature of
tive,
in their nature.
The
accusa-
tive, for instance, expresses the end towards which an action is directed, the direction in which an action goes, and extent of
The
from which
place,
an action proceeds, the mode in which an action takes the ])i)int of time at which it takes place, &c.
CHAPTER I.-ADVERBS.
14().
same
iiotiou.s
that
is,
they ex-
ADVERBS.
press ideas of time, place,
73
;
and mauner
and therefore
it is
not
find most, perliaps elements they are combinations of case-words, or pronominal with roots. This is not a peculiarity of the Latin language, but is common to all languages. Thus in English most of our
:
" " he did this wisely," is he adverbs are adjectives or nouns did this wise like," "he did this like a wise man;" and the word "like" is supposed to have been originally the instru-
tives together, as "otherwise" means in another wise or way. So in Latin almost all adjectives may be converted into
first
changed into e: as avidvis, greedy; avide, in this way Superlative adverbs are formed greedily. in e is regarded by This form best. the best optime, ojjtimus,
nominative in us
is
;
many
scholars as a
form
of the ablative
instrumental ablative, or ablative of manner, " way ;" optime, in the best way."
(2.)
as
levis, levitev
felix,
is
as
The accusative singular neuter multiim, much primimi, first. of the comparative of adjectives is used as the comparative of adverbs as bene, well melius, better optime, best leviter,
:
levins, levissime.
Other adverbs of time, place, and manner are for the most sometimes they contain part accusative and ablative forms remnants of case-words which fell into decay. Thus
;
:
ACCUSATIVE.
Jaw, now;
the
first
turn, i\\&n;
;
nunc,
now;
tunc, then
;
prirnvm, for
;
time
;
saepe, often
recens,
lecently
prope, near.
;
Palam, openly
stealthily
1338)
;
perperam, rashly
clam,
secretly
furtim-,
paidatim, by degrees. 6
74
PREPOSITIONS.
ABLATIVE.
extra, without Dextra, on the right haud infra, below mane, in the morning. sponte, of one's own accord
;
;
Many adverbs arise through combinations of adjectives and Thus nouns or prepositions and nouns. quotidie, daily with great toil), greatly invicem, magnopere (for Ttuigno opere, in turn ext&mplo, immediately (from ex and tempulo, diminu:
CHAPTER
II.-
PREPOSITIONS.
147. Prepositions are adverbs with a noun immediately following them, or as we now phrase it, governing a noun. When " the boat went down," the word down is an I use the words, " adverb but when I say, the boat went down the stream," down becomes a preposition, because it is followed by the noun. " So in the sentence, T came at six o'clock, William came ten " minutes after," after is an adverb but in the sentence, Wil;
;
is
a preposition, because
followed by the noun-pronoun me. In Latin as in English many of the words used as prepositions are also used as
148. Prepositions
adverbs.
ad adversum...
adversus
to.
between.
within.
intra
against, opposite
to.
juxta
6b
exadversum
ante
apiid
of. of.
before.
near,
\\\t\\.
penes per
power
""a
circum
cis, citra
}ai3out.
)
pone
(
through. behind.
hard
near
by,
to.
besides,
on this
against.
side.
P'^aeter
g^^gpt_
contra
prope
f
erga extra
infra
towards. without.
secundum.... ^^^^^
ultra
alongside
to,
of,
next
beneath.
luider.
subter
supra
above.
beyond.
CONJUNCTIONS.
149. Prepositions governing the ablative
a,
:
75
ab, abs
absque
coram
e,
ex
out
of.
of.
prae pro
sine
before.
before, for.
cum
de
without.
from, concerning.
150. Prepositions
in
into, in.
subter
sub
under.
super
beneath. above.
CHAPTER
as sed, ablative
volo, I
;
III.
CONJUNCTIONS.
nouns or parts of verbs
;
:
wish
vel,
part of
LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS.
I.
CO-ORDINATIVE.
; ;
and que, and. Que is an enclitic that is, it is attached to the word which it unites, just as if we were to say in " the man the woman-and," instead of " the man and the English
152. Et,
and; atque or
ac,
mulierque.
not.
quoque and etiam, also; neque and nee, and aut, vel, and sive, or.
autem, atqui, ceterum, verum, but. tamen, yet, not\vithstanding. enim, etenim, nam, namque, for.
at, sed,
SUBORDINATIVE.
as
if.
;
tanquam, quasi,
;
quum, when dum, while, until donee, until priusquam, antequam, anteaquam, before; postquam, posteaquam, after; simul ac simul atque, quum primum, as soon as ut, when ubi, when. quum, seeing that, since quoniam, since quod, quia, because. si, if; sin, but if; nisi, if not, unless; dummodo, modo, dum, pro(>?
; ; ;
;
vided that ; ut, granted that. etsi, although ; etiamsi, even if ; quamvis, licet, although. ut, uti, in order that, so that quo, in order that; quominus, in ordrr that not quin, that not ne, in order that not, lest.
;
Though several conjunctions are translated in the same w;vv, there are shades of ditiereuce in the meauino- or usa'^e.
76
CONJUNCTIONS.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
" he is lovhave seen that amat means " he loves," " In English we make our question by lie does love." ing," or " does inverting the order of the auxiliary and the nominative,
153.
We
But the Latins did not use any word corresponding and therefore could not have the English form. Besides, the Latius used the order of words principally to
he loveT'
to
"
does,"
express the order in which the ideas presented themselves to The Latins the mind, and not for grammatical purposes. added the enclitic conjunction ne to the verb, and thus made
an interrogative sentence: amat, "he loves;" <r>rt<iie? "does he love?" amamus, "we love;" anumiusne'i "do we love?" Sometimes they prefixed a conjunction, such as ?i, num: an " amas ? " dost thou love ? " no)in& amas ? " dost thou not love ? " whether are you toiling or playing ?" utrum laboras an ludis? M\)\es? "where are you?" cvccfecisti? "why have you done
it?"
VERBAL NOUN-FORMS.
77
PART
III.
tives.
CHAPTER
I.
The Present
;
the stem
(1.)
re
Infinitive Active is formed by adding re to but this addition takes place in three ways is added to stems in d, e, and I: as anid-, love atnd-re,
audl-re,
ere is
cad-, fall
(3.)
cad-ere, to
added
re is
cape-re, to take.
and
I: as
;
The Present
stems in
hold
Infinitive Passive is
formed
ri to the
tene-,
a, e,
tene-ri,
(1.)
By adding
;
heard.
(2.)
By adding
caed-, kill
and stems
caed-i, to
in
w.*
as
minvr-i, to
be
lessened.
78
(3.)
PRESENT INFINITIVE.
The stem
Infinitive
of
:
infinitive passive
as capi-, take
capi, to be taken.
in
is
the present
means unlimited; and a verb is unlimited not limited by pei'sonal terminations or, in other words, when the notion given by the verb is presented by itself, Thus anmre signifies the act of apart f I'om the agent or subject.
157.
wlieu
it is
and
of
nominative
is
o)'
accusative.
may perform the function of the humanum est errare, " to err " is it is human to erring human,"
it
Thus
really the nominative to est. Again: " I " desi}-e to learn," I desire the act of learncupio discere, " I desire learning;" where discere is really the accusative ing,"
after cupio.
