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THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS

OF
ISLAM
The rev. CANON 'ÊLL,
d.d., m.r.a.s.
FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS
AUTHOR OF "the FAITH OF ISlAm," "THE HISTOEICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE QUR'aN," "ESSAYS ON ISLAM,"
'islam:
ITS EISE
AND PROGRESS"
-k-4-
LONDON
SiMPKiN, Marshall, Hamilton,
4,
"^
V5
'
Kent &
Co. (LiSiited)
Stationers'
Hall Court,
E.C.
MADRAS
5. P. C.
K. Depository, Vepbry
1908
FEINTED AT THE
B.
'
P. C.
K. PRESS,
VEPEEY, MADRAS
1908
PREFACE
The main
chapter in
in
portion of
this
book formed
my
I
"
Essays on Islam," published
1901.
have made
many
I
additions to
it
and have added information more recent than
any
this
then possessed.
form,
in
have published
that
it
in
separate
order
attention
may
be more directly drawn to an important

in A.frica.
movement
terest
is
Although increased
is
inI
being taken in African Missions,

there
yet
doubt whether
any
adequate
conception of the seriousness of the position,

or any true realization of the extreme urgency
for
immediate
action.
trust
this
simple
account of a little-known movement

a
may
be
means
of
developing
all
still
more
interest in
in
the affairs of
Societies
engaged
mission
work
in Africa.
THE
RELIGIOUS ORDERS
OF ISLAM.
The two most
active elements in
Muslim lands
in the opposition to social, political, and religious reforms and to the advance of modern civilization
are the 'Ulama, the men who may be said to form the lawyers and the clergy of Islam, and the various Orders of Darweshes. The 'Ulama speak
in the
able.
of the sacred Law, eternal, unchangeThe Darweshes look upon Islam as a vast theocracy, in which their spiritual leaders are the It
is
name
true guides.
conceivable that the
Ulama
might be brought to see that, if some concessions would save a Muslim State from ruin or extinction, it might be to their advantage to make them. The Darwesh treats with scorn any attempt at compromise, and looks upon a Muslim government, which in the least departs from the laws and practices of the early Khallfate, as disloyal to the great principle that Islam is a theocracy.
THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM

:
were neither kings nor princes were they preachers, Khah'fas, or vice-regents of In the opinion of the Darwesh, as the Prophet. Muslims should it was then so it should be now. be governed by an Imam, who is both a religious and a political leader, M'hose chief business it is to maintain the laws of Islam intact, to
Its first rulers
execute justice according to their standard, to guard the frontiers, and to raise armies for the
He should be so manifestly defence of the Faith. a ruler that the words of the sacred Tradition
He who dies namely, that without recognizing the authority of the Imam of the age, is accounted dead and is an infidel."
would be
realized,
It is the special function of the great Eeligious Orders to keep this principle active and to teach
"
The most relithe people its vast importance. see that the civilizaof the Muslim people gious
tion of Europe, now finding its way into Muslim lands, is a very great danger, and they seek to meet and to counteract it by a large development of the Eeligious Orders. Throughout the
East these confraternities,

ences the religious
life
like
all
which
influ-
of Islam, are conservative
and hostile
influence.
to
modern
civilization
and European
of
In Africa and
in parts
Asia this
has resulted in a great pan-Islamic movement, still actively going on, and having for its object not merely " resistance to the advance of Chris-
THE DARWESHES
tianity
;
modern
but also opposition to the progress of all civilization." ^ Since the beginning of the nineteenth century, this same movement has
grown with great
rapidity.
Under various
pre-
texts, innumerable agents of the Eeligious Orders have gone throughout the Muslim world. They have adopted many disguises. Sometimes they are students, preachers, doctors; sometimes artibut they are everywhere sans, beggars, quacks received by the people and protected by them
;
when they are suspected by the ruling powers. A French writer, one of the best living authorities on the subject, says that the reform movement
in
Islam during the nineteenth century has led
to a great increase in the Eeligious Orders.
The
movement has not depended on
the orthodox ex-
pounders and authorized keepers of the canon law, but, on the contrary, has relied on the leaders of the mystical sects, such as the Bab, the Mahdi
and the great Darwesh leaders. The most active element in Islam is now to be found amongst these Darweshes, and from them has proceeded
an active propaganda, especially in Africa. This author sums up a long review of the whole posi" all this constitutes a tion by saying that grave the to civilized world." ^ danger
1
2
Count
Castries,
" L'
IsMm,"
p. 220.
Chatelier,
"Islam au
xix. Siecle," p. 187.
It was not until the nineteenth century that Islam suffered any very grave reverses. It had had to retire a little in Europe, but in Africa it was still strong. So its religious element
Now the position is changed. gone, Morocco is in danger, the English dominate India and Egypt, Austria controls
became
Algiers
slack.
is
Eussia has enTurkish Empire, has also absorbed the Central Asian Khanates, and
free.
croached
Bosnia and Bulgaria is largely on the
threatens Persia.
is
Muslim
rule in Central Africa
danger, and it is not likely will now extend further south for on
in
;
that
all
it
sides
the Christian Powers are encroaching, and some

