Journal of Ethnopharmacology 69 (2000) 45 56 www.elsevier.

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Folk use of medicinal herbs of Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad

Muhammad Ibrar Shinwari, Mir Ajab Khan *
Department of Biological Sciences, Quaid -i -Azam Uni6ersity, Islamabad, Pakistan Received 7 January 1999; received in revised form 7 June 1999; accepted 28 July 1999

Abstract This paper is based on the results of an ethnobotanical research project conducted in Margalla Hills National Park. The inhabitants of the park have always used medicinal herbs for various ailments and have for a long time been dependent on surrounding plant resources for their food, shelter, fodder, health care, and other cultural purposes. However, encroaching industrialisation and the accompanying changes in their life styles are responsible for the decrease of practice in the local use of herbs for medicine. It is, therefore, felt worthwhile to record the native uses of these herbs before the information is lost. About 100 informants were interviewed in this regard. In total 50 species of herbs belonging to 27 families were recorded as used medicinally by inhabitants of the park, among which ten species are being sold in the local market. Asparagus adescendens Roxb., and Viola canesence Wall. ex Roxb. are found vulnerable to harvesting. 2000 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Medicinal herbs; Folk use; Margalla Hills National Park; Management plan; Afforestation

1. Introduction Margalla Hills National Park (12 605 ha, 40 km in length) located between 3340% and 3344% north and 7255% and 7320% east and forms the northeastern edge of Islamabad. It spreads in a roughly east west direction and its altitude varies from 465 to 1600 m, having rugged topography comprising mainly of steep slopes and gullies where rock structure is basically limestone. Deforestation and grazing have caused soil erosion leaving little but parent rock with shallow residual soil
* Corresponding author. Fax: + 92-51-821397. E -mail address: vco@vc-qau.sdnpk.undp.org (M.A. Khan)

and silty loess. The average maximum temperature is 34.3C while the average minimum temperature is 3.4C. Snow is occasional. Rain fall occurs in the monsoon and winter, the average being 1200 mm per year. The park is under pressure because of illegal settlements, quarries, res, extensive tree cuttings, urban encroachment, and pollution. The area has been included in the sub-tropical scrub forest by previous workers (Champion et al., 1965). Said (1951) studied the salt range forest and discussed the biotic interference. Amin and Ashfaque (1982) studied the vegetation of Ayub National Park and established Acacia modesta Cannabis sati6a, A. modesta -Cynodon dactylon, A.

0378-8741/00/$ - see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 8 7 4 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 1 3 5 - X

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modesta -Lantana camara communities. Hijazi (1984) reported that Dodonaea 6iscosa was the most common shrub of Margalla Hills National Park. Akbar (1988) analysing the vegetation of Quaid-i-Azam University campus established seven communities. Khattak and Ahmed (1990) compared the vegetation on the north and south facing slopes of Margalla Hills and reported the presence of Pinus roxburgii -Apluda mutica -Quer cus incana community on the north facing slopes and Acacia modesta -Woodfordia Fruticosa -Dodon aea community on the south facing slopes. According to them, the north facing slopes showed a greater species diversity compared to the south facing slopes, having the similarity index as 46%. Margalla Hills National Park has never been explored before ethnobotanically, so it was felt worthwhile to record the native uses of plants in this park before the information is lost. The ethnobotanical information aims to be used for the solution of several constraints, the park faced, in achieving the objectives of conservation of the natural environment since its establishment. In Pakistan, the eld of ethnobotany is quite virgin. Only a few papers have been published. Khan (1994) described the past and present status of natural tropical thorn forest in Punjab, which were the main sources of re wood supplies for urban and rural populations. The past distribution and gradual decline of these forests is traced by literature search. The present status of natural tropical thorn forest was appraised by surveying areas formerly under these forests. He concluded that the natural tropical thorn forest system of the Punjab had almost disappeared as a result of overgrazing, fuelling, and wild erosion, as well as desertication, salinity, and water logging. Sal 6adora oleoides is given special attention because of its great ecological and ethnobotanical importance. Leporatti and Lattanzi (1994) studied 27 medicinal plants ethnobotanically in Makran (Southern Pakistan). They reported and discussed their traditional medicinal uses. Goodman and Ghafoor (1992) conducted ethnobotanical study in Baluchistan province of southwestern Pakistan, the region, where a heterogeneous cultural group known as the Baloch lives. They collected information of about 114 plant species used by nomads