The
infinitive differs
its
it
governs
verb, and has the idea of time ; as, cupio discere " grammaticam, I wish to learu grammar." translate the infinitive generally by "to," as "to love;" but we also frequently employ the particij^ial form " loving."
the case of
We
it is not a present. The present Its time dejDends on present, past, or future. the finite verb with which it is connected. Thus in the sen" I desire to learn," discere is present, because tence, cuj^io discere, is In the sentence, cupivi discere, " I desired to cupio present.
The name
present misleads
infinitive
may be
is past, and of the same time as cupivi; and in the sentence, cupiam discere, " I shall desh-e to learu," discere is It would have been future, and of the same time as cupiam.
learn," discere
more
The Perfect
Infinitive Active is
;
as
formed by adding
sse to
StemofPerf. amnvl:
Perf. Inf.
amai'i-sse.
dekvi-.
dclevi-sse.
ctcidi-.
cepi-.
audtvi-.
cccidi-sse.
ccpi-sse.
andivi-sae.
The
SUPINES.
79
is
SUPINES.
159.
accusative
as
some
(or of
But
is generally formed by as ama-, mrt-tuin ; dele-, dele-tMm as there are great irregularities in the
The supine
rarely occur.
The supine
in
um
is
;
ally after verbs of motion, to indicate a " they come to see." spectatum,
purpose
The supine in u is generally used after adjectives to express " difficult to say." the notion of the verb as difficile dictu,
;
160.
Conjugation of Verbs.
^In
conjugating a verb,
its
pre-
indicative active, its perfect indicative active, its first The reason supine, and the present infinitive active are given.
sent
when once these parts are known, all the other Thus I conjugate the stem ama amo, pai-ts amdvi, amatum, amdre. From the infinitive amare, I know that the stem ends in a; and therefore I know ama-bavi, From ainavi I get amaveram and amavero. From aina-ho. amatum I know what the perfect participle passive and the future participle active will be. The mention of the first person
of this
is,
that
can be formed.
but sometimes
singular of the present indicative active is often of no use Thus I conjugate the stem capicapio, it is. From the infinitive I cannot know cepi, captum, capere.
;
is capo or capio, or whether I should say capieham or capeham. From this statement it will be seen that the su2:)iue is a very
80
important part
;
GERUND.
auJ gi-ammars and dictionaries frequently give the supine for the sake of the parts that are formed iu the same way, even when the supine itself is not found.
GERUND.
160. Tlie
Gerund
is
as audi-, a^w^^'-endum
dele-, (^t^e-ndum:
cad-, ct;o?-endum;
is
Thus
NoM.
Ge>j.
Dat.
Ace. Abl.
ajHando, to loving.
a??ianduin, loving.
is the same in meaning as the present infinitive. the pi'esent infinitive can be used as the subject to a verb that is, in the nominative case there is no need for the nomi-
The gerund
As
native case of the gerund and some maintain that the gerund has no nominative. There is good reason for doubting this;
;
but the nominative is very rarely used. The infinitive is also used as an accusative, and apparently there would be no need for the accusative of the gerund. But prepositions are never
used with the
We
infinitive, and so they are used with the gerund. might thus decline the infinitive and gerund together
:
NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
amandi, of loving. amando, to loving. amare, or ainavdum, loving. amando, with, from, in, <yr by loving.
pleasant to learn.
Thus
Dulce
est discere, it is
Cupidus est discendi, he is desirous of learning. Charta est utilis scribendo, the paper is useful for writing.
Ciqjio scribere, I desire to wTite.
est,
the hand
is fitted
for jjaintiug.
in scribendo, he
is
active in writing.
81
CHAPTER II.-ADJECTIVAL PARTS OF THE VERB: PARTICIPLES. 161. A Participle is a word which is generally used as
adjective.
It
ditfei-s
an
from the words commonly called adof time along with that of jectives, in that it gives the notion the quality or activity and in this feature it is a verb. Of course it may act as an adjective in the sense in which that
;
name
is
" a man, loving say, vir, amans vei-itatem, dixit, " truth said ; time loved who at the a man said that is, truth, Or we may say, in which sense amans is a genuine participle. " a man possessing the character of vir veritatis amans dixit,
Thus we may
being a lover of truth said;" in which sense it is an adjective. and iised as nouns Pai'ticiples may also, like adjectives, be
;
many
Latin nouns were originally participles. Participles, then, perform the function of adjectives.
They
have terminations for three genders, and they agree with their nouns, expressed or understood, in number, gender, and case. But they are also verbs, and govern the cases which the other
parts of the verbs govern.
is
formed from
stems in a and
and from
as ama-, amant-; dele-, delent-; by stems in consonants and i and u by adding ent : as
adding nt
cad-, cadent-
Thus
82
The word
.
active,
and
is itself
an old
participle.
There
is
no present par-
ticiple passive.
The name
2-ese)it is
incorrect.
is
determined by the time of the verb with which it is connected and it should therefore have been called synchronous or contemporaneous. Thus lafe^is sjjemt, "lying hid, he hopes" that is, while he is lying hid, he is " hoping latens speravit, lying hid, he hoped "that is, when " he lay hid, he hoped and latens he will sperabit,
;
;
hope "that
is,
There
is
want
of it
164.
The Future
Supine.
amdUuvL.
domlivim.
fdomlXuxMS.
amaturum.
is
^
\
rfomitura.
dom turnm.
;
be
form of the future participle. Like the particijjle of the present, its time is dependent on the time of the verb with which it is connected; and so it
may
but
it is
alwuj?. fiUui-e,
83
compared with the teuse of the finite verb with which it is Tims: cenatitrus veai, "being about to sup, I came " that is, when I was going to sup, I came cenaturv.s " " that is, while I a))i about venio, being about to sup, I come to sup, I come cenaturus veniam, " when I shall be about to
connected.
There
is
no future participle
j^assive.
Thus
donutum.
/domitus.
/amdtas*
Perf. Part. Pass. J amdta.
< domita.
\amatum.
\domiium.
The time
with
connected.
of the perfect participle is that of past in comparison the time of the finite verb with which the participle is
Thus amatus sum means I am a person that has been loved;" amatus eram, "I was a person that at that time had been loved ;" amatus ero, " I shall be a person that has by that time been loved."
"
We generally
translate the perfect participle passive, amatus, ;" but in Engliali care must be taken to
gather the time fi'om the sense, as the English forms convey the notions of time very indistinctly. Thus in the sentence,
seeing the boy past time that
"
fall, I
is,
ran to him," the participle seeing" is of the seeing took place before I ran to him.
"
The future
participle active
and the
compound
swm means
*
am
Like
io7t,us,
bona, bmium.
84
be nearly
turus
of the
COMPOUND TENSES.
same meauing as amdbo,
is
"
I shall love."
Ama-
"
formed by
join-
particijjle passive.
have been loved;" mnatus eram. "I was a person tliat had been loved" that is, "I had been loved;" and amatus ero, "I shall be a person that has been loved" that is, ' I .shall have been loved." We thus get
is,
that
'
am
a person that
168.
Sing,
Plur.
169.