of the best tribes, not yet wholly won to Islam, are within their respective spheres of influence,
and the still independent Muslim States have to submit to a good deal of outward control. The destruction of separate States as political powers has strengthened the pan-Islamic movement, the object of which is to unite under one political head, the Khalifa, all good Muslims and so to
create
of
a great
world-power.
commerce and the wider
influence of
The development modern

and
science, are
and learning, its art also disturbing elements in the Its contemptuous isolation, its
civilization
Muslim world.
absolute
sway,
are becoming things of the past. This is very to of the Muslims old orthodox distressing pious
CONTKOL OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS

school.
It
has provoked a great reaction.
The
religious spirit has been stirred up on its most fanatical side, and the Eeligious Orders have, in
consequence, grov^rn in extent and influence. The existence of secret societies is not congenial
to the spirit of Oriental despotism, for the power of the religious leader is apt to exceed that of the temporal one, and so, at various times, attempts
have been made to curtail their influence. sixteenth century, Sultan Mauli Isma'fl suppress the Darwesh Orders and failed.
In the
tried to
In the
seventeenth century, Kouprouli Muhammad Pasha, the able Vizier of Sultan Muhammad IV, tried
his best to ruin the
Maulawiyya, the Khilwatiyya,
the Jalwatiyya and the Shamsiyya Orders, but In fact, he only showed the did not succeed.
ultimate weakness of the Sultan's rule and largely increased the importance and power of the Orders
A still stronger he tried in vain to suppress. man, Sultan Mahmiid, in 1826, after suppressing the Janissaries, tried to break up the Order of the The head of the Order Baktashiyya but failed.^
connexion between the Janissaries Sultan Orkhan in 1328 created the Yenicherees (Janissaries), or New Troops, he sought some The Shaikh of the religious sanction for his action. Baktishiyyas blessed the troops by putting the sleeve of his robe on the head of one of the soldiers, in such a way that it hung down behind his back, and said : "The militia which you have just created shall be called
close
1 There was a and this Order.
When
chief officers were pubUcly executed, the abolition of the Order was proclaimed, many of its monasteries were demolished, and even the
and his two
Darweshes connected with

change
their
distinctive
is
survived and
it were compelled to costume, but the Order powerful still. These men were
One of them stopped not lacking in courage. Sultan Mahmud at the gate of Galata and seizing
Giaour Padishah, thou not yet content with abominations ? Thou wilt answer to God for all thy godlessThou art destroying the institutions of thy ness. brethren, thou revilest Isldm, and drawest the vengeance of the Prophet on thyself and on us."
the bridle of his horse said
art
:
"
The Sultan
called
away. "la and thy worthless counsellors who have lost their " This Darwesh Muslims to the rescue senses. was executed the next day, and it is said that the following night a soft light was seen over
!
fool his guard to put this "it is thou the said Darwesh, fool,"
on
'
'
his tomb.
He
is
now venerated
as a saint.
In
more
Algiers, the work of the Darweshes has been The Emir 'Abdu'lmanifest since 1830.
its figures shall be fair and shining, its arm redoubtable, its sword sharp. It shall be victorious in all In memory of this, battles and ever return triumphant." the Janissaries wore a white felt cap, having a piece of the same material pendant on their backs. These troops -were very closely attached to this Order, and this may have excited the animosity of Sultan Mahmud against it.
Yenicheree,
ACTIVITY OF THE DARWSSHES

<Jadir owed much of his popularity to the intrigues and support of the
and success
members
of
the Qadiriyya Order. The insurrections in 1864, 1871, 1881 were due in great part to the action In the last the members of these Darweshes.
of
stirred
Eahmaniyya Order also took part and up the Kabyles to active opposition. They work in secret and influence the masses of the
the
It
is
people.
very
difficult
to
counteract
their
influence, for whenever, after a local insurrection,
the French
have destroyed the Zawiyahs,^ or monasteries, of the Keligious Orders, whose members helped to stir up strife, it has been found to be invariably the case that it has had no effect
whatever in lessening either the number, or even the influence of the Darweshes but lias rather
;
increased both.^
In Egypt the Darweshes are very numerous and are regarded with respect. In Turkey the people believe in them, for, on the whole, the sympathy of the Darweshes is with the masses.
The upper classes fear them. Some of the Darwesh leaders are broad-minded men, in spite of
1 These are called Takyas in Turkey. They are often erected near or over the grave of a Shaikh renowned for Great care is taken of these tombs, costly his piety. cloths cover, and lamps burn before them. Visitors make vows and present offerings with a view of obtaining
temporal and spiritual relief. " jMarabouts et 2Rinn, Khouan,"
p. 109.
THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAM

about them that seems intolerant.
much
On
the'
other hand, the system affords opportunity for much that is low in morals, especially when the
higher degrees are reached and the restraints of law are set aside when creed and formulas are
:
looked upon as fetters to the inspired and exalted

soul.
Orders.
The temporal power has some hold on the In Egypt the person who exercises on
the part of the State that authority is called the Shaikhu'l-Bakri, and is always a descendant The Khah'fa 'Umar of the Khalifa Abu Bakr.
also has a representative
who
is
the head of the
Enaniyya Darweshes. The Khalifa 'Uthman has The Khalifa 'All has none, as he left no issue.
one
pant
called
Sayyids.
of
Each
the
Shaikhu's-Sadat, or Shaikh of the " occuof these is said to be the

sajjcida,
or the
of
prayer carpet,
of
an Order is also called the occupant of the sajjada which belonged to This sajjada is looked upon the founder of it. In Turkey the Shaikhu'l-Islam exeras a throne. cises a certain amount of control over the heads of a Monastery, though he has probably little power with the actual head of the Order. As a rule, the attitude of the Darweshes to the firmans of the Sultan and to the fatwas of the Muftis is one of resistance. Many of the Orders add to their prestige in the sight of the masses by the
his ancestor."
The head
THE 'ULAMA AND THE DARWESHES

nobility of the origin of their founders,
who were
Sharifs, or lineal descendants of the Prophet. The great enemies of the Orders are the 'IJlama
and the
like
official clergy. The feeling is not unthat between the secular and the monastic
clergy in the middle ages.

to
The 'Ulama,
in order
oppose the Darweshes and appeal to the orthodox standards of but the Darweshes do the same. the Faith maintain their
prestige,
;
own
The
latter
reproach the former with being mere

to
time-servers,
which the
are
retort
is
made
that
the Darweshes
heretical
in
doctrine
and
scandalous in practice. The mass of the Mvislims, who do not care for theological disputations, are
attracted
to
the side of the
Darweshes.
They
;
are not shocked at the dancing and the music they look upon the Darweshes as the chosen of
God, the favourites
of
heaven.
Others
again,
who
look
upon some
of tlieir practices as border-
ing on the profane, yet, on the whole, respect
them.
he
The ignorant man

it
also sees that,
though
destitute of the education needed for an 'Ulama,
may without
status and
more
acquire in an Order a religious power equal to that attained to by his orthodox and learned brother.^
1 " A man who does not belong to the 'Ulama sees with a sense of surprise that, thanks to the support of the Order to which he belongs, he can without instruction and in spite of the obscurity of his birth acquire a religious power
10
With this general introduction we can now pass on to consider the constitution of the Orders in more detail. The organization of each is practiThe head of an Order is the cally the same. spiritual heir of its founder, and is called the Shaikh. In some Orders he is a direct descendant
of
the founder
in others he
is
is
cliosen
by the
brotlierhood.
He
the Grand Master, and has

is also,
unlimited power.
He
as a rule, a
man
of
considerable diplomatic skill whose influence often extends beyond the Hmits of his Order. His counsels and
correspondence are transmitted to
"The great distance with a marvellous rapidity voice of the Shaikh influences also all the tribes
in Algeria. Mystical in form it is difficult for outsiders to understand, but, known as it is by
orientals,
it
preaches
obstinate resistance to
all
^ The Shaikh resides progress, to all civilization." in one or other of the Zawiyahs belonging to the
Order. As a rule, the Shaikh is the husband of one wife and only marries a second, when the first is childless and when his office is herediThe Shaikh is supposed to have a perfect tary. knowledge of the sacred law and to possess skill in dealing with those who place themselves under his guidance. He is looked up to with the
equal, and sometimes superior, to that of the Marabouts." Hanoteau et Letourneux, " Les Kabyles," Vol. ii, p. 104. " 1 Oomte de 224.
Castries,
L'Ismm,"
p.
THE
TMUQADDIIMS
11
greatest veneration; in fact, absolute obedience to the Shaikh is the very essence of the system.
"
O my
God
are
master, you have taught me that you and that all is God," says one disciple.
of
!
The
"
founder
the
Bastamiyya
Order said
I am above all things." The Glory be to me adoration of the Master too often takes the place of the worship of God, and the ideal life of a
Darwesh
is
one which
of the
is
in absolute conformity
to the will
Shaikh.
in every act the disciple present to his mind.
In every word and must keep the Master
who
Subordinate to the Shaikh are the Muqaddims, act under his orders and have certain funcallotted to
tions
them.
A Muqaddim
is
placed
In a diploma conZawiyah. ferred by the Shaikh of the Qadiriyya Order on a
in charge of each
Muqaddim, the instructions given