and village dewellers for nutritional, utilitarian and medicinal purposes; and a total of 56 species prescribed or dispensed by herbalists or herbal doctors residing in the population centers. Hocking (1958, 1962) wrote a series of papers on medicinal plants of Pakistan and included some information on Baluchistan. Shinwari and Malik (1989) concluded a eld study of plant utilisation of northeastern Baluchistan. Malik et al. (1990) gathered some preliminary ethnobotanical information from six district of Baluchistan. Shinwari et al. (1995) reported the ethnobotanical information about Kharan district of Baluchistan. However, now efforts have been started to introduce ethnobotany in Pakistan. In this regard, a workshop on Ethnobotany and its application to conservation was held in Islamabad in September (Shinwari et al., 1996). About 50 participants and resource persons came from the mountain areas of the country and abroad. Papers were presented and the salient aspects of conservation, use and promotion of traditional knowledge were discussed.

2. Materials and methods During the eld work, trips were arranged during proper harvest time of the plants collected and their use by the inhabitants. Interviews were taken and observations were made during guided and transect walks. Plant specimens were collected and preserved in the herbarium of Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad. Interviews of : 100 informants including local inhabitants, herbalists, pansaries, park authorities, and societies were conducted on random bases. Questionnaires were adopted for interviews. Two female students were involved for the survey in female communities. The outcome of the results were rechecked and compared with literature. Analysis of the data was done and indigenous knowledge was documented.

3. Results Fifty species of herbs belonging to 27 families were found to be used by the people of the park.

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Family: Amaranthaceae Achyranthus aspera L. (Poth kant) Voucher specimen No.: 47 Flowering period: September April Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: Decoction of both leaves and roots are used for toothache. It is also used for abdominal pain. The juice of the herb is given in dysentery, rheumatism, and skin diseases. The paste of fresh leaves is applied over insect bites. An infusion of the root is used for bowel complaints, night blindness, and skin diseases. The ash of the plant with honey is given in seasonal cough, and asthema. (Occurrence: uncommon) Amaranthus 6iridis L. (Chaulai, Dhindo) Voucher specimen No.: 49 Flowering period: March November Parts used: Leaves Folk medicinal uses: The leaves are used as emollient and are used in amenorrhoea. Also used in scorpion sting and snake bite. (Occurrence: very common)

Calendula ar6ensis L. (Zergul) Voucher specimen No.: 5 Flowcring period: MarchMay Parts used: Flowers, leaves Folk medicinal uses: The owers are considered as stimulant, antispasmodic and emmenagogue. Leaves are locally applied to heal wounds. (Occurrence: common) Carthamus oxycantha Bieb. (Pholi) Voucher specimen No.: 25 Flowering period: AprilMay Parts used: Seeds Folk medicinal uses: The oil is extracted from the seed used for dressing ulcer and against itch. (Occurrence: common) Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist. (Paleet) Voucher specimen No.: 52 Flowering period: AugustOctober Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The herb used as haemostatic, stimulant, astringent, diuretic; used dysentery, diarrhoea, and uterine haemorrhage. (Occurrence: common around elds and waste areas) Lactuca serriola L. (Kahu) (Synonym: L. scariola L.) Voucher specimen No.: 32 Flowering period: AprilJune Parts used: Whole plant. Folk medicinal uses: The herb is used as cooling, sedative, diaphoretic, diuretic, antiseptic, hypnotic, expectorant, useful in the treatment of coughs in phthisis, bronchitis, asthma, and whooping cough. (Occurrence: fairly common) Saussurea heteromala (D. Don.) Hand. (Kali Ziri) Voucher specimen No.: 18 Flowering period: MarchJune Parts used: Seeds Folk medicinal uses: The seeds are known as carminative; used as tonic for horses and other animals, also used as a cure for horse bite. (Occurrence: common)

Family: Araceae Sauromatum 6enosum (Ait) Schott. (Samp the boti) Voucher specimen No.: 69 Flowering period: June July Parts used: Rhizome Folk medicinal uses: The rhizome is used as stimulating poultice in snake bite. (Occurrence: Fairly common)