Sing,
Plur.
amdti crdmus...we had been loved. amdti erdtls ye had been loved. amdti erant they had been loved.
170.
Sing,
arndtua eris
erit
. .
you
Plur.
amdti erlmus
amdti
crltis
ayndti erunt
171.
to
In
all
its
with
noun
in
an adjective, and agrees " and case. the wife Thus, number, gender,
GERUNDIVE.
was
loved,"
is
85
"
est;
the temple
was
built,"
the wives were loved," iixores amat&e sunt; "the temples were built," templa aedijicat& sunt: "the " the wife is said to have beeu loved," uxor amata, esse dicitur;
tempi um
aedificat-ava. est:
au
The exact
is
a matter
originally the present Its form points to this ; and there are some jjarticiple passive. instances iu the classic writers in which it is unquestionably
of discussion.
Some maintain
that
it
was
used as a present participle passive. But this use is rare. In (lid grammars it was sometimes called the future participle futupassive but it will be seen that, though it may indicate
;
does not exhaust its meaning. More recently it has been called the participle of necessity and this name indicates more exactly its force, though it does not indicate its whole
rity, futurity
;
force.
be best given by examples. amandus, may be translated in the " boy is deserving of being loved," the " It to be loveel." the to be may loved," boy ought boy requires " the boy is to be loved." But this last mode of also be rendered
Its exact force will
est
The
expression
is
ambiguous
for
it if
if
the sentence
is
is
trans-
it
means
"
loved," then the correct Latin is puer anumdus est. The gerundive, then, in the nominative case, means requiring or deserving " to be. Thus petendus, deserving or requiring to be sought ;"
:
speruiiexpectandus, "deserving or requiring to be exjsected " that ought to be hoped for." But when we come to the (ht,s,
;
"
use genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative cases, we find the somewhat different, or at least we do not translate in the same
86
GERUNDIVE.
" he way. translate, gave me an opportunity to buy tlie mihi occasionem dedit emendi librvLm. Emendi is here book," the genitive of the gerund or, as we found we might have
We
called
it,
since
it.
occasio is a noun,
we can
use the
noun
Paper useful for writing a letter charta utilis epistol&B scribend&e. He was fit to write a letter idoneus fuit ad epistola,va. scribendam.
;
He He
is is
employed employed
in writing a letter; in epistola. scribenda. versatur. in writing letters; in epistolis scribendia versatur.
NOUN CLAUSES.
87
PART
NOUN
lY.
CLAUSES.
173. The Latiu language is much more careful than the English in expressing the relation of one clause to another. Thus in the sentence, " Cicero said that Catiline had broken
human and divine," we use two indicatives " said," and " had broken." But the force of each is different. With " said," the speaker states what he himself believes to be true, and gives those who hear him his word for it. But " had broken " simply states Cicero's belief or assertion, and the hearer does not know what the speaker believes in regard to
every law,
the matter.
The indicative in Latin is used only to express what the speaker believes to be a real occurrence or fact. Wlien the speaker does not guarantee the reality of the act, but wishes to indicate that it is a mere conception, or possibility, or supposition, or intention, or that
it is
not his own, he employs in Latin one of two moods, as they are called the infinitive or the subjunctive.
CHAPTER
174.
I.
In the above sentence, " Cicero said that Catiline had broken all laws," the second clause, " that Catiline had broken
" said." really the accusative case after the verb said by Cicero. The method adopted in Latin to express this is as follows First, the infinitive must be used to express " had broken." As " had broken" is anterior " in time to said," it is the perfect infinitive active ; therefore
all
laws,"
is
It gives us
what was
violavisse.
But
is
Catiline's
so Catiline
Cicero
dixit
88
Cdtilhi&m omnes leges violavisse. There is no word in Latin for the English " that," as here used. The mode of thought in Latin is " Cicero said, Catiline's having broken all laws ;" " Catiline's having broken" being the accusative after "said," and being expressed in the accusative and infinitive.
75.
ing, feeling, thinking, &c., have the clause which expresses the object or the statement, assertion, feeling, thought, in the
Thus
Sdo
Scio
Scio
fe tc
sapientem esse; I
te
know that you are wise. know that yon have been wa'se. sapientem fidurum esse; I know that you will be wiwe.
sajnentem fuissc ; I
te
te
Putavi
magistratam
esse; I
P atari
Putavi
lihros leriere; I
thought that you were a magistrate. thought that you were reading books.
te
te
Putavi
books.
Ubros Icctnrum esse; I thoiight that you would read books. Putavi tc lihros Iccturum fuisse ; I thought that you would have read Dixit
se
Dixit sc amotuin esse; he said that he had been loved. Dixit se amatum iri; he said that he would be loved.
Puella dixit
se amatsiva. esse
the girl said that she had been loved. iri; the poet declared that the wife
would be
176.
loved.
infinitive are
esse
used as the
rebus suis " for a man to be content certissimaeque divitiae, his own is the greatest and surest riches." But not so common as the other.
liominem contentum
CHAPTER II.-SUBJUNCTIVE.
177.
The Subjunctive
is
the
mood used
in subordinate clauses,
to express that the action denoted by the verb is a mere conceirtion, or a })uii)ose or intention, or a supposition of that which
is
not
known
to be true, or
is
another.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
89
in the sentence, Cicero said that Catiline had broken the laws which the state had ratified," the speaker does not affirm that the state had ratified all the laws referred to. It is
all
Thus
"
Cicero that says this therefore, to express that it is Cicero's statement, we must put this assertion, occurring in a subordinate clause, in the subjunctive Cicero dixit Catiliiyxm omnes
;
:
leges
qiuis
civitas
sanxerat,
state
we
If we were to put sanxisset violavisse. should imply that the speaker knew that the
had ratified the laws, and that he wished to add this remark of his own to make more plain the statement of
Cicero.
Sometimes the subjunctive expresses merely a notion or In the sentence " it happened that the king fell," conception.
178.
" the clause " that the king fell contains the real subject to " " the that is, happened" king's falling happened." "We should naturally have the infinitive here but the Latins put the sub-
junctive
179.
;
The subjunctive is used to express an intention or pur" the king went to subdue the enemy," rex ivit tit hostes domaret. 180. The subjunctive is used to express a supposition of that which the speaker does not know to be true, or of that which " is impossible if the king had fallen, the prince would have succeeded him." Here it is plainly implied that the king did not fall and therefore we must in Latin express by the subpose
as,
:
junctive that the action is only imagined, and not carried out 6-1 rex cecidisset, princeps ei successisset. 181. Lastly, the subjunctive is used with indirect interroga-
"When I put the question, "what are you saying?" I use tives. a direct interrogative, or rather use the interrogative directly I address it to a person. But when I say, " I did not know
:
what he said," I still use the interrogative word what but it no longer asks a question. When it thus no longer asks a question, but the clause in which it is, is the accusative after the principal verb, then the verb in which the indirect interroga;
tive
is,
is
"
I did
not
know what he
(33S)
90
SUBJUNCTIVE.
The
close couuection
between the
iufiuitive
In English we junctive has been again and again jjointed out. frequently use the infinitive where the Latins use the subjunctive
and in Latin the imperfect and the pluperfect sub; junctive are formed by adding the personal terminations to the present and the perfect infinitive. Thus
:
amdre-va.
