Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) The Social Contract, Emile, The Confessions, Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755)

The Social Contract: 4 books. Books 1 and 2 political morality Books 3 and 4 Theory of institutions

Basic argument: Freedom and independence of the individual Architect of the law rather than the subject If we consent to a legitimate authority we are still free (Consent, Progress and Freedom) Total alienation of rights to the whole community Can be forced to be free Advocate of popular sovereignty, guided by the general will Rule of law Property rights (Civil freedom) Self direction (Moral freedom) Aristocracy the best form of government Equal participation, morally motivated, no groups or associations.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) Paired with Frederick Engels (1820-1895) The Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848) Capital (1867) Basic argument: Industrial revolution in 19th C. Britain has caused a change from agrarian capitalism to industrial capitalism. We live in an exploitative system where those with capital or property employ labourers so they can consume goods without having to work themselves to get them. The contract of employment is forced, not free, and exists between two unequal individuals. The Capitalist does not have to work to survive but the labourer does, or else he will starve. For exploitation to end capitalism needs to be overthrown, as to increase wages to such an extent that accrues the rate of exploitation would create a situation where capitalist would have no economic incentive to employ labour. Capitalism has a tendency to create economic crises, every 7-10 years of increasing severity. As companies become more labour efficient, more products are manufactured by fewer works. Fewer workers can then afford to purchase the products. Under-consumption vs. overproduction. Long term tendency for the rate of profit to fall. Tendency towards the creation of monopoly and the concentration of capital.

Leads to the final breakdown of capitalism when there are no new avenues to be explored, then class consciousness of the proletariat will take over and the transition to socialism and then communism will begin. (By violent revolution) The state is makes and enforces the interests of the ruling classes.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) What is Enlightenment?, Metaphysics of Morals, Basic argument: Politics and morals should not be separate Can only know the things we have a capacity to understand Knowledge is shaped by our own minds capacity Humans are bound by the laws of cause and effect but also Bound by a priori laws independent of experience. (Conscience? Morals? Ethics?) Reason split into hypothetical and categorical. The categorical imperative Act on the principle which can at the same time be made universal law. Moral law is unconditional Performance of political duty is a must. Persons should be free up until the point that they infringe on others ability to do the same. Then coercion of the law is legitimate. Only independent active citizens should vote E.g. Property holding men. Kant calls for a parliamentary form of democracy. Rule of law. Freedom of the pen should be the safeguard of the rights of the people.