Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool 1

Summary This paper examines the strategic land use planning tool, Ecological-Economic Zoning (EEZ), developed in Brazil in the 1980s and applied extensively in the Amazon region to date. It introduces EEZ origins and evolution; definitions and implementation methodologies; and briefly reviews critiques to date and its application in the Amazon region. A framework is then established for analyzing this tool, covering theoretical, policy and practical issues and is applied to five key groups of aspects: economic, socio-political, environmental, spatial and operational. This leads to recommendations as to how the key issues identified can be the basis for learning from international experience; for future application of EEZ; and/or alternative and appropriate mechanisms for urban and rural areas in Brazil.

Keywords Land use planning; regional planning; zoning; Latin America; Brazil

This paper has been prepared under the aegis of the Research Project entitled Methodological Discussion and Application of Ecological and Economic Zoning (EEZ) to Urban Areas, which is jointly financed by the British Council and NEPAMA/PRONEX/FINEP/MCT in Brazil. The research team is composed of researchers from the following institutions: the Centre for Regional and Urban Studies (NEUR) and Centre for Research on Agricultural and Environmental Economics (NEPAMA) in the University of Brasilia; and the Centre for Environment and Human Settlements (CEHS) in the Edinburgh College of Art/Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK.

Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. Contents 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 2 2. Background .............................................................................................................. 3 3. Analysis of EEZ........................................................................................................ 8 3.1 Framework for Analysis ..................................................................................... 8 3.1.1 Critiques to date .......................................................................................... 8 3.1.2 Application of EEZ to date......................................................................... 10 3.1.3 Analytical framework ................................................................................. 13 3.2 Application of analysis ..................................................................................... 15 3.2.1 Economic Aspects..................................................................................... 15 3.2.2 Environmental Aspects ............................................................................. 17 3.2.3 Socio-political aspects............................................................................... 19 3.2.4 Spatial aspects.......................................................................................... 20 3.2.5 Operational aspects .................................................................................. 22 4 Conclusions on the future of EEZ .......................................................................... 23 4.1 Key issues .................................................................................................... 23 4.2 Specific recommendations ........................................................................... 26 4.3 On-going investigation.................................................................................. 31 5. References............................................................................................................. 31

Total word count body of text approx 7896 words to date (World Development does not specify maximum word length but maximum page length: 30 to 35 double-spaced pages including everything summary, main text, bibliography, notes. Using double spacing and font 11 for the main text only we are already at 33 pages.)

1.

Introduction

Strategic land use planning is applied in many different ways across the world, with varying degrees of involvement of the main actors in land development government and private sectors as well as actors within civil society. Strategic land use planning (territorial ordering 2 ) has been a government priority in Brazil for some time and has been manifested since the 1980s through a government-led mechanism entitled Ecological-economic zoning (EEZ). EEZ has been used as one of the instruments of national environmental policy and has been applied mainly, though not exclusively, in the Legal Amazon region.

In this paper the term strategic land use planning, more familiar to an English-speaking readership, is used to refer to what in Brazilian planning is known as ordenamento territorial or territorial ordering.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. EEZ sets out systematically and holistically to analyze the dynamics and inter-relations of biophysical and socio-economic phenomena. In so doing, ecological-economic zoning should guide the occupation of land, reduce negative externalities of production growth, protect biological diversity and, consequently, lead to a sustainable pattern of development. The basic assumption underlying the use of EEZ in the Brazilian Legal Amazon, for instance, was that the occupation and development of the region was occurring in a chaotic way, leading to high environmental and social degradation. According to this view, this state of things was due to erroneous government planning and policies, and to ignorance of the potential and vulnerability of natural resources in the region. In this context, it was proposed that through a comprehensive inventory of natural resources and social and economic data, better planning and policies could be devised. EEZ would thus be a basic tool towards a more sustainable occupation of land.

This paper examines EEZ as a strategic land use planning tool. It introduces its origins and evolution, definitions and implementation methodologies (Section 2), and briefly reviews critiques to date and the application of EEZ in the Brazilian Legal Amazon region (Section 3), as an example. In the same section, a framework is then established to analyze the mechanism, covering theoretical, policy and practical issues. This is applied to five key groups of aspects: economic, environmental, socio-political, spatial and operational. This analysis leads to the identification of key issues and the formulation of recommendations in Section 4.

2.

Background

Various types of zoning have been applied in strategic land use planning in Brazil for many decades. However, environmental zoning only appeared during the 1970s, seeking the protection of the environment against perceived negative impacts of economic growth. The Second National Development Plan (II PND, 1975-79) 3 20/06/08

Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. reinforced the need for rational zoning to define rural and urban land use under an environmental policy. In the beginning of the 1980s, the National Environment Policy included environmental zoning as one of its instruments. Also from this period is one of the first references to ecological-economic zoning (EEZ) for a new forestry policy for the Brazilian Amazon. Henceforth EEZ would develop primarily as a regional planning tool.

A first official conception of EEZ was proposed by the Brazilian Census Bureau (IBGE) 3 . In order to address the impacts that the diffusion of economic activities into undeveloped areas would have, an Environmental Commission was created, under the coordination of the Secretariat of Planning of the Presidency (SEPLAN/PR). The commission was created to allow collaboration between various public institutions and it adopted EEZ as its basic policy instrument. EEZ experiments were set up to identify zones in two priority areas: the Amazon and the Southeast (IBGE, 1986). In its initial conception, EEZ was a model of decision-making centered in government, predominantly at the federal level, and it was to propose and establish spatial divisions and classifications based on ecological and socio-economic factors.

The Brazilian government developed a National Policy of Regional Development (PNDR) in 1990, aiming to reduce differences among its regions and to consolidate a socially balanced and self-sustaining economic development process through four levels of planning: federal, regional, state and sub-regional (SDR/PR, 1990). Its operational strategy relied on a Permanent Macro Program (focused on providing economic and social equity among people from different regions) and a Strategic Program (ensuring that the interior would increase its share in the national and

In 1986, IBGE produced a paper that is considered to be a landmark in the development of EEZ in the federal government. For a critical analysis of the objectives, justifications, criteria and methodology of IBGEs proposal, see Leite (1991).