I should love.
amdre-S
amdre-t
Plur.
amdre-va.'o.a
we should
love.
amdre-tii
amdre-ut
I should destroy.
delere-S delere-t
Plur.
delere-mxii
rff ?ere-tis
we
should destroy.
delere-Jit
caper e.)
cap?re-m
capere-B
caper^-X,
I should take.
Pltjr.
capere-ro-US
we
should take.
capere-iis
copej'e-nt
amavisse.)
amavisse-m
amavisse-s amavisse-t
Plur.
amavisse-ravia
we
amavissc-lia
amaidssc-nt
should have loved. ye would have loved. they would have loved.,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
(Perfect Infiiiitive Active
:
91
delevisse.)
Sing,
delevisse-vo.
delevisse-B delevissS-t
Plur.
delevisse-mvis
delevisse-tia
we should have
destroyed.
delevisse-nt
cepisse.)
cepisse-8 cepisse-t
Plur.
ceptsse-mus
cepisse- tis
we should have
taken.
cepisse-nt
is
and the
sonants
terminations to stems in
Stem:
Sing,
{ut) dele-a,-ni
dele-.
(that) I
(that) (that) (that)
(that)
may
destroy.
{ut) dele-Si-s
(ut) dele-a.-t
may
destroy. destroy.
Plur.
(ut) dele-a,-mus
(ut) dele-a.-tis
we may
ye
(ut) dele-&-nt
(that)
Stem:
Sing,
(ut)
audi-.
(that) I
audi-a.-m
may
hear.
(ut)
audi-h-s
(that)
(that)
(that)
(ut) audi-a,-t
may
hear.
hear.
Plur.
(ut)
audi-a,-mus
we may
ye
(ut) audi-a,-tis
(that) (that)
(ut) audi-a,-nt
Stem:
Sing,
(ut) capi-a,-in
capi-.
(that) I
(that) (that)
may
take.
(m<) capi-a,-s
you may
he
take.
(ut) capi-Sk-t
may
take.
92
Plur.
{i(t)
SUBJUNCTIVE.
capi-a-miis
(that)
(that)
we may
ye
take.
[ut] capi-a-tis
{ut) capi-Si-nt
(that)
Stem:
Siso.
{ut) cad-Si-m {ut) cad-a.-s
{ut) cad-dL-t
cad-.
(that) I
may
fall. fall.
you may
he
Plur.
{ut)
cad-&-mus
cad-a-nt
The present subjunctive of verbs with the stem in a is formed by cuttiug oflf the a and adding e and the personal terminations. The e is really the result of a blending of a of the
stem with another vowel
am-e-m
am-e-s
am-e-t
:
Stem: ama-.
Sing,
{ut) {ut) {ut)
may
love.
you may
he
love.
Plur.
{ut)
{ut) {ut)
am-e-mus
am-e-tis
am-Q-nt
may love. (that) we may love. (that) ye may love. (that) they may love.
184.
The Passive
dele-a-m
dele-as
dele-a-t
may destroy. may destroy. dele-a-tis....ye may destroy. dele-a-nt .they may destroy.
dele-a-mns..we
.
. .
PASSIVE. I may be destroyed. dele-a-r dele-a-ris,0T -re.. you may be destroyed. he may be destroyed. dele-a-tur
dele-a-mur
dele-a-mini
dele-a-ntur
we may be
destroyed.
So:
Sing,
audi-a-r
audi-a-ris, or audi-a-re
may
be heard.
be heard.
audi-a-tur
may
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Plur.
audi-a.-mur
audi-Si-mini
audi-SL-ntur
Sing.
capi-a,-r
93
may
be heard.
may
be taken. be taken.
taken.
capi-&-ris, or capi-a-re
capi-&-tur
may
Plub.
cain-a.-mur
we may be
ye
capi-a-mini
capi-a-nttz/r
SiNo.
leg-a,-r
may
be read.
read.
leg-a-ris,
leg-2k-tur
or
leg-a,-re
you may be
he
Plur,
leg-a-mur
leg-a-mini
leg-a.-ntur
Sing,
am-6-r
am-h-ris, or am-h-re
may
be loved. be loved.
loved.
am-h-tur
may
Plur.
am-h-inur
we may be
am-e-mini am-e-ntur
PASSIVE.
amdre-m
amare-s
ainare-t
amare-mus
amare-tis
ar)iare-nt
I might love. you might love. he might love. we might love. ye might love. they might love.
amdre-r
amare-tur amare-mur. amare-mini amare-ntur
amare-ris, or -j-c.you
might be loved. might be loved. he might be loved. we might be loved. ye might be loved. they might be loved.
I
So:
Sing,
{ut) delere-r {ut) delere-ris, (ut) delere-tur
(that)
he might be destroyed.
94
Plur.
(
SUBJUNCTIVE.
(that) (that) (that)
ut)
delere-mur
delere-mini
(nt)
{ut) delere-ntur
Sing,
(ut)
audlre-r
.
(that) I
or audire-re. (that)
(that) (that)
(that)
audire-tur
Plur.
(ut)
audire-mur
audire-mini
audire-ntur
we might be
(ut)
(ut)
Sing,
(ut) caperc-r
(ut) capere-ris,
(
or capere-re. .(thsit)
(that)
(that) (that)
ut)
capere-tur
Plur.
(ut)
capere-mur
capere-mini
we might be
taken,
(ut)
(ut) capere-ntu/r
Sing.
(ut)
fundere-r
or fun) '
(ut) fundere-ris,
/+ u4.\
dere-re
(ut)
fundere-tur
Plub.
we might be poured
out.
(that)
(ut)
fundere-ntur
into
The Perfect Subjuuctive Active is formed from the perindicative active by changing the i of the perfect stem Thus e, and adding ri and the personal terminations.
:
amavi.)
amave-ri-m
amave-ri-s
amave-rl-t
may
have loved.
Plur.
amav^-xi-mus
amave-ri-tis
amavS-ri-nt
Sing,
SUBJU>'CTIVE.
Plur.
{scio
95
(scio {scio
(I
know what) we took. know what) ye took. know what) they took,
187. The Perfect Subjunctive and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive are compound tenses. They are formed by the perfect
'the
with the present and imperfect subjunctive of participle passive therefore give here the subjunctive of verb esse, to be.
We
*the
verb
esse :
PRESENT.
SINGULAR.
siva
s78
PLURAL.
sit
simus
sitis
we may
be.
smt
IMPERFECT.
essem
esses
esset
essemus
esse tis
we should
be.
essent
PERFECT.
fuerim....T
fiierls
may
have been.
/werlmus. ...we
/Me'ttis
fuerlt
fuerint
may have been. ye may have been. they may have been.
PLUPERFECT.
/isscm...I should have been. you would have been. fuisses
fuisset
188.
Sing,
may have
been loved.
loved.
atnatxis sis
amatas
Plur.
amati.
sit
simus
sitis
amati
amad
Sing,
sint
captVLS sit
Plur.
capti simus
capti sitis capii sint
may have been loved. we may have been loved. ye may have been loved. they may have been loved. 1 may have been taken. you may have been taken. he may have been taken. we may have been taken. ye may have been taken. they may have been taken.