Family: Asteraceae (Compositae) Artimisia scoperia Walds and Kit. (Done Jhan) Voucher specimen No.: 93 Flowering period: August November Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: Infusion of the plant is used as purgative. Plant is also used as cure for earache. Smoke is known to be good for burns. (Occurrence: common in waste places)

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Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertner (Kandiali) Voucher specimen No.: 13 Flowering period: March April Parts used: Leaves, seeds. Folk medicinal uses: The leaves are used as aperient sudoric and cholagogue. The seeds are known as demulcent and are used in haemorrhage and liver diseases. (Occurrence: common) Sonchus ar6ensis L. (Dodal) Voucher specimen No.: 14 Flowering period: March May Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The plants are known as diuretic, sedative, cooling, hypnotic, diaphoretic, antiseptic, and expectorant; useful in cough, bronchitis, asthma, and phthisis. The root is useful in jaundice (Occurrence: fairly common in waste places) Taraxacum offcinale Weber. (Hand, Dudal, Kanphul) Voucher specimen No.: 3 Flowering period: February April Parts used: Leaves, roots. Folk medicinal uses: The leaves are used for fomentation. The roots are aperient, diuretic, and tonic; used as remedy for chronic disorder of kidney and liver. Monkeys in Margalla hills have been observed to eat its owers. (Occurrence: very common)

Family: Cannabinaceae Cannabis satz6a L. (Bhang) Voucher specimen No.: 61 Flowering period: AprilOctober Parts used: Leaves and owering tops. Folk medicinal uses: Dried and crushed leaves are taken as a drink for their narcotic action also used as refrigerant. The plant is used as tonic, narcotic, sedative, and anodyne. (Occurrence: very common in waste places)

Family: Caryophylaceae Silene conoidea L. (Chhota takle) Voucher specimen No.: 2 Flowering period: FebruaryApril Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The plants are known as emollient and is used in bath or as fumigant. (Occurrence: common weed of elds and waste places) Stellaria media (L.) Cyrillo. (Gander) Voucher specimen No.: 74 Flowering period: MayAugust Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The plant is known as cooling, astringent, vulnerary, used in plasters to be employed on broken bones and swellings. (Occurrence: very common weed of waste places)

Family: Boraginaceae Trichodesma indicum (L.) R. Br. (Nile Karaji) (Synonym: Borago indica L.) Voucher specimen No.: 63 Flowering period: August October Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The leaves and roots are effective against snake bite, plant is diuretic, and depuratives and is used in urinary disease. The root is applied as a paste on swellinga, and joints and is used in dysentery in children. (Occurrence: very common in dry grassy places)

Family: Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album L. (Bathueya, Batho) Voucher specimen No.: 5 Flowering period: FebruaryMarch Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The plant is used as laxative, anthelmintic; used in hepatic disorder, and enlarged spleen. The roots are used in jaundice, urinary diseases, and rheumatism. The fruit and root are known as antidote to snake poison. (Occurrence: very common weed of waste places and elds) Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Chandan bathwa) Voucher specimen No.: 17

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Flowering period: February March Parts used: Whole Plant Folk medicinal uses: The plant is used as an excellent anthelmintic. Also used for piles. (Occurrence: common weed of waste places)

Family: Convolvulaceae Con6ol6ulus ar6ensis L. (Lehli) Voucher specimen No.: 6 Flowering period: January March Parts used: Roots, leaves, owers, and fruits Folk medicinal uses: The roots are known as purgative but not so much in use. For worms Chanona saag is used with fruit. The whole plant is used for skin diseases. (Occurrence: common weed in eld and open places)

Family: Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia helioscopia L. (Chhatri dodak) Voucher specimen No.: 7 Flowering period: FebruaryMarch Parts used: Roots and milky juice Folk medicinal uses: The plant is used as cathartic. Seeds with roasted peppers are given in, cholera. Milky juice is applied to eruption. The roots are known as anthelmintic. Milky latex is known to be poisonous and causes swelling on the skin. (Occurrence: very common weed of cultivated and waste places)

Family: Cruciferae Sisymbrium irio L. (Jangli sarson, Knaksi) Voucher specimen No.: 9 Flowering period: February April Parts used: Leaves, seeds Folk medicinal uses: The seeds arc described as having expectorant, stimulant, and restorative properties; it is also used externally as a stimulant poultice. Infusion of the leaves is used for throat and chest infections. (Occurrence: common)