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. international economy). The Permanent Macro Program was characterized by a new management model driven by considerations derived from EEZ: the land was to be divided into sub-regions to concentrate investment and services, use natural resources appropriately, set up and improve productive facilities, and increase the welfare of the population through higher wages and better jobs. This division of the land was to be the result of a political process in which the technical criteria would be defined in accordance to the highest effectiveness of the governmental actions 4 (SDR/PR, 1990, p. 5). It was supposed to be a bottom-up strategy that would take into account communities needs, providing them with democratic ways to participate in government decisions (SDR/PR, 1990).

Also in 1990, a working group was created (Grupo de Trabalho, GT) to identify and evaluate all ecological-economic zoning experiences being conducted in the Amazon Region. The GT final report was extremely critical of these previous experiences, 5 indicating that although some of them mentioned some environmental aspects, the emphasis was on the economic aspects. Furthermore, state-level initiatives were being developed without due integration with those of the federal government (Cruz, 1993). Following GT recommendations, the Commission for Co-ordination of the Ecological and Economic Zoning of the National Territory (CCEEZ) was created, under the Secretariat of Strategic Matters (SAE).

Under the command of SAE, it became clearer that EEZ was to be an instrument of strategic land use planning aiming to achieve a sustainable pattern of development. Strategic land use planning was understood as being the spatial expression of economic, social, cultural and ecological policies. Furthermore, EEZ was defined as an

4 5

It is unclear what is meant by this in the cited document. [???] Among the analyzed studies were the RADAMBRASIL Project, the Zoning of Natural Resource Potentiality in the Amazon Region project (ZOPOT) and zoning experiments in

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. instrument to rationalize the occupation of land and to endow the government with a technical basis to incorporate spatial considerations into public policies. EEZ was to be used as a dynamic and continuous process in agreement with national, regional and local priorities. It was to be based on integrated decentralized action of the Federal Government with effective participation of states and municipalities in planning and implementation processes.

In 1994, the Ministry of the Environment (MMA) also became involved with EEZ. This meant a change in the direction of EEZ, given that the MMA was chosen as the main Brazilian partner to drive the Pilot Program for Protection of the Tropical Forests of Brazil (PP-G7). 6 The PP-G7 intended to implement a structured partnership so as "to facilitate the formulation and implementation of healthy environmental policies by the public sector institutions, in cooperation with the private sector and with society in general" (Banco Mundial, s/d, p. 4). Under this new approach, EEZ was to be an instrument of environmental management, with which state public investment and policies had to be compatible in order to access PP-G7 funds.

In this manifestation of EEZ a methodology developed by Becker & Egler (1997) was to be followed. These authors proposed that, by studying nature and society in a given territorial unit, the vocation of the land for agriculture or forestry, for conservation or any other use, could be detected and determined (Nitsch, 1998). Natural vulnerability and socio-economic potentiality were to be defined and mapped so that their superimposition resulted in a matrix of sustainability or contributions to territorial management. 7 Furthermore, Becker and Egler emphasized that EEZ would provide

6 7

the states of Mato Grosso, Rondnia and Acre. This program is funded by the G7 countries and its finance is managed by the World Bank. High vulnerability and low potential indicate conservation. High vulnerability and high potential characterize a critical area, destined for recuperation. Low vulnerability and low potential indicate consolidation. Low vulnerability and high potential characterize an area

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. land use regulation based upon three principles: effectiveness, valorization of differences (i.e. comparative advantage) and decentralization. It was assumed that EEZ was an instrument of land use management and, at the same time, a technical and political tool. EEZ was not to be a product in itself, but a dynamic process in which physical division of the territory into homogeneous, static zones was one part of the wider process of planning.

Advocates of EEZ [refs???] highlight aspects that make it a different planning tool from previous regional planning instruments. Firstly, the emphasis on decentralized land use management: 8 the geographical area of some Brazilian states, the territorial dispersion of economic activities and the weakness and lack of integration of public institutions make welcome any instrument that promises to manage land use in a decentralized fashion. Secondly, the constructive partnership among all stakeholders: social movements, NGOs and private enterprises have exerted political pressure to play a more important and increasing role in policy making in Brazil; in this context, the emphasis in planning was seen to be on the principle of power sharing instead of centralized administration. And third, the interaction of two dynamic processes, the natural and the social processes: this interaction is considered as the essence of the fundamental difficulties behind the selection of a sustainable pattern of development. [refs throughout paragraph???]

for expansion. Becker and Egler use the term decentralized territorial management; in this paper the term decentralized land use management is used instead. See also footnote 2.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool.

3. 3.1

Analysis of EEZ Framework for Analysis

3.1.1 Critiques to date EEZ has been the subject of a number of critiques to date. Ab'Saber (1989) has argued that EEZ was initially developed for new settlement in areas with extremely low levels of human occupation and hence the "anthropic" element is subsidiary, limiting its application in areas where human settlement is more pronounced. Schubart (1994) argues that the nature of zoning is regulatory but that its relationship with public policy formulation in Brazil is weak and that this is not resolved as yet. 9 Nitsch (1994) on the other hand considers that there is a fundamental problem with "zoning" per se, indicating that this is an essentially negative instrument. 10 In addition, Nitsch criticizes the implicit concepts of holism, ecological vocation, and harmony between man and nature. Nitsch thus fundamentally questions the nature of the assumption of common values and the inherent "ecological determinism" which he perceives as implicit in the EEZ methodology, and which he claims can be "hi-jacked" by ecotechnocratic blocks involving the national government, international agencies, planners and NGOs, as a means to undermine existing democratic processes. He proposes that "traditional regional planning 11 is a more positive instrument that relates better to the actual interest groups at a state and local level, and hence is more democratic.

10 11

Schubart expresses concern with the problems of linking "technical" processes with "policy" processes. In fact most of the policy instruments he mentions have had negative repercussions in Amazonia to date, according to Mahar (1989). Over and above this there are serious problems of reconciling different sectoral public policies in Brazil (Millikan, 1998). Nitsch does not make a distinction between mandatory zoning and indicative zoning, however. Nitsch understands traditional regional planning as being that with concrete infrastructure projects as well as zoning. These projects are traditionally phased territorial occupation as zones of land use within the reach of the projected infrastructure (Nitsch, 1994, pp. 502504).

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool.