96
189.
SiNo.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
Plur.
amdti ess?inus...we should have been loved. avidd essetis ye would have been loved. amdti essent they would have been loved.
captas essera capius esses
ca2}tns esset
Sing,
I should have been taken. you would have been taken. he would have been taken.
Plub.
ca2)ti
is not possible to give the English of the subjunctive the subjunctive is rarely used by itself. The because by itself, on the clause in which subjunctive clause is generally dependent the form of the translation and is contained verb the pi-incipal into English therefore depends on the idea contained in the
190.
It
princijial clause.
191.
There
is
also a
of
the principal verb and the tense of the subjoined verb. To understand this, the tenses of the indicative have to be divided the present or primai-y, and the past or hisinto two classes
torical.
The present
is is
sulijunctive
have done"), and the future; and the present contemporaneous with these, and the perfect
subjunctive
perfect,
and
subjunctive
The past tenses are the imperfect, pluanterior. and the imperfect perfect indefinite ("I did"); is contemporaneous with these, and the pluperfect
is
subjunctive
anterior.
We may
,
PRESENT TENSES.
Present, Perfect definite,
1 f "^ ii
>
J
jL
contemporaneous;
Future,
PAST TENSES.
Imperfect, r \ f '^ \\ Perfect indefinite, K '^1^
Pluperfect,
/
t
THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
Thus
:
97
I
I
know what you say. have known what you are saying. I shall know what you are saying.
I
I
said.
know what you said. I knew what you were saying. Scieham quid diceres I knew what you were saying. Scivi quid dicercs I had known what you were saying. Sciveram quid dicercs Scieham quid dixisses .1 knew what you had said. I knew what you had said. Scivi quid dixisses Sciveram quid dixisses...! had known what you had said.
Sciam quid
dixeris.
I shall
. . .
I read that I
I
may
learn.
Legeham ut discerem
Legi ut discerem Legera/m ut discerem
192. It will be noticed that the Latiu subjunctive is often rendered by the English indicative. It is also rendered by " " " " may," should," &c. "We shall render it by may," should ;"
" " but the pupil is to remember that may" does not mean can," " and but is used as in the sentence, " I read that I may learn " " that should" does not mean ought," but is used as in the
;
"
sentence,
I should
have done
it,
had
known."
98
THE VERB.
PARTY193.
our survey of
all
all
the
the parts
THE VERB.
99
THE VERB.
parts of speech, but of the verb.
we have
I.
100
consonant and u.
THE VERB.
THE VERB.
1.
101
102
THE VERB.
NOUN
THE VERB.
103
FORMS.
i.
104
195.
SUM.
Verbs are usually arranged under four conjugations. consists of those verbs wliicli have their stem in a, the second of those which have their stem in e, the third of those which have their stem in a consonant or u or i, and the fourth of those which have their stem in i. There are some verbs that are irregular that is, do not form their parts in exactly the same way as the others and there are some verbs that are defective that is, are deficient ill some of the parts which all the other verbs have. 196. The most common of the irregular verbs is the verb
The
first
sum, to be
sum, fui,
esse.
INDICATIVE.
PBESENT.
S.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
sivi
sis
sit
sum
es
est
I am.
may
be. be,
you
he
are.
you may
he
is.
P. silmus
estls
we
are.
simUs
sitls
sunt
sint
IMPERFECT,
S. erani
I was.
essem,
I should be.
eras
erat
you were.
he was. ye were. they were.
esses
esset
essemiis
essetls
erant
essent
S. ero
erls
erit
I shall he.
you
will be.
be.
he will
may
be.
sis,
be about to
Mm)
siin..
erunt
futurus
{a,
um)
&c.
PERFECT.
S. fill
fuistl
fuit
I have been, or was. you have been, &c. he has been, &c.
fuerim
fucrls
fuerit
I may have been. you may have been. he may have been.
fueriiiis...we
fucritls
fucrint
may have been. ye may have been. they may have been.
SUM,
PLCPERFECT.
fueram....! had been. fucrds you had been.
fuerat
105
fuissem
fuisses
fuisset
he had been.
fuissetts....Ye
fuissent
FUTURE PERFECT.
S. fii^ro
fueris
fuerit
P. fuerimus .we shall have been. fueritis ...ye will have been.
/uerini. ...they will have been.
e.f
106
FIRST CONJUGATION.
FIRST CONJUGATION,
197. Verbs of the first conjugation have stems ending in a. They have are in the present infinitive active, and they have generally avi in the perfect indicative active, and atum in the
supine.
love.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
aino, I love.
aniB.s,
I
SUBJUNCTIVE,
amem, I may
ames, &c.
love.
&c.
IMPERFECT.
I was loving. ani&bas, &c.
ama,ba7)i,
l
a)na,rem, I
might
love.
ain&res, &c,
FDTURE.
ama,bo, I shall love.
a7na,bis,
j I
ainaturus sim, I
may
be about
[to love.
&c.
amaturus
sis, Sec.
PERFECT.
amaverim, I
may have
loved.
amaveris, &c.
PLUPERFECT.
j
I
&c.
FUTURE PERFECT.
araavero, I shall
have loved.
amaveris, &c.
IMPERATIVE.
First Form.
SINOULAR.
'
I
PLT7IULL.
I
ama, love
(thou).
FIRST CONJUGATIOX.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
107
Peef.
FuT.
loving),
loved).
amaturum
would
{am,
wn)
esse,
will or
love).
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
am&ns, loving.
Pkrf.
FuT.
amaturus,
a, urn,
about to love.
GERUND.
Gen.
amindi, of loving.
aniAndo, to loving.
(ad, inte7-) ania,tjduni (for or during) loving.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
amnndo, by loving.
SUPINES.
1.
amatum,
in order to love.
2.
198.
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PBESENT.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amer, I
amor, I
am being loved.
may
be loved.
am&ris, &c.
ameris, &c.
IMPERFECT.
a)/iarcr,
might be
loved.
am&reris, &c.
FUTURE.
am&hor, I shall be loved.
am&beris, &c.
l
PERFECT.
may have
been
[loved.
PLUPERFECT.
108
FIRST CONJUGATION.
FUTDKE PERFECT.
amdtui
aviatus
ero,
eris,
&c.
[loved.
IMPERATIVE.
First
Form.
rLURAL.
SINGULAR.
am&mini, be ye loved.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
amSiri, to
be loved (that
is
or
was
loved).
Pebf.
FuT.
amatum
has been, had (am, %ijn) esse, to have been loved (that been, or was loved). amatum iri, to be about to be loved (that will be or would
be loved).
PARTICIPLES.
Pees.
Perf.
Part, of Necessity,
or
,
amatus,
) '
a, ura, a,
amdmdus,
re-
Gerundive.
quiring to be loved.
:
CONJUGATED REGULARLY IN
avi,
atum,
ate.
cremo, I burn.
creo, I create.
I prepare.
trro, I
wander.
habito, I dwell.
CONJUGATED IRREGULARLY.
d6mo.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
109
SECOND CONJUGATION.
199.
Verbs
of the second conjugation have stems ending in e. in the present infinitive active ; and they have
generally evi or ui in the perfect indicative active, and or itum in the supine.
etum
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
monea?^, I may warn. moneas, &c.
monw,
IMPERFECT.
moneba^n, I was warning. monebas, &c.