Family: Fumariaceae Fumaria indica Hussk. Pugsely. (Papra) Voucher specimen No.: 1 Flowering period: DecemberFebruary Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The juice of the plant is given in common fever. Also used in diarrhoea in cattle. Also used for removing worms from the abdomen. It is used for the treatment of simple goitre, also used as antipyretic and blood purier, cooling agent, anti periodic, used for eruption. The plant is used in diabetes, and bladder infection by taking its extract in the early morning. (Occurrence: common weed of cultivation)

Family: Cuscutaceae Cuscuta reexa Roxb. (Zarbuti, Akashbel) Voucher specimen No.: 8 Flowering period: January February Parts used: Stem, fruits, and seeds. Folk medicinal uses: The plant is known as anthelmintic, carminative, alternative, purgative, and diuretic. Used in jaundice, joint pains, paralysis, and vomiting. Seed is known to carminative, alternative, anthelmintic. Stem is used in bilious disorders. (Occurrence: common twining parasite often found on Ziziphus sp.)

Family: Lamiaceae (Labiatea) Leucas capitata Desf. (Gulloda, Chatra) (Synonym: L. cephalotus Spreng.) Voucher specimen No.: 56 Flowering period: SeptemberOctober Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The whole plant is used as antidote to snake bite. The owers in the form of syrup are used for coughs, and colds. (Occurrence: uncommon) Mentha royleana L. (Jangli podina) Voucher specimen No.: 75 Flowering period: JuneAugust Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The dried leaves are made into powder and used with curd in the summer as stomachic agent. Also used as carmi-

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native, in diarrhoea and dysentery. (Occurrence: so far found only in streams) Micromeria biora (BuchiHam.exD.DonBenth) [Chai butt] Voucher specimen No.: 34 Flowering period: April October Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: Used as herbal tea (Occurrence: common) Sal6ia moorcroftiana Wall. (Gahi kand, Lupra) Voucher specimen No.: 30 Flowering period: March April Parts used: Leaves, seeds, roots Folk medicinal uses: The leaves are applied to wounds as poultice. The seeds are given in dysentery. The roots are used for coughs and colds. (Occurrence: uncommon)

Flowering period: AprilOctober Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The plant is known as resolvent, emollient, and demulcent. The leaves are cooling and applied to inamed sores, and wounds. The owers are used as pectoral, and diaphorctic. (Occurrence: very common in waste places). Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Boiss. (Simak, Bariar) Voucher specimen No.: 81 Flowering period: Throughout the year Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The juice of whole plant is used in rheumatism, gonorrhoea, and spermatorrhea. Locally it is applied in elephantiasis. The leaves are known as demulcent and are used in opthalmia. The roots are used as astringent, stomachic, diuretive, febriguge, and demulcent. Seeds are considered as aphrodisiac, laxative, and demulcent; recommended in gonorrhoea crystitis. colic tenseness, and piles. (Occurrence: common in waste places)

Family: Liliaceae Asparagus adscendens Roxb. (Sutaid musk) Voucher specimen No.: 77 Flowering period: October November Parts Used: Root Folk Medicinal uses: The root is known as galacatagogue, demulcent, tonic; useful in diarrhoea, dysentery, and general debility. (Occurrence: common, threatened)

Family: Malvaceae Mal6a neglecta Wallr. (Saunchal) Voucher specimen No.: 91 Flowering period: January March Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The plant is known as cooling, emollient, demulcent. The leaves are recommended in piles, and scurvy. The seeds are used in bronchitis, cough inammation, ulceration of bladder, and in haemorrhoids; externally applied in skin diseases. (Occurrence: common) Mal6estrum coromandelianum Gareke. (Yard sonchal) Voucher specimen No.: 35 (L.)