Steinberger (1997a, 1997b, 1997c), on the other hand, has focused on the need to clarify what EEZ actually is with reference to its role in developing regional equity or celebrating regional "difference"; its role in integration of urban and regional issues; problems inherent in the concepts of "zones" and "scale"; and problems encountered in realizing the potential role of EEZ with reference to local authorities 12 . She stresses the potential role of EEZ as a dynamic decision-making mechanism for policy formulation with relevance for urban and regional scales/zones, although noting that a more appropriate methodology for urban application has not been developed as yet. 13 Steinberger also focuses on some of the structural and logistical problems of implementation of EEZ (e.g. lack of organization and "conscientization" or awareness in civil society of relevant issues; weak institutional capacity at state and municipal levels; and problems of representativeness of NGOs). 14

Based on the literature to date, additional queries about EEZ that can be raised include that, in Becker & Egler's (1997) methodology, the essential decisions have been taken in a purely technocratic exercise through which the zones have been labeled. All that is left is the finer detail of the policies to be attached to the zones whose vocation is already essentially technically decided. The definition of zones is thus still very "topdown", with the recognition of wider participation coming late in the process - i.e. after a series of factors have been surveyed - and hence the definition of interests is not permitted in the essential criteria. As defined in this methodology, and despite its attempts to widen participation, EEZ is essentially a supply-led mechanism, focused on predominantly federal government interests, which may include major national and/or

12 13 14

Particularly in the context of the PPG-7 project development in Amazonia. In this context Steinberger argues that EEZ needs to incorporate urban sustainability issues and thus urban land use factors. Nitsch however considers these to be secondary to the conceptual issues of the essentially negative nature of zoning.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. international business and other interests, with some attempt to involve state governments.

There is thus no real attempt to build on, or stimulate, any clear demand from potential stakeholders for a strategic land use process that balances ecological, economic and social uses - despite the rhetoric about municipalities and local private sector/civil society interests (these latter being generally assumed to be represented mainly by NGOs). This is patent in the initial review of participation in Steinberger (1997c). However, possible refinements to the participatory process would seem to be conceived in terms of defining existing interest groups, and thus assume underlying common interests. This does not recognize that (a) the objectives of EEZ themselves may be understood in radically different ways, or that (b) these understandings may be essentially non-reconcilable. EEZ is currently not structured to either act as a tool to build consensus where possible or allow negotiation around conflict where consensus is not possible. 3.1.2 Application of EEZ to date Despite its legislative position and definition as a key strategic land use planning tool, actual application of EEZ in Brazil has been relatively limited to date. The main focus for activity has been in the Legal Amazon, 15 where EEZ is sponsored as part of the PP-G7 Natural Resources Policy Project. All nine states within Legal Amazon have committed themselves to develop EEZ programs, but these are at very different stages, and in fact are being developed in significantly different ways, with various states opting to follow approaches which differ from the proposed methodology proposed by Becker & Egler (1997). Nevertheless, the basic thrust of the processes under way remain similar: macro-zoning, definition of priority areas, survey of bio-physical and

15

Nogueira et al (2000) briefly lists 8 other areas in Brazil where EEZ is, or has been, applied, as well as various countries bordering on Brazil where EEZ is being developed.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. social data and definition of zones, prior to socio-political discussion. A detailed description of the status of the process in the nine states is given in Nogueira et al (2000), but is briefly summarized here.

Acre The latest state to begin the EEZ process (April 1999), Acre has adopted a participatory approach from the onset, with the first step being political articulation before any diagnosis. The process also prioritizes socio-economic issues and the institutional means for negotiation to solve socio-environmental conflicts. By the end of 1999, areas for 4 key economic-ecological activities had been identified (wood extraction, extraction reserves, small-scale agriculture, and conservation and preservation) as the basis for negotiation with stakeholders. Amap Has concluded the first (macro) zoning phase and the technical detailed zoning of one priority area, and is now beginning the socio-political discussion of this detailed zoning. Amazonas Is only beginning the process, and is trying to involve the local population in a similar way to Acre. Maranho A geo-environmental and socio-economic zoning experience began in 1991, with results published in 1997. An EEZ using the Becker & Egler (1997) methodology is still to be started, although initial preparation of logistical capacity is underway. Mato Grosso An early experience with agro-ecological zoning was developed in this state from the late 1980s, but was considered too complex for use in planning and management. It was then decided to simplify the approach with an EEZ similar in substance to that used in Rondnia (see below). The subsequent legislation of an "ecological-economic-social" zoning (at 1:1,500,000 scale) was to be followed by a pilot detailed zoning, which was contracted to an engineering firm. The results are not yet

Very little empirical data is available as yet on these experiences, however.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. available, although state personnel have complained that they are not informed of the process being applied. Par One of the most advanced in the process, piloted in a limited number of municipalities. Following the Becker & Egler (1997) methodology, the technical part is complete in some of these and the socio-political process is underway, albeit with some difficulties as key stakeholders such as powerful loggers and ranchers perceive this as being against their interests. Rondnia Also far advanced, as agro-ecological zoning was developed in this state from the mid 1980s. The situation is also the best documented to date (Mahar & Ducrot, 1998; Millikan, 1998). EEZ was piloted here through a separate World Bank financed project (PLANAFLORA), effectively from 1996. However, these zoning experiments have been characterized by institutional conflicts and low involvement of local stakeholders. In addition, the passing of the first approximation zoning (scale 1:500,000) as a state law in 1988 led to considerable subsequent incompatibility with public policies (within the state and between state and federal agencies) and with activities on the ground, and led to the law being de facto ignored. Currently the institutions responsible for zoning are attempting to increase stakeholder participation, and a more detailed second approximation has been recently finalized. However, as Mahar & Ducrot (1998) indicate, some of the strongest support for zoning is coming from external stakeholders at national and international level. Roraima An EEZ for a 20,000 km area on the border with Venezuela is in the final stages, but no more information is as yet available. Tocantins This state is in fact undertaking a traditional agro-ecological zoning process, top-down and technical in nature. This to some extent reflects the less pressing environmental concerns in the region. Stakeholder participation is only planned after the technical zoning is complete.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. 3.1.3 Analytical framework The analysis of EEZ as a strategic land use planning instrument can be structured in an analytical framework (Figure 1):

OBJECTIVES: "p hilo sop hy" g enera l intentions

THEORETICAL ISSUES

CONCEPTUAL BASIS: e xp lic it ? im p lic it

POLICY ISSUES

METHODOLOGY: tec hnic a l p olic y

PRACTICAL ISSUES

CONSTRAINTS: struc tura l lo g istic a l

OPERATION: im p lem enta tio n eva lua tion

Figure 1. Framework for analysis of EEZ

The objectives of EEZ, as defined earlier, have implicit philosophical positions, represented in the general intentions e.g. that ecological vocation can exist and be technically determined; that rational analysis is the necessary basis for resource allocation; that consensus can be found between different interest groups, etc. In general, the conceptual basis for EEZ has not been made explicit, thus raising a series of theoretical issues, such as those discussed by Nitsch (1998).