I
FUTURE.
monelo, I shall warn.
vionebis, &c.
I
may
be
[to
al3oiit
warn.
PERFECT.
monMmw,
may
have warned.
[warned.
monueris, &c.
PLUPERFECT.
FUTURE PERFECT.
monuero, I shall have warned. monuSris, &c.
IMPERATIVE.
First Form.
SINGULAR.
I
PLURAL.
I
monl, warn
(thou).
monete,
warn
(ye).
110
SECOND CONJUGATION.
INFINITIVE.
PRE8.
FuT.
esse,
to be about to warn.
PARTICIPLES.
PBEa.
monens, warning.
moniturus, a, um, about to warn,
Pkbf.
Fur.
GERUND.
Gen. Dat.
Ace.
monendi, of warning.
moneyido, to warning.
(ad, inter)
monendum,
(for
or during) warning.
Abl.
monendo, by warning.
SUPINES.
1. 2.
monitum,
in order to warn.
200.
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PBE3ENT.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
moni&r, I
may
be warned,
montlris, &c.
IMPERFECT.
trwnebar, I
vionebaris, &c.
FUTURE.
monebor, I shall be warned. monebSris, &c.
I
'
PERFECT.
wio/n<s.<im,
Ihavebeenwamed.
I
'
monitus
es,
&c.
may
have been
[warned.
PI,UPERFECT.
rtOfti<Msemm, I
SECOND CONJUGATION.
FUTURE PERFECT.
monltus monitus
ero,
eris,
Ill
&c.
[warned.
IMPERATIVE.
First Form.
SINGULAR.
I
rLURAL.
I
mommini, be ye warned.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
moneri, to be warned.
Perf.
FuT.
esse,
monitum
iri,
to be about to be warned.
PARTICIPLES.
Pre3.
monendus,
Gerundive.
requiring to be warned.
112
THIRD CONJUGATIOX.
Without Supine,
floreo,
fiorui,
florere,
to flourish.
to
lie
pateo,
studeo,
patui,
atudui,
patere,
studere,
open.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
Verbs of the third conjugation have stems ending in a consonant. They have ere in the present infinitive Those which have their stems in i retain the i in the active. future indicative active and passive, in present, imperfect, and the present subjunctive active and passive, in the present partiThe % disin the gerund and gerundive. ciple active, and suband the infinitive in the active, imperfect present appears and the present infinitive passive junctive active and passive is formed as if the stem did not end in *, but in the consonant
201.
u, or
;
i,
i.
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PKESENT.
lego,
legls,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
I read.
leg&m, I
lega.s,
may read.
&c.
&c,
IMPERFECT.
legebam, I was reading. legebas, &c.
I
legerem, I
might read.
kgeres, &c.
FUTURE.
lcga,m, 1 shall read.
feges,
I
lecturiis sim,
may
be about to
[read.
&c.
lecturus
sis,
&c.
PERFECT.
legi, I
legisti,
legerim, I
legeris,
may
have read.
&c.
PLUPERFECT.
legeram, 1 had read. legeras, &c.
I
legissem, I
legisses,
might have
read.
&c.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
FUTURE PERFECT.
leyero, I shall
leyeris,
113
have read.
&c.
IMPERATIVE.
First Form.
SINGULAR.
I
PLURAIi.
I
lege,
read (thou).
leglte,
read
(ye).
kglto,
legitote,
ye shall read.
Pres.
Perf.
FuT.
esse,
to be about to read.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
.
l^gens, reading.
Perp.
FuT.
lecturus, a,
um, about
to read,
GERUND.
Gen. DAT.
Aoc.
legendi, of reading.
legendo, to reading.
(ad, inter)
Abl.
leg&ndo,
by
SUPINES.
1.
2.
202.
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
I
legor, I
am
being read.
leffSir,
may
be read.
legeris, &c.
ley&ris, &c.
114
THIRD CONJUGATION.
IMPERFECT.
legebar, I
was being
read.
legebaris, &c.
FUTURE.
lep&r,
I shall be read.
legeris, &c.
PERFECT.
lectus
lecttis
PLUPERFECT.
lectus
lectus essem,
FUTURE PERFECT.
I shall have been read. lectus eris, &c.
lectus ero,
'
IMPERATIVE.
First Form.
SINGULAR.
I
PLURAL
I
legtre,
be thou read.
legimini, be ye read.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
l^gi,
to be read.
esse,
Pert,
FuT.
lectum
iri,
to be about to be read.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
Perf.
lectus, a, urn,
1
)
Part,
or Necessity, or Gerundive.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
203.
capio, cepi, capttim, caplre, to take.
115
INDICATIVE.
ACTIVE.
116
THIRD CONJUGATION.
PARTICIPLES.
ca}nens.
captus.
capturus.
capiendus.
GERUND.
capHendi, capiendo, capiendum, capiendo.
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
audio, midlvi, midlttim, audlre, to hear.
117
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PEESENT.
audio, I hear. audls, &c.
I
SUBJUNCTIVE.
audi^m, I
may
hear.
awdias, &c,
IMPERFECT.
innliebain, I
was hearing,
audiebns, &c.
FUTUEE.
audisim, I shall hear. audies, &c.
I
auditurus
PERFECT.
audivi, I have heard, or I heard, audivigti, &c.
l
PLUPERFECT.
audlveram, I had heard.
uudiveras, &c.
I
FUTURE PEEFECT.
audh'ero, I shall have heard. audiveris, &c.
au(.R,
PLURAL.
I I
hear.
audita, he
s/ia/?
hear.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
audire, to hear.
audivisse, to
Perf.
Fdt.
have heard.
be about to hear,
auditurum
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
audiens, hearing.
auditurus, a, um, about to hear.
Perf.
FuT.
118
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
GERUND.
Gkn.
Dat.
Ace.
audie7idi, of hearing. audiendo, to hearing.
(ad, ititer) audiendiun, (for or during) hearing.
Abl.
audiendo, by hearing.
SUPINES.
1. 2.
205.
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
audia.r, I
may
be heard.
audi&ris, &c.
IMPERFECT.
audiebar, I
avdieharis, &c.
FUTURE.
aiidi&r, I shall
be heard.
audierig, &c.
PERFECT,
auditus sum, I have been heard. auditus es, &c.
I
may
have been
[heard.
PLUPERFECT,
auditus eram, I had been heard. auditus eras, &c.
1
auditus
essetn,
esses,
auditus
&c,
[heard
FOTDRE PERFECT,
auditus ero, I shall have been auditus eris, &c, [heard.
IMPERATIVE.
First Form.
SINGULAR.
audire, be thou heard.
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
audiri, to be heard.
119
Perf.
FuT.
esse,
audltum
iri,
to be
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
Pekf.
auditus, a,
Part, of
or
Necessity,
Gerundive.
'
Verbs
for practice
120
DEPONENT VERBS.
IMPERFECT.
(/ ivas exhorting,
etc. )
S.
largiebar.
largiebaris.
larglebatur.
verebamur. verebamini.
verebantur.
loquebamur.
loquebamini. loquebantur.
largiebamur.
largiebamini.
largiebantur.