Family: Menispermaceae Cissampelos pareria Linn. (Pilligar, pilajar) Voucher specimen No.: 73 Flowering period: Throughout the year Parts used: Leaves and roots. Folk medicinal uses: The root is used as stomachic, used in diarrhoea, and dyspepsia and the leaves are applied to abscesses, and wounds including snake bites. The whole plant is use in malaria. (Occurrence: common)

Family: Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata Linn. (Amrul, Amlika) Voucher specimen No.: 12 (Khatibuti) Flowering period: MarchDecember Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The juice of the plant is given in stomach trouble; used to relieve the intoxication produced by Datura; refrigerant; decoction of roots is useful for worms, also used to clean rusted vessels. The extract of the plant is applied in case of scorpion sting. (Occurrence: common)

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Family: Papilionaceae Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.) Jaub. and Spach. (Makhan Booti) Voucher specimen No.: 36 Flowering period: April October Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: Used as aphrodisaic, and tonic. Also given to goats to increase milk, and butter production (Kotla village). (Occurrence: fairly common in rocky slopes) Melilotus indicus Linn. (Sinji) Voucher specimen No.: 21 Local Name: Sinji (Potohari, Punjabi, Urdu) Flowering period: March August Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: Known as emollient, externally applied as poultice on swelling, and for fomentation. The seeds are recommended in infantile diarrhoea, and bowel complaints. (Occurrence: very common weed of cultivation and waste places) Lathyrus aphaca L. (Dokani) Voucher specimen No.: 24 Flowering period: March May Parts used: Seed and owers Folk medicinal uses: Ripen seeds are said to be narcotic and owers are used as resolvent. (Occurrence: common in waste areas) Vicia sati6a L. (Rawari) Voucher specimen No.: 27 Flowering period: March May Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The plant is used as anti poison. (Occurrence: common)

Family: Poaceae (Gramineae) Cynodon dactylon Linn. (Talla) Vouciler specimen No.: 42 Flowering period: AprilOctober Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: An infusion of the grass with milk is used for bleeding piles, irritation of urinary organs, dropsy, and vomiting. The juice is also given in dysentery with fever. (Occurrence: fairly common) Veti6iria zizanioides (L.) Nash. (Khas) (Synonym: Adropogon muricatus Rotz;) Flowering period: AugustSeptember Parts used: Root Folk medicinal uses: The root is known as diaphoretic, stimulant, refrigerant, febrifuge stomachic, emmenagogue; essence used as tonic. (Occurrence: common)

Family: Polygonaceae Polygonum plebeium R. Br. (Dremak) Voucher specimen No.: 28 Flowering period: FebruaryMay Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The dried and powdered plant is taken internally in pneumonia. The root is used in bowel complaints. The whole plant is used as an excellent remedy for cholera. (Occurrence: common in grassy areas) Rumex chelepensis Mill. (Ambavati) Voucher specimen No.: 30 Flowcring period: MarchJuly Parts used: Root Folk medicinal uses: The roots are considered as astringent and are used as an application for cutaneous disorder. (Occurrence: common)

Family: Plantaginaceae Plantago lenceolata L. (Baltanga) Voucher specimen No.: 39 Flowering period: April September Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: Used as toothache and also in dysentery.(Occurrence: less common)

Family: Ranunculaceae Clematis grata Wall. (Bilri) Voucher specimen No.: 84 Flowering period: AugustSeptember Parts used: Stem and leaves Folk medicinal uses: Used in skin diseases. (Occurrence: fairly common)

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Family: Polypodiaceae Adiantum capillus -6eneris L. (Sumbul, Hansraj) Voucher Specimen No.: 85 Flowcring period: No ower Parts Used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The entire plant is used as an aromatic and an emollient in cough. Leaves are used as febriguge. (Occurrence: common in shady moist places)

Family: Scorphulariaceae Verbascum thapsus Linn. (Gidhar tambaku) Voucher specimen No.: 58 Flowering period: March October Parts used: Leaves, owers, seeds. Folk medicinal uses: The plant is not so commonly used, rarely used for diarrhoea, and dysentery of cattle. Some times used as supporting material, analgesic. Also used as antiseptic. The leaves in powdered form are used for healing wounds. The seeds are known as aphrodisiac, and narcotic; used as a sh poison. Extract of the plant is useful for earache. (Occurrence: common in waste places)

Datura stramonium Linn. (Datura) D. innoxia Miller Voucher specimen No.: 43 Flowering period: MayAugust Parts used: Leaves and seeds Folk medicinal uses: Green leaves are used for softening the boils. Seeds are smoked for its naucotic action. The seeds and leaves are used as anodyne and narcotic. It causes dilation of pupil when locally applied in watery solution. Internally, juice of the leaves is administered with curdled milk in gonorrhoea. It is also a popular internal remedy for the prevention of hydrophobia. The juice of ower is useful for earache. (Occurrence: infrequent weed of waste ground) Solanum surrantense Burm. (Harnauli, kandiani) Voucher specimen No.: 79 Flowering period: Throughout the year Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The berries are used for toothache. The berries are boiled and the extract is applied to broken organs. The berries applied as demulcent and expectorant. The roots are used in cough, asthma, and catarrh. The plant is given in various animal diseases to cattle. (Occurrence: very common in dry waste places of the area)