The methodology for operationalization of EEZ focuses on the relationship between the technical instrument and policy-making, which has raised another set of policy issues, such as those of Schubart (1994), focusing on the nature of public policy and ultimately

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. political economics. However, the operationalization of the instrument in practice (implementation and evaluation) has encountered a number of constraints that are both structural (e.g. the weakness of civil society) and logistical (e.g. the technical capacity of implementing institutions) such as those raised by Steinberger (1997a, 1997b, 1997c) and which pose a number of practical issues.

A full analysis of EEZ and its relevance to strategic land use planning needs to incorporate these various levels of analysis and distinguish between them in any recommendation. This is the basis for the next section of this paper. Given the size limitations of a paper of this nature, we have grouped the aspects of EEZ analyzed under this framework into five main categories, and in each of these theoretical, policy and practical aspects are considered jointly: Economic aspects, including issues such as effectiveness, integration of ecological and economic principles, efficiency and equity; Environmental aspects, including issues such as the assumption of shared values, ecological determinism and principles of sustainable development; Socio-political aspects, including the basis of decision-making, participation, decentralization, social inclusion and integration of social, cultural and political aspects; Spatial aspects, including aspects such as the spatial basis (scale and territory), strategic nature, zonality and valorization of difference [Jorge, do you want to add in some text on this? If not we shall simply delete this]; and Operational aspects, including the relationship between planning and

management, relevance, viability, up-to-datedness and ability to deliver.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. 3.2 Application of analysis

3.2.1 Economic Aspects As in any zoning experiment, the effects of EEZ can be contradictory. In regulating possible uses of the land, one is regulating, indirectly and simultaneously, the value of the land (Henneberry and Barrows, 1990). The creation of zones may have effects upon the demand for land, the supply of land, the strategic behavior of stakeholders and the environment, generating negative externalities itself (Podogodzinski and Sass, 1990). These effects of zoning may generate inefficiencies and inequities, leading to zoning being questioned (including in the court of law), altered or even completely abandoned.

The effectiveness of EEZ in integrating ecological and economic aspects is questionable in the light of experience in the Amazon. A clear example is the rate of deforestation, leading to loss of biodiversity, one of the main negative externalities that EEZ is supposed to avoid. This has not been reduced after the first approximation of EEZ in Rondnia, for example. EEZ as yet has been unable to surmount the problem of enforcement encountered by other protectionist legislation in Brazil since the 1960s. 16 One of the reasons for this is that mandatory zoning regulations do not take into account the economic behaviour of farmers, ranchers and loggers who undertake nutrient mining in the Amazon abandoning fields when yields diminish and clearing new land, which is abundant.

It can be argued that EEZ could pre-empt these practices by inducing land scarcity through the creation of parks, reserves, etc., thus raising land prices and fostering

16

The Cdigo Florestal (Forest Law) (Brasil, 1965) states inter alia that it is forbidden to exploit primary forests in the Amazon basin without a proper forest management plan. It is public knowledge that this law is seldom enforced and, in the general case in the Amazon, logging is often illegal: high-grading, trespassing and encroachment are common practices.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. more sustainable farming and forestry practices. 17 This still does not address the basic problem at the root of ineffectiveness, which is that of legitimacy. Some argue that this problem could be solved through increased participation of stakeholders in the decision-making process. However, we can only expect the local population to cooperate if their opportunity cost of giving up land is somehow covered. 18

Any EEZ produces costs and benefits, and different stakeholders will bear them differently. Who and how much depends on many variables: land tenure arrangements, definition of property rights, time horizon, population density, to name only a few. These become more empirical than theoretical questions. Indeed, economic factors are influential also at a macro level. It is argued that environmental degradation could have been much worse without implementation of EEZ, and the reduced pressure for land occupation in some states where EEZ has been implemented is cited as proof [ref???]. However, degradation is observed equally in parts of the Amazon subjected to EEZ and in those not so. This suggests that the rate of occupation of Amazonia has been more influenced by macroeconomic and social factors originating outside the region (e.g. economic incentives to move there) than by any control mechanism within the region generated by an EEZ.

Besides not demonstrating effectiveness to date, has EEZ generated any benefits that can justify its costs, i.e. is it efficient? A frequently mentioned benefit from all EEZ experiments in the Brazilian Legal Amazon is the unprecedented provision of training

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18

This seems to be what Nitsch (1998, p. 4) has in mind when he suggests that Zoning by itself is restrictive (zoning is negative). If you want to avoid massive protests, do your zoning in a piecemeal fashion, starting with highly critical areas. Protected areas are not without reason called national parks everywhere in the world, because the decision of turning a certain area into a protected one, is taken on the national, not the local level. This could be done in several ways, e.g.: 1) increasing the profitability of sustainable activities through subsidies; 2) tax unsustainable activities to reduce their profitability; and/or 3) reduce interest rates. These measures would reduce the need for new land, as staying in old land would still be profitable. But, the adoption of these measures is subject to the uncertainties of political process, making EEZ highly dependent on aspects beyond

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. opportunities for technical staff in the public sector in some fields, such as geographical information systems (GIS). In addition, it is argued that EEZ has yielded much previously unknown information on the Amazon that can be fed into policy-making [refs???]. Nevertheless, efficiency has to do with benefits in relation to costs, and from this point of view it is clear that training and data collection could be achieved with a much lower investment. 19 Moreover, we have argued above that the information has not been effectively fed into policy making.