of the
to the
members
Order are that they should yield implicit obedience to the Muqaddim, who has the confidence of the chief of the Order that they must not enter upon any enterprise without his knowObedience duly rendered to him is as ledge.
;
obedience to the Shaikh, who is descended from the saint of saints, 'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jilani. The is a called Pir. spiritual guide
From amongst
the Ikhwan,^ or brethren of the
Order, certain persons are selected as assistants 1 A modem form of this is Khouan.
12
Muqaddim. These are known as the Wakil, has charge of the property and funds of the Zawiyah, and the Eaqqab, who is employed as a courier to carry despatches. In connexion with the assemblies of the members, the Muqaddim
to the
who
has the following officials under his charge. The the Maddah, or precentor Cha'ush, or leader i the Qassad, or chanters of the the elegies
; ; ;
AUam or standard bearers and the Suqah, or water carriers. All these employments are sought after by the Brethren, and the occupations attached
to
them
are performed seriously and as a grave

of
religious duty.
Then comes the general body members of the Order. They

:
are
the simple called the

;
IkhWcin, or brothers Ashab,^ or companions whilst the generic term Darwesh covers all. Murfd, disciple, is a common term and the one
frequently in use. Outside of all these are what

the
may
be
termed
Associates or
the
live
are the lay members in the Zawiyahs, though they

1
ordinary members, who of the Order. They do not

are
open to
An
elegy
is
called
is^ qaslda.
into
They
are
subdivided
^yâi\
;
^r-W-o^ AshAbu'l-
tV..H v-->Ie>-o\ Fatwa, or companions of the decree J>^^^ v>U5-o\ Ashabu'l-Bisat, companions of the carpet AsMbu'l-Ashad, companions of zeal vW^^ '^\ Ashabu'1-Yad, companions of the hand.
THE MARABOUTS
them.
Still
13
and words, by the use
they are in possession of secret signs of which they can always of the community. They do not get the protection of the make use dhikr, or peculiar religious cereTheir of the Order, but use its rosary. mony,
is
allegiance
often
more
political
than
religious.
his habitually Order is looked upon as a Murabit,^ or Marabout. about the Their origin is said to be as follows
:
He who
performs the rites of
year a.h. 427

al-Kedali,
a.d. 1049 Shaikh Yahya bin Braham
a chief of one of the Berber tribes, the pilgrimage to Mecca stayed at from returning Qairwan with Abu Amran, a very learned man, to
he made known the ignorance of the people the Sahara and the willingness of a chief to At last he found in 'Abdu'llah receive instruction.
of
whom
ibn Yassi'n, a pious and austere man, a person fit Some of the people had been for this purpose. converted a good while before, but 'Abdu'llah ibn
1 This word from " rabata," he bound, is said to come from which also comes Muribitun, the name of one of the Morocco dynasties, corrupted by foreigners into Almoravides (cf. Mealiiu, " The Moors," p. 331). Another " who habitually explanation is that a IMurabit is one
lives in a ribat, or a frontier
guard-house.
Such buildings
by troops, but pious individuals wishing to join in a war (jihdd) against unbelievers joined them. The word Murdbit, therefore, got the exclusively religious devotee or saint, which appears in the signification of modern form of Marabout." (Nicholson, "A Literary History of the Arabs," p. 430.)
were occupied
' '
14
stern discipline
Yassfn found them lax in their rehgious life. His was not acceptable to them and he almost gave up the work in despair but Yahya re" You came here monstrated with him and said
;
derequest, let us go to a secluded place and rest of for the of God vote ourselves to the service
at
my
our days."
Accompanied by nine
faithful Kedalis,
they retired to an island in the river Senegal where they built a ribat and gave themselves up to a life
As a punishand as a preventive of sin, they punished The news soon themselves by bodily torture. obtain Paradise to done that was all this spread
of
devotion and austere practices.

for
ment
and a number
Thus bound
of people flocked to the ribat. nucleus was formed of a brotherhood,
penance and of strict obabout one thousand ibn persons had joined the community, 'Abdullah " Is it not your Yassin addressed them thus duty to fight those who refuse to submit to your " " " Command what ever you please doctrines ? " Eeturn to your own said his disciples. Then, If they converted. be to people and urge them shall till God them on make war refuse, we will
to severe rules of
ligation to obedience.
When
judge between us.

tribes
He
is
the best of
judges."
were still obstinate and so force was The in the end the people were by and employed this persuasive argument soon converted. Yahya was the spiritual and temporal head of these
THE MARABOUTS
15
converts,^ and the Marabouts, as his disciples were now called, made an expedition into the Sahara,
subjugated the King of Sigilmasa and ravaged the country far and wide. They thus became a powerful
body and under Yusuf ibn Tashfin extended conquests, founded the city of Marrakesh in A.D. 1062 and captured Fez in a.d. 1069, which
their
city, successfully
five
hundred years
a
besieged eight times in the first of its existence, has only once
known
foreign
it
master,
when
the
Turks took
possession of
in
1554 without a
qviickly
siege.
The name Marabout
became synony-
mous with
that of Wall, or saint, to whom prayers and offerings made. be addressed might The credulous believe that the Marabout can
cure
all
evils
and bless every enterprise.
If
he
produces catastrophes, brings epidemics and condemns the sinful to eternal fire, he can also assist
the weak, protect the great and strengthen the faith of the humble. They believe that from his
sanctuary the Marabout

things, and brings
to
sees,
hears,
knows
all
who
by
nought the plans of those All this he does are careless about religion.
marvellous supernatural power, as a true saint, as an intermediary between God and man, as the depository of the Qur'anic lore.
a
1 'Abdu']lah died in a.d. 1059, but the work he began continued to grow and great numbers of the Berbers became Muslims,
16