FUTURE.
(/ shall exhort, d-c.
S.
)
loquar.
loqueris.
largiar.
largieris.
loquetur.
largietur.
P.
vereblmur.
verebimini. verebuntur.
loquemur.
loquemini. loquentur.
largiemur.
largieaiini.
largientur.
PERFECT.
(/
cfec.)
hor- fsum.
tatus,
a,
<.
locatus,
a,
Tsum.
s
es.
(.est.
largitus,
a, um
Tsum.
S
63.
es.
<
(,
es.
um
(.est.
um
riti,
est.
um
lo-
( est.
hor- fsumus.
tati,
ve- ("sumus.
I'sumus.
largiti,
I'sumus.
<
estis.
estis.
cuti,
<
estis.
estis.
ae, a (sunt.
ae,
a \ sunt.
ae, a (sunt.
ae, a (sunt.
PLUPERFECT.
(I
had
exhorted,
<bc.)
S.
hortatus,
a,
eram.
eras,
veri- f eram.
tus,
a,
locu- ( eram.
tus,
a,
largitus,
a,
eram.
J"
< eras,
( erat.
eras.
<.
eras.
um
(erat.
um
ve-
um
lo-
(erat.
um
lar-
( erat.
F.
hor- feramus.
tati,
("eramus.
("eramus.
J'eramus.
<
eratis.
riti,
eratis.
cuti,
eratis.
giti,
eratis.
ae,
a ( erant.
ae,
a ( erant.
ae, a (erant.
ae, a ( erant.
FUTURE PERFECT.
(7 shall
have exhorted,
etc.)
hor- ( ero.
tatus, < eris.
a,
veri- fero.
tus,
a,
locu- Tero.
tus,
a,
largi- Tero.
eris.
<
eris.
a,
tus,
<
eris.
um
hortati,
( erit.
um
riti,
( erit.
um
lo-
(erit.
um
giti,
( erit.
Cerimus.
-l
ve- f erimus
-s
(erimus.
-s
lar- rerimus!.
eritis.
eritis.
cuti,
eritis.
s
(
eritis.
ae, a ( erunt.
ae,
a (erunt.
ae, a (erunt.
ae,
erunt.
DEPONENT VERBS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
121
o^
DEPONENT VERBS.
DEPONENT VERBS.
GERUND,
{of exhorting,
G. hortandi.
Jic.)
123
verendi.
verendo.
verendum.
verendo.
largiendi.
largiendo.
largiendum.
largiendo.
loquendo.
SUPINES,
{in order to exhort, etc.)
1.
hortatum.
hortatu.
verltuQi.
veritu.
lociltum.
largltum.
largitu.
2.
locutu.
Verbs
for practice
Conor,
124
IRREGULAR VERBS.
IRREGULAE VERBS.
"We have already noticed srim as an irregular verb.
Its
com-
pound possum
208.
is
SUBJUNCTIVE.
S.
possum,
j)oti^s,
potest.
IMPERFECT.
S.
FUTURE.
S. pot^ro, poteris, poterit.
PERFECT.
S.
PLUPERFECT.
S.
FUTURE PERFECT.
S.
P. potaerhnus,
(Imperative wanting.)
INFINITIVE.
Pres. posse. Terf, jiotnisse.
I
PARTICIPLE.
pofcii.%
tive).
powerful (only as
adjec-
209. Sdo, edi, esum, edere, is inflected regularly, according to but besides the I'egular forms, it has the third conjugation also contracted forms, which are identical with those of the
;
es,
naturally long.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
PRESENT INDICATIVE.
S.
125
IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
S.
edis or
edit
es.
ederem
ederes
ederet
or
essem.
esaes. esset.
est.
P. editis
estis.
P. ederemus
ederetis
essemus.
essetis.
ederent
essent.
IMPERATIVE.
I^rst Form.
S,
Second Form.
S.
ede
or
es.
edito edito
or
esto. esto.
P. edite
este.
P. editote
estote.
INFINITIVE PRESENT.
edere or esse.
Fero,
tuli,
ACTIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S.
fe7v, fers, ffert.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
fcram, /eras, ferat. feramus, feratis, ferant.
IMPERFECT.
S. ferebam, ferebas, ferebat.
FUTURE.
S.
sis, sit.
sitis, sint.
PERFECT.
S.
tiili,
tulisti, tiiUt.
P. tullmus,
tulistis,
tuhrunt.
PLUPERFECT.
S.
FUTURE PERFECT.
S.
tvlero, tuleris, tiderit.
P.
126
IRREGULAR VERBS.
IMPERATIVE.
First Form.
Second Form.
S.
S.
fer.
P. ferte.
ferto.
P. fertote.
ferunto.
ferto.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
fterre.
GERUND.
Gen. ferendi. Dat. ferendo.
esse.
Per\
FcT.
tulisse,
Ace.
(a<i, infer)
ferendam.
Abl. ferendo.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
ftrens.
1. 2.
SUPINES.
Ja<ww.
totu.
FuT.
latunis, a, ot.
PASSIVE.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S. /-or, ferris, fertur.
I
SUBJUNCTIVE.
ferar, feraris, feratur.
IMPERFECT.
S. firebar, fircbaris, firebatur.
FUTURE.
S.
PERFECT.
S.
latus
{(I,
2m) sum,
sumus,
es, est.
latus (a,
um)
sim,
sis, sii.
sitis, sint.
P.
Mi
{ae, a)
estis,
sunt.
lati {ae, a)
simus,
PLUPERFECT.
S.
latns {a,
vm) eram,
eramus,
eras, erat.
eratis, erant.
latus {a,
um) essem,
essemus,
esses, esset.
essetis, essent.
P. lati
(ae, a)
luti {ae, a)
FUTURE PERFECT.
S.
latas {a,
um)
P. lati
IRREGULAR VERBS.
IMPERATIVE.
First
S.
127
Form.
P. ferimini.
S,
Second Form,
fertor.
ferre.
P.
feruntor.
fertor.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. ferri.
PARTICIPLES.
Perp.
esse.
,
latiis, a, uni.
a,
Gerundive.
um.
211.
(for
mage
non volo), I Volo, I will; nolo (for or magis volo), I wish ratliei*.
INDICATIVE.
PEESENT.
am
uuwilliug; male
S.
vSlo.
nolo.
mdlo.
vis.
vis.
vult.
vult.
mavis. mavult.
P. volumus. vultis.
volunt.
nolumus.
vultis.
tiolunt.
malumus.
mavultis.
malunt.
IMPERFECT.
S. voleham, has, hat. P. volebamus, atis, ant.
i
nolebamus,
atis, ant.
FUTURE.
S. volam, es,
et.
i
P. volemus,
ctis, ent.
malam,
ent.
es, et.
etis, ent.
malemus,
PERFECT.
S. volui, i^ti,
it.
[imt.
er-
nolui,
isti, it.
malui,
isti, it.
P. voluimus,
istis,
noluimus,
istis, eriint.
maluimus,
istis,
erunt.
PLUPERFECT.
S.
volueram, as,
ant.
at.
P. volucramus,
atis,
FUTURE PERFECT.
S.
voluero,
iSy^it.
noluero,
is, it.