Finally, advocates of EEZ claim that it will have equity impacts favorable towards the poorest social groups, noting that economic and politically powerful interests tend to be the principal opponents of EEZ [refs???]. This argument, however, ignores that the apparent acceptance of EEZ by the poor and weak may be due in reality to their lack of awareness of it. This interpretation finds support in their negative reaction where the EEZ process definitely is known by them. 20 Indeed, if EEZ is implemented and the price of land rises due to restricted access, only economically powerful stakeholders will be able to buy land at these higher prices. In other words, in the longer run, poor small farmers may have to bear the costs of zoning. 3.2.2 Environmental Aspects Nitsch (1994) questioned the assumption of shared values and ecological determinism apparent in EEZ (see 3.1.1 above). We hold it as self-evident that concepts of nature are socially produced. Therefore there can be no objective concept of what is right for

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the planners control, and therefore not dependable as a policy instrument. It is not easy to ascertain how much has been spent on EEZ so far, due to data aggregations in the Brazilian budgetary system. However, it can be estimated that between US$ 250 and US$ 350 million were expended on EEZ in Brazil in the last five years (source: Nogueira et al (2000)). Pogodzinski and Sass (1990) remind us that zoning will only increase social welfare if the negative externalities it prevents exceed what it costs to implement and monitor. Rondonias first approximation failed to recognise the rights of small farmers who had established themselves in Zones 4 and 5 before the passage of the State Zoning Law. These have resented EZZ ever since. Many small farmers also resent the fact that EEZ

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. the land. Agronomist, ecologist, timber merchant, rancher, seringueiro, indigenous Indian - each holds a different view of what is right for the land founded on his or her cultural and economic circumstances. It follows that the allocation of a tract of land to a use can be determined only through some political process which mediates between such stakeholder interests.

Becker and Egler (1997, p. 7 and pp. 9-10) emphasize that, in the Brazil of today, this political process needs to be increasingly democratic. Yet their methodology first assigns land a vocation through a technical procedure, which does not recognize its value-laden nature, and only afterwards opens these decisions to review through a political consultation process. The land allocation process also rather uncomfortably cross-matches a narrow conception of natural vulnerability, focused on erodibility, with a contrastingly broad-brush assessment of socio-economic development potential. There is a suspicion here of a supply-driven approach to appraisal: the abundance of earth science data is driving the methodology.

We suggest that, instead, a set of sustainable development operating principles should be identified, from which can be derived criteria for appraising development proposals. These principles should be agreed by negotiation between stakeholders (e.g. through the CEZSEEs 21 ) and, in keeping with our advocacy of a demand-led approach to planning, applied to issues of land use allocation raised through an open process in which stakeholders participate from the outset. We outline a set of such principles in the recommendations (see 4.2.c).

limits the amount of land available for settlements (Mahar and Ducrot, 1998). 21 CEZSEEs are the State Commissions for Ecological and Socio-economic Zoning.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. 3.2.3 Socio-political aspects

The socio-political objectives of zoning are crucial, as ignoring these can represent serious obstacles to its implementation. To date EEZ has been promoted by the federal level, and it has taken considerable time to be promoted at state level in the Amazon states, with different approaches as noted above (3.1.2). This has paralleled the widening of the democratic basis of the State itself in Brazil through decentralization to state and municipal level, although it is also closely associated with reduced State capacity at all levels. This, in turn, is feeding a growing political recognition of the need to involve key stakeholders in the decision-making process whether this emanates from an ideological position as in Acre, or from a pragmatic reaction to the political realities, as in Rondnia. In states such as Amap, which have initiated the EEZ process based on the methodology of Becker & Egler (1997), problems arise because of its technocratic approach.

As argued above (3.1.1), the socio-political problems arise from two fundamental weaknesses of the Becker & Egler methodology: (1) its basis in technical rationality and the inherent conceptions and manifestations that this entails (vocation of territory, and weak links with political and social processes); and (2) the concept that harmony between man and nature, and consensus between interest groups, can inevitably be reached around rationally defined goals. The result is a supply-driven methodology with admittedly a broadening of socio-political involvement, though in a limited way, rather than a demand-driven process which starts from socio-culturally and politically defined needs and positions, and which seeks to negotiate resource use between different local, national and even international interests, whether politically powerful or not. This latter would entail a radical revision of the process, and indeed of the nature of the appropriate strategic land use planning instruments, whether zoning or other.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. The outcome of the inherent technical determinism is usually precarious, as the experience in Rondnia shows, and can undermine quite legitimate strategic land use and environmental issues. An important aspect of creating an adequate socio-cultural and political basis for land use planning is the definition of agreed objectives, mechanisms and processes i.e. defining the arena and rules for decision-making, and not just agreeing to or rejecting pre-defined proposals. This entails social inclusion as an explicit objective i.e. both avoiding creation of inequality, and decreasing existing inequality as well as wide participation and decentralization of decisionmaking. Only in this way can a legitimate basis for the practical operationalization of the results be created, given the vast areas and difficulties in regulation within Amazonia. The planning process in addition has to accept that consensus may not be reached, but that different interests can negotiate an acceptable equilibrium. It also entails instituting processes to allow this equilibrium to be maintained and re-negotiated in time.

Overall what is necessary is a strategic land-use planning process which establishes certain rights and objectives, as well as access to resources (financial and technical), and which allows decentralized initiatives to develop the most appropriate processes to deal with the priority issues, as defined by the stakeholders. Rather than starting with a technical exercise, inevitably loaded with values, the first step is therefore to establish a socio-political process and suitable institutions to implement this, such as is being proposed in Acre. However, the mechanisms to negotiate and balance conflicting interests between local and (probably more powerful) national and international entities also need to be created, with clear definition of institutional infrastructure and rights. 3.2.4 Spatial aspects Two issues concern us here: scale and strategy.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. Legal Amazonia confronts the land use planner with a vast range of spatial scales from the near-continental to the local urban. We would argue, however, that it is not quite so vast a range as space alone suggests, because it is moderated by the very low density of human settlement. Thus we should more properly speak of socio-spatial scale. As indicated above (3.1.1), commentators have suggested that an EEZ formulated for the occupation of relatively empty lands is not a useful instrument at the opposite end of the socio-spatial spectrum. The very exclusion to date of urban areas from the EEZ exercises in Legal Amazonia demonstrates this. The denser the settlement, the more anthropic the landscape, the less the population is living directly off the land, and the less appropriate is a planning instrument which is conceptually founded in agroecological zoning concerned with the biological and physical potential of the land. The question then becomes whether EEZ can still be valid as a conceptual framework, from which may be derived variants adapted to different socio-spatial scales. The arguments presented in the preceding sections indicate that it would need radical surgery to be so.