The growing power
:
of the
Marabouts marked a
distinct phase in the evolution of Islam in Africa, M. Albert Eeville says " If humanity at a certain
moment
of religious
development needs
human
gods, it is perhaps in idea draws most of evident.
Muhammadanism
that this
and
still
its force and appears most In any case the Marabouts have played play marvellously well the part of human
gods.
Their
success
depends
entirely
on the
fundamental idea
man
is
From
religion that to the find powerless right waj^ the truth. that to Mahdiism and again to the Mar-
of the
Musalman
aboutic worship the distance is quickly crossed. "^ The early Marabouts took care to ensure that
their
successors
as
should
enjoy the
of
material as
the power
well
the
spiritual advantages
gained over the masses of the people.^ The superstition of all classes brings to the descendant of
their special
saint
gifts for
their advice.
Their
their
amulets and talismans are used by, and

1
" Quoted by Depout et Coppolani, Les Confreries Reli148. Musulmanes," p. gieuses " 2 The late Bishop Crowther in the C.M.S. Intelligencer"
for 1880, pp. 253-4, gave a very graphic description of the work of these men, of the lucrative profession of writing charms and of some of their methods of propagating IsMm. " One way is childless women, or those who have
:
When
lost their children in infancy,
apply for these charms, the (Muslim) priest always imposes it as a condition of success that the future children must be Muhammadans."
THE MARABOUTS
supposed miracles are worked on behalf
supplicants. power of the
of
17
their
Many
saintly legends arose and the

is
is
awe.
viewed with mysterious supposed to still possess the means of protecting those who venerate his
Marabout
In his grave he
memory, and
of punishing the forgetful and the ungrateful, who neither obey his teaching nor aid his successors.
There are two stages
in this religious develop-
Marabouts propagated amongst the Berbers the idea of the sanctity of the saint and of the divine grace transmitted to the descendants of the Prophet, and finally moulded
in Africa.
First, the
ment
the thoughts of those thus influenced by them. In political life, therefore, the power of the Marabout plays a distinct part. Secondly, comes the religious Brotherhood. Though apparently re-
specting the positions conquered by the Marabouts, the Brotherhood goes on, little by little, to gain
ground by the practices of asceticism, contemplation, hysterical mysticism and the force of a combined association. The founders of the Orders were strictly orthodox that is, they not only followed the Qur'an.,
;
but also accepted the Sunna, the record
now
pre-
served in the Traditions of the Prophet's words and deeds, as a divine rule of faith and practice.
Certain sayings of the Prophet himself on this point were accepted by them as authoritative,
18

" Conform to my Sunna. He who follows shows that he loves me, he who does not not a Muslim." The founders of the more
as,
such
that
is
modern Orders follow the special teaching of some famous theologian, who can show that his particular instruction was based on that of men
of
the earhest days

is,
of
Islam.
Their declared
practices, to
object
by their
efforts
and pious
bring the faithful to the eternal blessing promised " to all who walk in the " good way revealed by
Gabriel to
Muhammad, who
Orders
has also given to

all
the founders of the
knowledge con-
The Shaikhs, therefore, can now cerning it. lead the disciple on, step by step, to a pure and
moral
tion,
state, abounding in that which draws the creature
spiritual perfecto the Creator.
Thus they maintain that their object in founding these Orders is the glory of God, the extension of Islam, and the salvation of men. They claim to be able to lead their disciples on by successive
stages to
least
such a state that they attain, or at approximate to, spiritual perfection. Then a supernatural origin is also claimed for
of these Orders. The members glory in of the the masses this, people freely admit it. this is often connected with the legends Very
many
about al-Khidr (Ehas), who is said to have been the greatest saint of his age and to be still the intermediary between God and the founder of a
THE ORIGIN OF AN ORDER
19
Eeligious Order. As he did not die, he is supposed to be still actively employed and to give power to the religious devotee vv^ho attains to
the dignity of Quth, a term to be explained later

on.
Owing
to his miraculous translation, to his
being transported
spirit of
from
his
God,
to
place to place by the investiture of Elisha with

said that al-Khidr
still
the prophetic
retains and
office, it is
great influence with men order of saintship. To them a who rise to high the of confers the he unveils future, gifts blessing
exercises (baraka), and gives supernatural powers (tasarruf). It is this supposed supernatural character of the
inception of
influence.
this blessing,
an Order which gives