Family: Solanaceae Solanum americanum Mill. (Bleack Fruit) [Moka] S. 6illosum Miller (Yellow/Orange Fruit) Voucher specimen No.: 44 Flowering period: Throughout the year Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: Decoction of the plant is used for washing the inamed parts of the body. The juice of the leaves is used for skin diseases. Also used for cleaning and washing the wounds because of its germicidal properties. Hot leaves are applied over the swollen and painful scrotum and testicles. Also used as carminative. Berries are used as tonic, alterative and diuretic. Useful in heart diseases. Along with spinach Saag is used for intestinal worms and swelling. Also used in liver diseases. (Occurrence: very common in waste places)

Family: Violaceae Viola canescens Wall. ex Roxb. (Banafsha) Voucher specimen No.: 10 Flowering period: MarchMay Parts used: Whole plant Folk medicinal uses: The owers and seeds are used as a ower is used as a wild purgative. Also collected for sale in the local market. (Occurrence: fairly common in shady places on north facing slopes)

Family: Zygophyllaceae Tribulus terrestris L. (Bhakra) Voucher specimen No.: 90 Flowering period: Throughout the year Parts used: Whole plant

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Folk medicinal uses: The fruit is regarded as tonic diuretic, cooling, and aphrodisiac. Also used in urinary disorders, impotency, cough, and heart diseases. The seeds are recommended in haemorrhages, diseases of the bladder, kidney stone, and gout. Sold in the local market by people. (Occurrence: uncommon)

3.2. Processing of medicinal herbs 3.2.1. Collection and identication About 10 species of herbs are being sold in the local market. These species are collected by local inhabitants, drug dealers, village grocers, and local practitioners (Hakims) etc. through traditional knowledge and not through scientic approach. Most of the collectors are also ignorant or have insufcient knowledge about proper time of collection, which is not only essential for maximisation of active ingredients, but also from the view point of sustainability of the resource. Due to unscientic and haphazard collection which involves even uprooting during the labour of cutting, it is hard to expect recovery. There is a need to streamline the collection process in the park area. 3.2.2. Preser6ation Medicinal plants are either dried or sold directly to the local grocers in fresh form, in which case the drying is done by the grocer himself. Drying is done by women by spreading the plants on oor in shade. It takes about 24 days to complete the drying. In this case, the village grocers buy fresh collections, they dry the plants by spreading them on a sheet of cloth or plastic on the ground. The process of drying is generally very crude as dust and other foreign materials get mixed with then. 3.2.3. Storage Normally no storage is involved at the collectors level, because they try to sell them as soon as possible. The village grocers have to store small quantities with them for a short while till they are able to dispose of them to the whole sellers. Like drying, the storage is not carried out in hygienic conditions and the crude drug often gets infected with insects and fungi. The storage places are generally dark and ventilation is extremely poor. This often results in the deterioration of the dried herbal drugs and ultimately causes nancial loss to the traders in order to maintain quality. Storage facilities need a denite improvement.

3.1. Indigenous treatment (recipes)

Some of the common recipes used by the people of Margalla Hills are as follows: 1. The whole plant of Cannubis sati6u (Bhang) is used to treat abdominal swelling/bleeding in animals, especially cows and bulls. 2. Fresh leaves of Oxalis carniculata (Khati boti) are crushed and are used to stop bleeding from wounds. 3. The plant of Cynorlon dactylon (Talla, Khabal) is crushed to make a paste and used for checking the bleeding. 4. The leaves of Cunnubis suti6a (Bhang) are crushed with onion and used in the form of poultice for boils. 5. The juice of the fruit of Datura stramonium (Datura) is applied to scalp for curing dandruff and falling hair. 6. Young leaves of Tararacum odicinale (Dudal) are cooked as spinach (sag) and given to the patients suffering from diabetes and rheumatic pains. 7. Tender and fresh leaves of Darura stramo nium (Datura) are used along with ghee, to cure inamed or burned areas of the body. 8. Leaves of Mentha sp., Citrus aurantium L. and Curdamom sp. along with sugar and green tea are boiled and given to stop vomiting. 9. The buds of the owers of Solanum sur rutense (Kandiani) with salt solution are used for blood purication. 10. Leaves of Achyranthus aspera, seeds of rye (Secale cereale L.) rye fruit of Rubus frutico sus are mixed and crushed, the juice obtained is applied in the eye disease called Phola. It is said to be useful in dissipating the opacity of the cornea.

