PHOTOSYNTHESIS (james schooley)

6 volumes of carbon dioxide and 12 volumes of water give one volume of glucose and 6 volumes of oxygen as well as 6 volumes of water. Van neil proposed that oxygen is from lysis of water rather than carbon-dioxide. Radio-isotope based studies on photosynthesis.

ChlorophyllA number of different kinds of chlorophyll are present. Major pigments in plants are chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, and xanthophylls and carotenoids. All these pigments are in equal proportions. Only chlorophyll a has capacity to carry out photosynthesis independently. (why how?) It is remarkable to note that hemoglobin and chlorophyll have similarity in structure. Chorophyll has magnesium while hemoglobin has iron in its central atom. The light most readily absorbed by plants is red and blue-violet. Chlorella one celled protist or alga most suitable for study of photosynthesis. Photosynthetic rates increased with gradual turning on and turning off of light. Flouroscence-All though some of the energy will be lost in the form of heat, the remainder may take the form of light, causing fluorescence. The tendency of light emitted during fluorescence is towards red spectrum of light. NADPH and ATP are formed during photosynthesis. Cyclic and Non-cyclic photosynthesis-positively charged chlorophyll neutralized by electron from water in non-cyclic. (Accepts electron) As energy is released from intermediate molecules, it is harvested to produce ATP. The molecule ADP is phosphorylated to form ATP. The process is called photo-phosphorylation. This finding is credited to David Arnon (1954). Non-cyclic photosynthesis, leads to formation of other NADPH molecules. Non-cyclic pathway has presumably evolved later than the cyclic. Which is and Why is the six carbon compound formed from ribulose diphosphate very short lived? Interferes with glucose synthesis

C3 plants-3 carbon PGA is the first stable compound formed through calvin cycle. C4-plants; oxalo-acetate is the first stable compound. The OAA is formed when a 3-carbon phospho-enol pyruvate unites with carbon-dioxide with the help of the enzyme carboxylase. The C4 plants possess two kinds of chloroplasts; large chloroplasts with few grana (which are found in bundle sheath cells; surrounding the veins of a leaf) and smaller, with more numerous chloroplasts (which occur in the mesophyll of the leaf).The large chloroplasts are rich in starch grains. The C4 plants can thrive at much higher temperature ranges than do the C3 plants and the rate of photosynthesis is higher in C4 plants. (more) CAM pathwayHeat tolerance; stomata closed; members of crassulacaea family; grow in areas of high light intensity; crassulacean acid formed; malic and isocitric acid accumulated at night; converted back to carbondioxide during day.(more) ROOTS: Sugar produced by leaves during photosynthesis and hormones are essential for root growth. Presence of minerals and fungi; temperature and acidity/alkanity are other important feature of root and plant growth. Root system may be ten types the diameter of the above ground portion of a tree. Meristematic activity, which increases the length of a root occurs at the root tip. Root hairs contain epidermal cells. Nucleus is positioned at a point of greatest activity. Que:

The only portion of root that is capable of absorbing water is the root hairs. The total surface area of root hairs is greater than the surface area of leaves. Root hairs are short-lived and renewing. All tissue of roots derived from the apical meristem. Inner most star-shaped structure is xylem. Between the points of primary xylem is the primary phloem. Xylem and phloem surrounded by/ embedded in the pericycle. Outer to it suberized layer called endodermis. Peripheral to endodermis is the cortex. Cortex consist of parenchymal cells and outer to cortex is the epidermis. This alternating arrangement of xylem and phloem is the key difference between the stem tissue and root tissue.

Casparian strip is unique feature of roots; Endodermis- closely packed cells, thickened cell wall and lacking intercellular spaces and strip of suberin is called casparian strip. This strip lies in the lateral and transverse walls. Suberin blocks water movement; the positioning of casparian strip regulates/blocks lateral movement of water. Cell membranes, exercise control over lateral water flow by selective permeablilty. Que: Passage cells around endodermis for transport of water and solutes. Cork cambium develops in the pericycle during secondary growth. Phellogen beneath cork layer. Fig: As the root ages, it becomes more like stem.(Elaborate)

Water accounts for 90% of protoplasmic growth. 10% in seeds. Colloidal particles provide large surface area for cell interaction. Emulsification- oil will disperse and remain in colloidal phase. When cells are placed in pure water, the outer water molecules tend to flow inside; creates pressure for intrinsic water to flow out. This is called Turgor pressure. Dialysis-salt used to neutralize both sides of disequilibria of water; movement of salt; cell-lysis (more) Acetic acid in aerobic pathway of respiration. The krebs cycle occurs in plants, animals, molds and bacteria. Que: Krebs cycle in bacteria One type of reaction that occurs as carbohydrate is broken down is dehydrogenation and the enzyme is called dehydrogenase. ATP formation; in aerobic respiration hydrogen acceptor is oxygen; the process forms water. Q-in anaerobic respiration, which is the hydrogen acceptor? Sulfur, other electronegative atoms Q-Dehydrogenase-combination with amylase

LEAVES Stipules at the base, sessile with no petioles There are no buds in the axils of leaflets but found only at the base of the leaf. This feature is used to distinguish between leaf and leaflet. Guard cells maintain the physiological levels of transpiration by opening and closing of stomata. Few plants have no stomata in the upper surface (lily) and some have no stomata in the lower surface. Guard cell action controlled by photosynthesis; carbon-dioxide in excess increases acidity; alkaline environment supports increase in breakdown of starch to sugar and inflow of water; open stomata. Transplantation is done mainly in autumn or early spring, when leaves are not there in the plant. Excess release of water; glandular (hydathodes)-Guttation; this water is sugary. Trichome- lower epidermis hairs Upper portion-palisade parenchyma; lower portion spongy parenchyma. Angiosperms are mostly deciduous, gymnosperm are evergreen. Phyllotaxy-(more) Phyllotaxy of plant takes the form of a definite series: e.g. , 1/3, 2/5, 3/8 etc.(Leonardo fibonacci)

The molecular structure of Auxin is remarkably similar to tryptophan; precursor of Auxin. Using a living organism to detect the presence of something is called Bioassay. Related compounds- Indole Butyric acid Promoter of growth at higher concentrations; at higher conc. CytotoxicAuxins used as weed control- 2, 4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2-4-D) Auxin at different levels, cause casting off of fruits and retention of fruits. Used in seed-less fruit production; cause fruit development without pollination. Ethylene induces ripening of fruits; flowering and senescence. Auxin stimulates ethylene production. Carbon-dioxide counteracts effects of ethylene.

Ethylene induces senescence declining metabolic rate or interfering with RNA synthesis and protein manufacture. Growth advanced by Auxin and Gibberelin or combination. Aging advanced by ethylene. Ethylene produced by fruits, flowers, leaves and roots.