the
All
members
in the
of
it
great participate in
of
it
its
and
abundance
spiritual
the founder of the Order, good, transmitted from who entered into secret and direct communication with al-Khidr and with the Prophet. The Shaikh of an Order almost always nominates his successor.
He summons
of the
many
together,
the chief Muqaddims and as Murids as he can conveniently gather and states tliat, after seeking the guid-
ance of the Prophet, he has chosen a man who will maintain the traditions of their founder and " the purity of their Order. Some, however, on
the ground that the Prophet made no regulation on the subject of succession to supreme power, In some leave the election to the Muqaddims.
20
THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF
ISLAlil
must belong to the family of Order." i In Constantinople certain Orders require the Sultan, or the Shaikhu'lIslam, to confirm the appointment thus made.
cases the candidate
the founder of the
The Muqaddims
are persons of
is
tance, and great care As a rule only such

oflfice
much importaken in their selection.

are appointed to this
men
who are One is Order.

is
acceptable to the brethren of the placed in charge of each Zawiyah
and
these, other
a sort of Abbot of a monastery. Besides Muqaddims are placed in charge of the various missionary enterprizes, or are engaged
in
diplomatic business in the interests of the Order. In Turkey the ^Jufti at Constantinople
has the right to confirm the appointment of these men, and the Shaikhul-Islam the power
to
remove one from his local charge. Once or twice a year the Muqaddims meet
in
conference and consider questions relating to the The state of each well-being of the Order.
gone into, its financial condition is all matters of business are attended and examined, the conference The issues from Shaikh to. to the brethren. Amulets and letters pastoral charms blessed by him are sold.^ New members
Zawiyah
is
1 2
Rinn, "Marabouts et Khouao,"
p. 60.
Chatelier writing of the Muslims in Western Africa says that they retain and use many of the pagan supei-stitions,
charms and incantations.
Hypnotism
is
also practised
by
THE MUQADDIMS
are
ailniitted
81
all
is
into
the
Order,
and when
done the members disperse,
receiving Tiiis meeting is called blessing of the Shaikh. the Hadrat, a word which means the Presence.
after
the
On
his
retm'n
homo each
Muqaddin\
holds a
lie enter-
synod of the brethren of his Ziiwiyah. tains them at a feast, and then gives
of
an account
the proceedings of the conference and reads the pastoral letter. After this is over, the brethren,
salute
deposit
one after another, an ottering them. This synod
the
Muqaddim
and
placed before is called Jalal, the Glorious. I have already stated that tiiese Religious Orders claim to be strictly orthodox. Innovation in the
tray
on fho
sphere of the worst
dogma
kind.
is
considered
to
be
heresy of
belief
They can
These
trace
their
back through a long succession of holy

to primitive times.
men up
of
men
to
are honoured by
distinctive titles,
saintliness.
according
their standard
the religious teachers. Thus the practice of IslAm, though not its doctrines, has been largely intluencod by its ouviroumeut. He adds, "In any case the only question is one of ritu;il. Tsltim which owes its success especially to its adaptability, has yielded in some measure to the customs of the country. But fetish beliefs have not been able to influence its doctrine, for they only exist as forms of ritual
or
as
traditions,
and
character."
tale," p. 313.)
(Chatolicr,
"
ha\e nothing of a philosophic L'lshim dans IWfriquo occideu-
22

The highest rank
of all
is
that of Ghauth.i a
the superabundance of his of his merits, is able influence the and sanctity to be the sin-bearer of the faithful, without in
to
man who, owing
the least endangering his
own
or
salvation.
He
of
is
very
or
'
often, therefore, called the Ghauthu'l-'Alam,
Eefuge
of
the World,'
'
Defender
the
are
World.'
Then come the men
of the next
rank
who
The title seems to called Qutb,2 or Axis. that this saint is a centre of influence
which
all
imply round
the greatness and the real grandeur He has attained to such of the world revolve.
a degree of sanctity that he reflects to the general body of believers the heart of the Prophet himself. The one most pre-eminent in his day is called the Qutbu'1-Waqt 'the Axis of the Age. He is the recipient of the special favour of God, by whom all the affairs of the lower and higher worlds are entrusted to him. All the Aiiliya',
or
It is said that saints, are subject to him. the founders of the Eifci'iyya, the Qadiriyya, the Ahmadiyya, and the Barahim Orders held this
office,
and that each one was the Qutb of the age in which he lived. It is alleged that the Qutb often appears in the world, but that men do not know
him
as such.
1
He
)ij i>
has certain
favoured stations
2
^^
QUTB AND AUTAD
23
where he appears, such as the roof of the Ka'ba in Mecca, one of the gates of old Cairo and other On his right and left there are two persons, places.
Umana',^ the faithful ones. When the Qutb the Amin on the left hand side succeeds him dies, the Amin on the right passes over to the left, and
called
his place is
is
;
believed
that the
then taken by one of the Autad. Qutb can in a moment

;
It of
time transfer himself from place to place but he usually wanders about the world, awarding good
or
evil,
as the destiny of
the recipient
may
be,
through the agency

nate to himself.2
of Walls, or saints, subordi-
The Autad
is
the
name given
to holy
men
of
influence in a country, or is applied in a mystical sense to those who have attained to the stage of
ma'rifat, the
knowledge
of
God.
The term has

of the State.
somewhat
of the
meaning
the phrase Arkan-i-Daulat They are four in number.
Pillars
of arkan, or pillars, in
There are
five
other persons called the Anwar,''
or lights, who succeed to vacant places the Autad.

