Académique Documents
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Universtiy Students
in
Plovdiv, Bulgaria
1994
1
1 1 1 1 ... 1
1 2 2 2 ... 2
1 2 1 1 ... 1
A= ?
1 2 1 2 ... 2
....................
1 2 1 2 ... ...
Solution. Denote by aij and bij the elements of A and A−1 , respectively.
n
P
Then for k 6= m we have aki bim = 0 and from the positivity of aij we
i=0
conclude that at least one of {bim : i = 1, 2, . . . , n} is positive and at least
one is negative. Hence we have at least two non-zero elements in every
column of A−1 . This proves part a). For part b) all b ij are zero except
b1,1 = 2, bn,n = (−1)n , bi,i+1 = bi+1,i = (−1)i for i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
d f 0 (x)
(arctg f (x) + x) = +1≥0
dx 1 + f 2 (x)
for x ∈ (a, b). Thus arctg f (x)+x is non-decreasing in the interval and using
π π
the limits we get + a ≤ − + b. Hence b − a ≥ π. One has equality for
2 2
f (x) = cotg x, a = 0, b = π.
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an−1 xn−1 ∈ I
(1)
for all a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ Q+ with a1 + a2 + · · · + an−1 > 0.
Also
n−1 n−1
dk xn+k = R for some dk ∈ Q+ ,
X X
(3) dk > 0, R ∈ Q.
k=0 k=0
i=1
k
F k−i ◦ (F ◦ G − G ◦ F ) ◦ F i−1 =
X
=
i=1
k
F k−i ◦ αF ◦ F i−1 = αkF k .
X
=
i=1
b) Consider the linear operator L(F ) = F ◦G−G◦F acting over all n×n
matrices F . It may have at most n2 different eigenvalues. Assuming that
F k 6= 0 for every k we get that L has infinitely many different eigenvalues
αk in view of a) – a contradiction.
b) Find Z π sin x
lim dx.
n→∞ 0 1 + 3cos 2 nx
Z b
Solution. Set kgk1 = |g(x)|dx and
0
n bk/n b
1X
Z Z
= f (x)dx g(x)dx
b k=1 b(k−1)/n 0
n
!Z
1X b
Z bk/n b
+ f (bk/n) − f (x)dx g(x)dx + O(ω(f, b/n)kgk1 )
b k=1 n b(k−1)/n 0
1
Z b Z b
= f (x)dx g(x)dx + O(ω(f, b/n)kgk1 ).
b 0 0
This proves a). For b) we set b = π, f (x) = sin x, g(x) = (1 + 3cos 2 x)−1 .
From a) and
Z π Z π π
sin xdx = 2, (1 + 3cos 2 x)−1 dx =
0 0 2
we get Z π sin x
lim dx = 1.
n→∞ 0 1 + 3cos 2 nx
bi bi
for some xi ∈ (mi−1 , mi ). Hence = f 0 (xi ) and so −1 < < 1. From the
ai ai
bi
convexity of f we have that f 0 is increasing and = f 0 (xi ) < f 0 (xi+1 ) =
ai
bi+1
because of xi < mi < xi+1 .
ai+1
5
for all x ∈ [a, b]. Is it true that f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ [a, b]?
Solution. Assume that there is y ∈ (a, b] such that f (y) 6= 0. Without
loss of generality we have f (y) > 0. In view of the continuity of f there exists
c ∈ [a, y) such that f (c) = 0 and f (x) > 0 for x ∈ (c, y]. For x ∈ (c, y] we
have |f 0 (x)| ≤ λf (x). This implies that the function g(x) = ln f (x) − λx is
f 0 (x)
not increasing in (c, y] because of g 0 (x) = −λ ≤ 0. Thus ln f (x)−λx ≥
f (x)
ln f (y) − λy and f (x) ≥ eλx−λy f (y) for x ∈ (c, y]. Thus
(1) x(1 − x2 + y 2 ) = 0.
Similarly
(2) y(1 + x2 − y 2 ) = 0.
All solutions (x, y) of the system (1), (2) are (0, 0), (0, 1), (0, −1), (1, 0)
and (−1, 0). One has f (1, 0) = f (−1, 0) = e −1 and f has global maximum
at the points (1, 0) and (−1, 0). One has f (0, 1) = f (0, −1) = −e −1 and
f has global minimum at the points (0, 1) and (0, −1). The point (0, 0)
2
is not an extrema point because of f (x, 0) = x 2 e−x > 0 if x 6= 0 and
2
f (y, 0) = −y 2 e−y < 0 if y 6= 0.
Let V be the space of all n × n matrices B such that AB = BA. Prove that
the dimension of V is
d21 + d22 + · · · + d2k .
Note (1) is true for n = 1. We choose π(n + 1) in a way that (1) is fulfilled
n
P
with n + 1 instead of n. Set y = xπ(i) and A = {1, 2, . . . , k} \ {π(i) : i =
i=1 !
1, 2, . . . , n}. Assume that (y, xr ) > 0 for all r ∈ A. Then y,
P
xr >0
r∈A
and in view of y +
P
xr = 0 one gets −(y, y) > 0, which is impossible.
r∈A
Therefore there is r ∈ A such that
(2) (y, xr ) ≤ 0.
n n+1
kxπ(i) k2 + kxr k2 = kxπ(i) k2 ,
X X
≤
i=1 i=1
which verifies (1) for n + 1. Thus we define π for every n = 1, 2, . . . , k.
Finally from (1) we get
2
n n k
X
kxπ(i) k2 ≤ kxi k2 .
X X
xπ(i)
≤
i=1 i=1 i=1
ln2 N NX
−2
1 ln2 N N − 3 3
(1) AN = ≥ · 2 =1− .
N k=2 ln k · ln(N − k) N ln N N
1
Take M , 2 ≤ M < N/2. Then using that is decreasing in
ln k · ln(N − k)
[2, N/2] and the symmetry with respect to N/2 one get
M N −M N
ln2 N X X−1 X −2
1
AN = + + ≤
N k=2 k=M +1 k=N −M ln k · ln(N − k)
ln2 N M −1 N − 2M − 1
≤ 2 + ≤
N ln 2 · ln(N − 2) ln M · ln(N − M )
2 M ln N 2M ln N 1
≤ · + 1− +O .
ln 2 N N ln M ln N
N
Choose M = + 1 to get
ln2 N
2 ln N 1 ln ln N
(2) AN ≤ 1 − +O ≤ 1+O .
N ln2 N ln N − 2 ln ln N ln N ln N
Estimates (1) and (2) give
ln2 N NX−2
1
lim = 1.
N →∞ N ln k · ln(N − k)
k=2