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4. Discussion Plants are used as medicine from ancient times. Motley (1994) presented a comprehensive survey of past, present and future uses of Sweet agAcorus calamus (Araceae). According to him the plant has a rich ethnobotanical history dating back possibly to the time of Moses [the prophet Musa (peace be upon him)] in the Old Testament of the Bible and in early Greek and Roman medicines. Sweet ag, thought to be indigenous to India and has spread along trade routes, has been valued for its rhizome and fragrant oils which have been used medicinally in alcoholic beverages, as a fragrant essence in perfumes and oils, and for insecticidal properties. Current research investigates Sweet ags value as an insecticide antibacterial and antifungal plant. One of the objective of ethnobotanical study is to record the indigenous knowledge about plants. A number of efforts has been done in this regard. Emmerich and Valle (1991) reported the knowledge of plants used by the people in Mato Grosso (Brazil), for birth control. The study was done with the group of the linguistic Aruak family. The plants were collected under the supervision of the least native informant with the contribution of women. Informal conversations with the women conrmed the date and duration use of each plant, as well as the alimentary diet recommended during that period. Bhuyan (1994) studied indigenous medicinal therapies of the Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh, India. He described 15 drugs of plant origin commonly used in abortion and easy delivery after proper identication with their scientic, local name, part used and method of administration. The wild medicinal herbs of the area are collected by low income villagers, collectors and concerned drug dealers from the city market, without any consideration of age and size of the plants which result in the depletion of this natural resource from the area. However, with the increasing labour cost and search for better job opportunities by the workers, the collection of plants is slowly declining. This is the necessitating emphasis on their organised cultivation which is virtually absent at present.

Generally, the plants having the perennial nature and require a prolonged period of growth i.e. 68 years depending upon the plant species concerned. Some of the plants require at least 34 years to reach the owering and fruiting stage and thus minimising its regeneration possibilities e.g. Berberis lycium. Similarly, the roots of Asparagus adescendens and the whole plant of Viola canes cens is sold in the local market. But due to their parts being used, and more demand being made, the existence of these species in the future is threatened. The only way to protect these species from becoming extinct in the area, is to make the local communities aware of their well manured propagation and regeneration techniques. Seeds of such species may be collected at the time of seed maturation for regeneration in the next season. During the survey, information obtained about the use of plants against different medical problems practised by the people and Hakims. For example, leaf decoction of Fumaria indica are used in leprosy. Similarly, Achyranthus aspera is used for seasonal cough, leaves of Calendula ar6ensis to heal wounds, leaves of Achyranthus aspera with fruit of Rubus fruiticosus for eye diseases, Chenopodium ambrosoides for piles, Fumaria in dica for bladder infection, owers of Leucas capi tata for cough, cold and snake bite, while Argyrolobium rosium has been used as aphrodisiac. Biochemical analysis and pharmaceutical screening of these species need to be carried out in order to cross check local information and check side effects. The observation of the people that monkeys of the area often eat owers of Taraxi cum ofcinale also gives a meaningful indication, as it is one of the best remedy in liver complaints. Asparagus adscendens and Viola canescens are most vulnerable due to the parts used, growth rate, quantity of consumption and pressures like grazing and erosion. They are particularly needed to be conserved by domestication and regeneration techniques. If the commercial value of As paragus adscendens is considered, its tubers are being sold at about Rs:800/kg in the local market. It is very essential to regenerate and propagate this plant through tissue culture and other modern techniques for quick regeneration. This plant

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can serve as an excellent source of income for commercial purpose for the people of this area. There is a need to develop close liaison with all stakeholders at local markets for long term sustainable protection of habitat and its resources. In this regard, awareness may be enhanced for wise use of available resources. For example, one may narrate about the habitat to locals including Hakims about sustainable plant collection methods, that they may pluck half of the plant parts so that the leftovers may grow up next year and could sustain the plant for the next visit and so on for the next generations. In order to avoid further loss of endangered and rare species, in-situ and ex-situ conservation methods can be practised as a long term conservation programme. The in-situ method involves protection of plants in their natural habitats followed by ex-situ devices by growing important plants and subsequently re-introducing them into their natural environment. In this respect research institutions like National Institute of Health, National Agricultural Research Centre and Quaid-i-Azam University should be involved. For all such studies researchers are needed to develop deep understanding of plant life cycles, pollination, dispersal mechanisms, biochemical analysis and the relation among species and their habitat.