1
amongst
Plural of c:>*'*^ amiu, a faithful one. A good account of the superstitious notions which have " Modern gathered round the Qutiib is given in Lane's
2
Egyptians,"
3
*
vol. I, pp.
jjj".
Plural of Plural of
watd, a
2904.
pillar.
,ynur,
light.
24

The next
of
in order are the Shuhada',i or martyrs there are forty. They are sometimes called the rijalu'l-ghaib, or absent ones. Each day
whom
in the montli they
wander over a
it
fixed portion of
the earth, going over

It is believed that,
if
all
once in each month.
a person can on any day of

is,
the
month
ascertain where one of the Shuhada'

spiritual aid.
he can obtain from him

cellent
Then come the Akhyar,^ a term signifying men. They are seven in number and
ex-
are
ever on the move, spreading the light of Islam. Another class are the Abdal,-^ the changeable.
in
Their hearts are so purified that no vice dwells " changed." |hem, and so they are said to be It is supposed that, in consideration of the merit
these men have acquired, God still preserves and blesses the world. They are seventy in number,
of
whom
forty
reside in Syria and thirty else-
one dies God appoints a successor, but no one can recognize these Abdal and no one knows the exact place where they reside. This is
where.*
When
known to God alone. On the day of judgment God will summon them to himself. It is said
1
Plural of J,^^ Plural of
shahid, a martyr.
j^ khaiyir, a good man.
3 Plural of Ji-^
*
badil, a substitute.
authorities give the number as forty, of whom twenty-two reside in Syria and eighteen in 'IrAq (Cambon, " Les Confreries Religieuse," p. 81).
Some
THE WALI, OR SAINT
25
that every morning they go to Mecca and report to the Qutb the result of their wanderings.
follow the Najib, who is an assistant to the Muqaddim, and the Naqib or chamberlain
Then
but these are ordinary
human
beings and need no
description. Wall, or saint, is a title given to a holy man These saints are highly veneafter his death.
rated,
and
this reverence
^
:
the Qur'an
"
is based on a verse of on the favourites of God Verily
no fear shall come, neither shall they grieve." The word for favourites is Auliya', the plural form
of Wali. of
They
working miracles. are very common.

exist to
are supposed to possess the Pilgrimages to their
power tombs
These various classes of holy men are said to demonstrate now the authenticity of the
Qur'an and the veracity of the Prophet. They are })opularly supposed to have great influence
over the course of events in the
world.
It is
said to be by their blessing that fruitful seasons come round, that the earth yields its increase,
that
Muslims are
victorious over their foes.
This
great power they gain by they observe the Sunna, or the traditions of the
the care with which
Prophet's words and deeds, and by the absolute abnegation of their own will and wishes.
1
Siiratu'l-Yuaus (X) 63.
26

The Shaikhs,
or
Grand Masters
of the Orders,
with new converts, and show great discernment in adapting their instruction to the various classes of men with whom they have to deal. On some general points
very skilful in dealing
there
is
are
much
strictness and sameness.
All
must
absolutely obey the Shaikh, keep secret the affairs of the Order, and be but beyond that loyal to it the teaching and discipline varies. A reli;
very
gious-minded disciple
is
directed to observe the
most minute
details of the ritual acts of worship,
one has talismans and charms given to him. The mystic finds satisfaction in the religious ecstasy to which his devotions lead the learned and philosophical are charmed with the
;
a superstitious
religious speculations opened
up to them whilst the weak and oppressed find, as members of an Order, the support of a powerful association. The
;
neophyte gains admission to and promotion in an Order very slowly, and only after a long ascetic At first he is only a Talmidh, a disciple; training. then a Murid, an aspirant; then a Faqlr, poor in the mystical sense. At this stage he learns that he possesses nothing, even his existence is as if it were not.^ He now enters upon the tariq,
or path,
1
and
sees
visions and has
supernatural
A Tradition recorded on the avithority of Islklik states that the Prophet said, " the poor will enter Paradise before the rich."
THE TRAINING OF A NOVICE

revelations.
27
Thus he becomes
road,
on
still
the
mystical higher stages of
but
many
a Salik, a traveller pass on to
they are powerfully drawn by God to Himself and are illuminated and inThe life of such an one is wholly spirispired.
the attracted
is,
that
life
and become Majdhub,
and not material, and the outward rites of He is so absorbed religion are no longer needed. in the contemplation of God that he passes on to the state of tauhid (unity), and is identified
tual
with the Supreme and so loses

existence. 1
all
Not
;
all
Darweshes attain
sense of separate to these
higher degrees
From
of
all
this
is
they are reserved for the few alone. it will be seen that the initiation
a
a novice
matter
of
great
importance.*
There arc thus four stages through which a Muriel