P. valuer imus,itis,
int.
noluerimus. His,
int.
int.
128
IRREGULAR VERBS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
nolim,
I
is, it.
nolimus,
itis, int.
int.
IMPERFECT.
S. vellem, es, et.
nollem,
es, et.
noUemus,
etis, ent.
PERFECT.
S. voluerim,
is, it.
noluerim,
is, it.
itis, int.
P. volmmnus,
itis, int.
noluerimus,
int.
PLUPERFECT.
S. voluissem, es,
et.
I
noluissem,
es, et.
P. voluissemus,etis,ent.
noluissemus,
etis, ent.
ent.
IMPERATIVE.
First Foiin.
S.
noli.
P. nolite.
Second Form.
S.
nolito.
P. nolitote, nolunto.
INFINITIVE.
PRESENT.
velle.
nolle.
malle.
PERFECT.
voluisse.
I
noluisse.
mahdsse.
GERUND,
volendi.
nolendo.
volendo.
PARTICIPLE,
voUns.
nolens.
IRREGUtAR VERBS.
212.
eo, ioi, ituin, ire,
129
to go.
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S. eo,
is, it.
Itis,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
earn, eas, eat.
P. imus,
eunt.
eamus,
IMPERFECT.
eatis, eant.
S.
ibam,
ibas, ibat.
Irem, ires,
iret.
ircmus,
iretis, irent.
FUTURE.
S. ibo, ibis, ibit.
iturus
I
{a,
um)
sim,
sis, sit.
PERFECT.
S. ivi, ivisti, ivit,
P. ivlmus,
ivistis, iverunt.
PLUPERFECT.
S.
FUTURE PERFECT,
S.
ivero, iveris, iverit.
iveritis, iverint.
P. iverimus,
IMPERATIVE.
I\rst Form.
S.
Second
S.
ito, ito.
Fwm.
itote,
P.
ite.
P.
eunto.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
ire.
GERUND.
Gen. eundi.
DAT. eundo.
Perf.
FuT.
ivisse.
itui^mii (a7n,
um)
esse.
euudum.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. iens (Gen. euntis). FuT. iturus, a, um.
1. 2.
SUPINES.
ituni,
itu.
21.3. Queo, I can, and nequeo, I cannot, follow the intlection of eo, but are deficient in many parts.
130
IRREGULAR VERBS.
queo, qu'ivi, quttum, quire,
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S.
S,
quibam,
quibat, &c.
IMPERFECT.
I
nequibam,
nequibat. nequibant.
S.
quibo,
P.
quibuut.
quiit.
FUTURE.
PERFECT.
\
nequibunt.
S.
quivi,
P.
quivit ov quiverimt.
nequivl,iiquisti,nequivitornequiU,
nequiverunt.
PLUPERFECT.
ncqu'hcrnt.
nequictrant.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
S.
S.
qulrem,
P.
IMPERFECT.
quiret.
neqnirem,
neqiiiremus,
quirent.
nequiret,
neqidreiit.
S,
P.
quivcrit.
quisstnt.
PERFECT.
I
ncquiverim,
neqidvcrit.
nequiverint.
PLUPERFECT.
iiequisset.
P.
neqaissmt.
INFINITIVE.
quire, qulvisse (quisse).
I
PARTICIPLE.
qulcns (Gen. queuntis).
I
214.
am
made.
It is used as the
passive oifacio.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Jio,factus sum^fien,
131
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S. flo, fls,
fit.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
flam,
fias, fiat.
P. flmus,
fitis, fiunt.
fiamuSffiatis, fiant.
IMPERFECT.
S.
fleham, fiebas,
fiebat.
fierem,
fieres, fieret.
FUTURE.
S.
flam,
fies, fiet.
fietis, fient.
P. fiemus,
PERFECT.
S.
factus
{a,
um) sum,
es, est.
factus
(a,
um)
sim,
sis, sit.
P. facti
sitis, sint.
PLUPERFECT.
S.
factus
{a,
um) tram,
eras, crat.
factus
P. facti
{ae, a)
eramus, &c.
FUTURE PERFECT.
S. factus {a,
P. facti
(ae,
um)
ero,
INFINITIVE.
Pkes.
fiS7'i.
PARTICIPLES
Perf.
factus, a, um.
)
Perf.
FuT.
Jim) esse.
Part, of Necessity,
or
faciendus, a,
Gerundive.
um.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
215. (1.) Coepi, memini, novi, odi, ai'e verbs used ouly in the Coejii means, I have begun, or I began ; but perfect tenses. the other three have a present meaning. Memini, I remember ;
shall
remember,
132
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
PLUPERFECT. mtmineram, &c. noveram, &c.
|
coeperam, &c.
oderam, &c.
FUTURE PERFECT.
coepem, &c.
I
7neminero,
Sec.
|
novero, &c.
odero, &c.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PERFECT.
coeperim, &c.
I
meminerim, &c.
noverini, &c.
oderim,
Sec.
PLUPERFECT.
coepissem, &c.
I
vieminissem, &c.
novissem, &c.
odissem, &c.
IMPERATIVE.
S.
memento.
P. mementote.
INFINITIVE.
coeptsse.
|
memiinsse.
nnvisse {nosse).
odisse.
coepturum
esse.
osurum
PARTICIPLES.
esse.
osus, hating.
(2.)
.4 10,
inquam,fan.
aio, I say, or I
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S.
dio, ais, ait.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRESENT.
S.
P.
diunt.
P.
aias, aiat.
aiant.
IMPERFECT.
S.
IMPERATIVE.
aiebat.
S.
ai (antiquated).
PARTICIPLES.
aicns (rare).
S.
PERFECT.
ait.
The
? (do
rest wanting.
The form
a't'sne
you say so
?) is
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
inquam, say
I.
133
INDICATIVE.
PRESENT.
S.
FCTDRE.
S.
inquam, inquls,
inquit.
inqaies, iaqiuet.
P.
S.
Oi
IMPERFECT.
inquihat.
S.
PERFECT.
inquii, inquisti, inquit.
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.
S.
r
IMPERATIVE.
S.
{inquiat.)
inque, inquito.
/Gri, to speak, only fdttir of the present, a,nd fat us, the
participle,
pex'fect
are
generally used.
I
occui\
(3.)
Single forms.
Quneso,
beg
we
beg.
Fdrem, I should be, has forem, fores, foret, forent, and the inlinitive /(5re, which is frequently used for the future infinitive of sum.
Age, and plural agite, come now. Cedo, and plural cette, hand me or
tell
me.
avete
From
tives ave
and
salve, aveto
and
salveto,
and
and
salvete,
used
in salutation,
"
hail,"
"
welcome."
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
have no passive in English; but in the third person singular in tlie passive. Thus, vSnitur, from venio, I come. This passive means that th action of the verb is going on, but the persons the action
216. Intransitive verbs
Latin they
may have
doing
coming
sic 'itur
ad
astra,
go to the
There are also several verbs that are used only in the T\ms, pudet, poetiUet, piget.
tliird
The
134
Euglisli
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
nominative
is
;
me
pudet, I
me).
am ashamed
is
me poenitet,
repents
idea
There
is
The imperative
te
translated
by
peccati,
be ashamed
of
your
sin.