Integrated Mountains organisation for Development (ICIMOD), Nepal, for providing the research grant to complete this project.

References
Akbar, K.F., 1988. Phytosociological Studies of the Quaid-iAzam University Campus, lslamabad. M. Phil. Thesis. Department Of Biological Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad. Amin, A., Ashfaque, R.M., 1982. Phytosociological studies of Ayub National Park, Rawalpindi. Pakistan Journal of Forest 32 (4), 130 135. Bhuyan, D.K., 1994. Herbal drugs used by the tribal people of Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh for abortion and easy delivery. A Report on Advances in Plant Science 7 (2), 47 202. Champion, H.G., Seth, S.K., Khattak, G.M., 1965. Forest Types of Pakistan. Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar. Emmerich, M., Valle, L.D.S., 1991. Ethnobotanical studies in Parque lndigena Do Xingu: VII: abortive, contraceptive, conceptive and sex-determinant plants. Bradea 6 (2), 12 22. Goodman, S.M., Ghafoor, A., 1992. The ethnobotany of southern Balochistan, Pakistan, with particular reference to medicinal plants. Fieldiana: Botany, New series 31, 1.V 1.84. Hijazi, S., 1984. A Phytosociolocical Study of Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad. M. Phil. Thesis. Quaid-iAzam University, Islamabad. Hocking, G.M., 1958. Pakistan medicinal plants I. Qualitas Plantarum Et Material Vegetabiles 5, 145 153. Hocking, G.M., 1962. Pakistan medicinal plants IV. Qualitas Plantarum Et Material Vegetabiles 9, 103 119. Khan, A.U., 1994. History of decline and present status of natural tropical Thorn forest in Pun jab. Biological Conservation 67 (3), 205 210. Khattak, Z.D., Ahmed, S., 1990. Phytosociological studies of the vegetation on the north and south facing slopes of the Margalla Hills. Journal of Science and Technology, University of Peshawar 14, 129 132. Leporatti, M.L., Lattanzi, E., 1994. Traditional phytotherapy on coastal areas of Makran (Southern Pakistan). Fitoterpia 65 (2), 158 161. Malik, S., Shah, M., Marwat, Q., 1990. Ethnobotanical Evaluation of Valuable Plants of Baluchistan, Pakistan. Project No. 123. Pakistan Science Foundation, Pakistan. Motley, T.J., 1994. The ethnobotany of Sweet Flag, Acorus calamus (Araceae). Economic Botany 48 (4), 397 412. Said, M., 1951. Ecology of Salt Range Forests, Pakistan. Journal of Forestry 1, 310 323. Shinwari, Z.K., Malik, S., 1989. Plant wealth of Dera Bugti area. Progressive Farming 9, 39 42.

5. Conclusion The results of the survey can be applied to the management plan of the park for conservation. Vulnerable medicinal species should be focussed for regeneration and propagation. Establishment of a Botanical garden is suggested in this regard. Periodic grazing should be replaced by rotatory grazing. Native and sustainable species should be given preference in afforestation. Local people should be involved in decision making.

Acknowledgements We wish to thank the International Centre for

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M.I. Shinwari, M.A. Khan / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 69 (2000) 4556 Proceedings of the First Training Workshop on Ethnobotany and its application to conservation. National Herbarium/PASA National Agricultural Research Centre, Islamabad, Pakistan, September 16 21, 1996.

Shinwari, Z.K., Shah, M., Awan, R., 1995. The Ethnobotany of Kharan District Baluchistan. Proceeding Symposium on Medicinal Plants. University of Peshawar, Peshawar. Shinwari, Z.K., Khan, B.A. and Khan, A.A. (Eds.) 1996.