EEZ has from the outset been put forward as a strategic land use planning tool (see section 2). The concept of strategy may be confused with that of scale, as reflected in the common expression strategic scale. We interpret a strategic approach as fundamentally consisting of two elements: concern with establishing general principles rather than with applying them in specific instances; and intent to integrate the actions of players or sectors. This implies no automatic linkage between strategy and scale. It does, however, imply that to be a strategic land use planning tool, EEZ must be integrative and founded on general principles. Does it pass these tests? It certainly is founded on principles, but, as we have argued, ones which we believe render it inappropriate at least to more anthropic contexts. We suggest that it also fails the test of integration, because the crucial determinations are made first through a technocratic process and only subsequently exposed to a political participative process likely to tie in with policy making and to generate legitimacy (3.2.3). 21 20/06/08

Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. 3.2.5 Operational aspects An important operational aspect of ecological and economic zoning is how amenable it is to a management rather than a planning approach. Whilst planning predicts and fosters end states on the basis of previous states, management is based on continuous (or more appropriately cyclical) interaction between goals, monitoring and feedback. The EEZ methodology proposed by Beckler and Egler (1997) is a process leading to the definition of zones, but little is said about how these zones (or indeed zoning itself) are to be managed thereafter. In practice, in the case of Rondnia conflicts have arisen in the management of the zoning process itself, where many commissions other than the CEZSEE have had a remit in EEZ planning, monitoring and evaluation.

Closely related to the above is the viability of EEZ, which has to do with the availability of sufficient resources to apply it, as well as with the necessary institutional, social and political support. From the point of view of policy-making, EEZ is viable for the purpose of defining zones. The production of zoning maps and documents can be a relatively straightforward process if kept at a technical level, as in Tocantins, and the decreasing costs of information technology can be seen to favor this kind of approach. However, it is the subsequent implementation of EEZ that raises questions about its viability, especially in terms of institutional, social and political support, which is raised through other approaches rather than specifically through zoning.

Plans need to be up-to-date to be credible and relevant. Up-to-date means being based on recent data, addressing contemporaneous issues and being within the plans formal lifespan. The EEZ process tends to produce zoning documents that are static, risking obsolescence in the face of rapidly changing realities. The EEZ policy-making process in Amazonia does not take this into account as there is no legal determination as to how long EEZs are to be valid. Indeed, the top-down character of EEZ is

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. reflected in the fact that new EEZs are apparently prepared when the state or federal governments take a political decision that it is necessary, rather than through a consensus that the documents are too outdated to be useful. The latter can be achieved through constant monitoring or through periodic surveys. Becker & Egler (1997) propose monitoring, involving the universities, to assess transformations in space and resource utilization and to evaluate the outcomes of actions. Although monitoring of certain aspects (physical, etc.) might be made increasingly easy by improved information technology, assessing the social relevance of the standing documents, and in particular their relevance to aspirations of the different stakeholders, requires participatory mechanisms to be in place. However, in three of the nine Legal Amazon states where EEZ has begun these mechanisms were not in place even for the first round of data collection.

Finally, all of the above require that there is an ability to deliver, that is that plan policies and proposals connect with those of actors who deliver development, including government agencies that deliver infrastructure. This requires above all coordination with these actors, which becomes optimal when these share in the decision-making. Problems have been faced in practice, however, for example in the case of Rondnia, where conflicts have arisen between the CEZSEE and other levels of government. 22

4 4.1

Conclusions on the future of EEZ Key issues

Key issues arising from this analysis can be summarized as being:

22

For example: (1) executive decrees have changed the zoning; (2) bills that significantly alter the EEZ have been approved by the Legislative branch; and (3) public policies that ought to be compatible with zoning (land ownership, agriculture, environment, etc.) have been prepared and implemented without any participation of the CEZSEE (Millikan, 1998).

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. What new contributions, if any, has EEZ as a technique brought to strategic land use planning in theory and practice? What is the relevance of EEZ, as currently conceptualized, as a strategic land use planning tool for use in the context of Brazil, at both policy and operational levels? How can it contribute to a strategic land use planning process which is not only environmentally but also politically, economically, socially and culturally sensitive, and thus take into consideration a wide range of probably conflicting interests? How can it allow local, state and federal interests to be balanced with international interests, and how can these be expressed in resource terms, as well as with an appropriate legal basis? How can EEZ or a strategic land use planning mechanism which involves land use specification be developed to support development of areas more affected by human agency such as urban and rural/urban interfaces?

The authors query the innovative nature of EEZ in theory and practice. While the techniques associated with EEZ in Brazil and especially the Becker & Egler (1997) methodology have been innovative in drawing together physical and socio-economic data as the basis for land use planning, and instituting a level of participatory decisionmaking, this is arguably no more than would have been expected of a well prepared regional or urban strategic land use plan such as a structure plan, which might well have been better related to the real policy and operational environment. In addition, the inherently top-down and technically-led planning tendency contains a series of assumptions at the theoretical and policy-making level which are open to criticism.

The difficulties of instituting a standard methodology across such a vast territory with many different potential stakeholders, and in a time of significant national and international changes in the political economic context, have been very influential in the

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. difficulties in: (1) promoting EEZ application at state level; (2) relating the exercise to political realities and public policy formulation; and (3) its realistic implementation. There is no doubt that states have used the international and national resources made available to increase their institutional knowledge and capacity, but these, whilst useful products, are not the overall objectives. It could be argued that the process is still in course. Nevertheless, the considerable time and costs expended to date might have been better directed to creating socio-political processes and institutions to underpin strategic land use planning, as opposed to what have been seen as externally imposed technical exercises that do not respond to significant local demands.

As a result we suggest that, if EEZ is to continue in its present forms, then it needs to have a counterpart level of activity. This, rather than starting at a macro scale with a strong technical determination and being seen as a fairly finite process, would start at the micro scale with strong socio-cultural and political determination and be structured as an on-going process. This counterpart activity needs the definition of legal rights within the international, national and state contexts, and allocation of resources to permit its economic operationalization not only as a spatial planning instrument, but also as a public policy instrument. Hence instead of financing a finite process through international funding there is a need to establish economic incentives for different state, national and international interests to be balanced with local needs and market opportunities. This may well entail the application of some form of international resource accounting system that integrates international and national concerns with state and local level concerns, providing socio-economic as well as political incentives. 23

23 The potential loss of carbon in the tropical forests of Brazil has been likened to a "carbon sink" (reference? JR). To maintain a global balance of carbon emissions there is international pressure to reduce the destruction of the forests through burning. This raises the potential for negotiation between Brazil and other interested parties (nations and supranational bodies) at a political level to create socio-economic incentives to avoid forest destruction - possibly through funding alternative forms of development. The economic basis

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool.

Fundamentally we would suggest that zoning should primarily be seen not as mandatory and regulatory, but as indicative, with public policy at the various state levels supporting the desired land uses. The process of zoning needs to be subordinated to the socio-political process, and this entails identifying the main interest groups and their interests, and creating space for negotiation between these on specific issues, building up to strategic issues at larger scales, instead of vice versa. This process, instead of institutionalizing the top-down planning process, will create institutions for managing equilibrium between external and internal interests. We propose that such an approach can be practical and beneficial, efficient and equitable, and moreover be applicable in both rural and urban areas i.e. whether human intervention is at a lower or higher intensity. 4.2 Specific recommendations

The following are specific recommendations for the future development of an appropriate land use planning tool for Brazilian rural and urban areas:

(a) EEZ as a demand driven and cost effective planning instrument Consideration must be given to the cost effectiveness of EEZ applications. EEZ has been applied to date without much consideration of what is the social benefit (actual or expected) from each unit of cost. In this context, it seems that Nitschs (1998) suggestion of a more piece-meal approach to EEZ might be considered in future selections of priority areas for EEZ application, with a more rigorous application of costbenefit analysis. In particular the specific activity of strategic land use planning should be encouraged at local level through identification by stakeholders of key issues and/or conflicts, on the basis of which strategic implications would be identified to apply EEZ

for this could be contributions from the other interested parties which would otherwise have to invest more highly in carbon emission reduction.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. in its new form. In addition some form of cost-benefit accountability needs to be developed that can allow the equation of national and international strategic interests with those at state and local levels.

(b) EEZ as a participatory decision-making process The need to create a micro-level bottom-up approach in counterpart to the macrolevel top-down approach needs legal and institutional definition of the participatory and socially inclusive decision-making mechanism that should underpin the planning process. States are currently taking the initiative for EEZ application, and have a certain amount of installed technical capacity. This would be the most obvious starting point to kick-start a more inclusive process, since states have legal definition powers. Ideally the definition of the powers relevant to strategic land use planning would be drafted at national level for refinement and promulgation of the operationalisation at state level i.e. the final definition of which stakeholders would be involved and in what institutional/legal forms needs to follow similar structures nation-wide, but represent socio-political reality at state level. These state powers would include the need to reflect the rights of the identified stakeholders in the composition of the State Commissions of Strategic Land Use Planning; 24 the definition of rights at varying levels of government; and the definition of rights and responsibilities between State, private and civil society sectors.

At national government level National Policy Guidelines for strategic land use planning would be developed and promulgated to guide this process. 25 These would be

24 These commissions would replace the current State Commissions of EEZ, thus building on existing institutional capacity. Likewise, it is suggested the Commission for Coordination of the Ecological and Economic Zoning of the National Territory (CCEEZ) would become the National Commission for Strategic Land Use. 25 National Planning Guidelines was initially introduced in Scotland in 1974, where it has been developed as a structure for national policy and advice through National Policy Guidelines (NPPGs) and Planning Advice Notes (PANs). Similar guidance was introduced in England and Wales from 1988 (Planning Policy Guidance Notes and Minerals Planning Guidance

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. indicative, but state governments would have to demonstrate their adherence to (or justify their deviation from) these when applying for fund transfers to assist with strategic land use planning. Existing institutional set-ups for inclusive decision-making (where these exist) would be strengthened, and their creation encouraged where these do not exist. The national policy guidelines would be reviewed on a regular basis by the National Commission for Strategic Land Use Planning, based on submissions from state-level commissions, which in turn would respond to guidance from the subordinate levels of government and other stakeholder sectors within each state, permitting the valorization of differences to be expressed.

(c) EEZ founded on principles of environmentally sustainable development We suggested in 3.2.2 that, operating in a demand-led context, EEZ should follow a set of principles of environmentally sustainable development. One such approach which is gaining ground in Europe is a sequential approach along the lines of avoid mitigate remedy compensate: 1. Establish whether a proposed development is needed, within the planning horizon appropriate to the matter at hand. 2. If it passes that test, establish whether the site proposed for it is one which would minimize damage and maximize benefit to the environment. In particular, siting should ensure that natural assets which provide essential environmental services, and/or are not renewable within the timescale of planning (at least a human generation), are protected.

Notes). In the 1990s Regional Planning Guidance was also developed in England. These are statements prepared by central government to guide local governments implementation of strategic land use planning. These are indicative rather than mandatory although have been seen as material in legal evidence. This "legal imperative" reinforces the economic incentive for incorporation of national guidance in that central government can withhold needed central funds from local government, if strategic land use plans are not seen as adequately incorporating or justifying differences from this. The advantage of this system over direct central government legislation is its flexibility in that it is finally applied and developed at local level, while incorporating strategic national guidance, and can be adapted as needs evolve more readily than legislative instruments - a disadvantage already encountered in EEZ application in Brazil. See Jenkins et al (2000 forthcoming) for detail.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. 3. If the proposal passes this second test, then consider how any residual damage the development would cause to the environment could be mitigated (reduced). 4. Any adverse impacts which cannot be mitigated should be remedied (put right), preferably at the developers expense. 5. If satisfactory remedy is not practicable, then the developer should provide compensation, preferably in kind and close to the development.

One decision or action may in real life accomplish more than one step in the sequence. Note that there is no assumption about who the developer may be it could as well be a public agency as a private firm.

Such an approach would implement five universal principles of sustainable development: The precautionary principle, that we should hold back from actions for which there is good evidence that they would damage the environment, even if doing so carries an economic penalty, and even if we lack definite proof that damage would ensue. This is particularly the case where the asset at risk cannot be renewed. Protection of critical natural capital, which provides services which cannot be substituted by other natural, human or man-made assets. The polluter pays principle, that whoever is ultimately responsible for or benefits from the damaging development should pay for it (this may involve the developer passing on costs to the consumer of it, if they are not the same party). The best practicable environmental option, that which offers the best deal for the environment while meeting the purpose of the development at an acceptable cost. Demand management, which rejects the notion that demand should automatically be met, in favor of managing it to husband natural resources.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool.

The details of how such an approach would be implemented would depend on the legal and planning regimes obtaining in each state. However, two process principles which could be applied to implement it would include strategic environmental appraisal of EEZ and similar planning exercises, and the use of sustainability indicators to assist such appraisals and more generally to monitor progress towards adopted targets.

(d) EEZ as an open knowledge sharing mechanism In close relationship to point (b) above, access to information and knowledge through institutional channels needs to be opened up. This would avoid, for instance, situations in which the Secretariat of the Environment of a given state has almost no information on an EEZ that has been developed by the Secretariat of Planning of the same state. Allied to this, a better defined division of labor among public institutions seems to be essential if EEZ is to be established as one of the permanent tools of strategic land use planning in the region. It is recommended that regional universities and research institutions must have a clear and active role in that "division of labor. Related to this point, technicians in the region complained of the black box type of product that has been delivered by consultant firms contracted to develop the EEZ, in particular by national engineering firms (Nogueira et al, 2000). Technicians do not know how the results (usually maps) have been arrived at; promised training courses have not been delivered; and in contracting these firms a top-down approach is almost automatically implemented. It seems that states must be more selective in contracting consultant firms; in particular they must decide beforehand very clearly what they really want.

(e) EEZ as an educational tool The production of information and knowledge through EEZ at micro- and macro-levels should be used both as a process to increase both technical/planning skills within relevant institutions, and also as a general educational tool to permit changes of 30 20/06/08

Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. attitudes and a broadening of the understanding of issues related to environment and development. This is essential in any process of socio-political negotiation and is also essential to the operationalisation of the decisions reached. To be effective EEZ has to produce something recognized to be of value by the wider community who will support its application. Without this form of popular support the results of strategic land use planning will not go much further than colored maps and declarations of intent.

4.3

On-going investigation

This paper has raised a wide number of issues concerning various aspects of ecological-economic zoning concerning its past, its recent application, and its future. It has reviewed theoretical, policy-related and operational issues and made a wideranging analysis, albeit limited in depth due to space. The objective of the paper has been to stimulate debate on ecological-economic zoning per se, and its specific relevance to urban areas, as a strategic land use planning instrument. Many of the issues raised have not been resolved, and the general and specific recommendations above represent work in progress. The institutions indicated in the first footnote continue to develop research into appropriate methodologies for strategic land use planning in urban areas which incorporates ecological-economic zoning experience in Brazil, as well as international experience. The results of this work will be disseminated internationally through appropriate publications and the Internet.

5.

References

Banco Mundial (s/d) Programa Piloto para a proteo das Florestas Tropicais no Brasil. Banco Mundial, Braslia. Becker, B. K. and Egler, C. A. G. (1997) Details of the methodology for execution of ecological-economic zoning by the states of the legal Amazon region. MMA/SAE, Braslia.

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Ecological-economic zoning in Brazil an analysis of its application to date and relevance as a strategic land-use planning tool. Brasil (1965) Cdigo Florestal, Lei no. 4,771, 15/09/1965. IBGE (1986) Termos de referncia para uma proposa de zoneamento ecolgicoeconmico do Brasil. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica (IBGE), Rio de Janeiro. Jenkins, P., Raemaekers, J. and Smith, H. (2000 forthcoming) An overview of planning experience in the United Kingdom possibly relevant to EEZ. Caderno de Pesquisa em Desenvolvimento Agrcola e Economia do Meio Ambiente. Srie NEPAMA. Universidade de Braslia, Braslia. Mahar, D. J. (1989) Government policies and deforestation in Brazil's Amazon region. World Wildlife Fund and World Bank, Washington. Mahar, D. J. and Ducrot, E. H. (1998) LandUse Zoning on Tropical Frontiers. Emerging Lessons from the Brazilian Amazon. Economic Development Institute, World Bank, Washington. Millikan, B. H. (1998) Zoneamento Scio-Econmico-Ecolgico no Estado de Rondnia: Anlise de um Instrumento de Ordenamento Territorial na Fronteira Amaznica. Projeto BRA/94/007 (PNUD/PLANFLORO), Porto Velho, Rondnia. Nitsch, M. (1994) Riscos do planejamento regional na Amaznia Brasileira: observaes relativas a lgica complexa do zoneamento. In Amazonia e a crise da modernizao, M. A. D'Incao and I. Maciel da Silveira (eds.). Museu Parense Emilio Goeldi, Belem, 501-512. Nitsch, M. (1998) Planejamento sem rumo. Avaliao critica do Zoneamento Ecolgico-econmico nos Estados da Amazonia Brasileira. Parecer elaborado para a Secretaria de Planejamento do Estado de Rondnia. Projeto de Cooperao Tecnica PNUD/PLANAFLORO (BRA/94/007), Berlin. Nogueira, J. M., Chaves, F. T., de Medeiros, M. A. A. and Versiani, L. (2000) Ecological-economic zoning. Its conception, development and application in Brazil and relevance as a strategic planning tool for urban areas. Caderno de Pesquisa em Desenvolvimento Agrcola e Economia do Meio Ambiente. Srie NEPAMA 009. Universidade de Braslia, Braslia. Pogodzinski, J. M. and Sass, T. R. (1990) The economic theory of zoning: a critical review, Land Economics, 66(3), 294-314. Schubart, H. O. R. (1994) O Zoneamento Ecolgico-econmico como instrumento para o desenvolvimento sustentvel da Amaznia. In Amazonia e a crise da modernizao, M. A. D'Incao and I. Maciel da Silveira (eds.). Museu Parense Emilio Goeldi, Belem, 493-500. SDR/PR (1990) Um Modelo de Administrao para a Poltica Nacional de Desenvolvimento Regional: Sistema Integrado para o Desenvolvimento Regional/SIDER. Documento de Trabalho n. 3 (Verso Ampliada), Projeto FAO/PNUD, BRA/87/037. Secretaria do Desenvolvimento Regional/Presidncia da Repblica (SDR/PR), Braslia. Steinberger, M. (1997a) O Zoneamento Ecolgico-econmico como instrumento de ordenamento territorial urbano e regional, Revista Agora, [vol no? Issue no? Pages?]

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Steinberger, M. (1997b) O Zoneamento Ecolgico-econmico e o poder local. Conference proceedings of the VII Colloquium on Local Authorities, [Organising institution?], Salvador. Steinberger, M. (1997c) O Zoneamento Ecolgico-econmico como instrumento para tomada de decises campartilhada. Paper presented at the Inter-American Conference Dimenses humanas da mudana climtica global e do manejo sustentvel das florestas das Americas, Braslia.

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