:
may
Tlie Shari'at, or Law, in obedience to which he must live and the rules of which he must observe. (2) The Tariqat, or path. He may now abandon forms and cere-
pass
(1)
monies and enter on the mystical life. (3) Ma'rifat or knowledge. He now gains supernatural knowledge and is believed to be inspired. (4) Haqfqat or Truth. He has now reached the stage of unity and becomes one with God. Pew pass beyond the second stage. " The following is given as a direction by the Shaikh Sanusi. When the adept is a common man, he ought only
2
gradually to be initiated in the precept thus only the easy prayers should be taught him, until his soul is gradually fortified and strengthened. Then the instruction is increased by the addition of the invocations by the Prophet .... When the results of the practice of the dhikr and of profound faith have removed the impurity of the soul, and
;
28

differs slightly in some of the Orders chief ceremonies and the main principles
;
The method
but
tlie
underlying them have much in common. The aspirant for the honour must prepare himself by prayer and alms-giving. he has been instructed for some days in the general nature of the obligations he will have
a
fast, a spiritual retreat,
After
to bear, the novice

of the
is
brought into the assembly
Darweshes by two of their number and is introduced to the Muqaddim, or to the Shaikh if he is He then swears that he will present. be loyal to the Order and will yield absolute
obedience to
his
spiritual
of
superior.
He
of
next
makes
a full profession
the
creed
Islam
and repeats the names of the seven attributes of God. He is then admitted into the Order, and is taught the dhikr, or special form of prayer used by it. The whole assembly then recites
the Fatiha, or opening chapter of the Qur'an, and the newly admitted brother receives from and gives to each of his brethren the kiss of In some Orders the ceremony is soon peace.
over
^
;
in
others
it
is
spread over a long period
when with the
eyes of the heart one sees nothing in this world and the next but the Only Being, then one may " Marabouts et Khouan," begin the full prayer." (Rinn,
p. 90.)
1 " The ordinary initiation remember is learnt, an oath
is
soon over.
dhikr easy to
of the
abnegation
of obedience to the Shaikh and of all things for the benefit of the Order
THE TRAINING OP A NOVICE

of time.
29
In the Maulawiyya and the Baktasha and few others, the novitiate extends to a iyya thousand and one days, during which time the novice has to perform the humblest domestic duties, and is put to severe proofs to test his capacity for obedience and his spirit of humility.
sary.
Absolute surrender of the individual will is neces" thou shalt be in the hands of Thus, thy Shaikh as a corpse is in the hands of those who prepare it for burial.' God speaks to thee through him. Thou art his slave and thou canst do nothing
without his order. He is a man chosen of God. Banish from thy heart any thought to which God Another famous or the Shaikh might object." " In the same way as a sick person teacher says ought not to hide anything from his doctor, so thou mayst not conceal from the Shaikh thy
:
" The thoughts or words or actions." image of the Shaikh must be ever present to the disciple." Amongst other means for destroying the sense of
individuality the following is given in the details "The of the ritual of the Naqshbandiyya Order
;
being absorbed in the spirit of the Shaikh is profitable only to him to whom the ecstatic state comes
is
taken.
The novice
is
henceforth bound to loyalty to the
his sole guide in things temporal and spiritual, his intercessor with God, the controller of all his affairs." (Depont et Coppolani, p. 199.)
master,
who becomes
J-UJ^
<^Ji>
^*>
Ju-.*J^
J^*-^ ^Xs-^ (^^
(^ O)^
30

To
attain that object,
naturally.
one must en-
own spirit the image of his Shaikh and look upon it as on his right shoulder. Then
grave in his
from the shoulder to the heart, he will draw a line along which the spirit of the Shaikh can come and take possession of his heart." Sometimes as part of the initiation the Shaikh touches the head of the novice and breathes into his ear the words la ilaha illa'lldh, which he has then to repeat one hundred and one, one hundred and fifty-one, or three hundred and one times. This is called the talqin. The novice then retires, spends much time in meditation alone, and falls
into a
dreamy
:condition.
This
is
called khilwat.
He has to report his dreams to the Shaikh, who then breathes a second time into his ear the words,
ya Allah, O God, and the other names of God. This goes on for forty days or so, when the novice becomes a Murid, or disciple. " In the Egyptian
branch
as
of
the Khilwatiyya, a
woman
is
looked
an impure being. The Shaikh does not upon touch her, but holds one end of a cloth, the other In another end of which the woman holds." " The Order, a simultaneous ablution is made. Shaikh or Muqaddim and the sister place their hands in a vessel of water and clasp their hands The face of the woman must be seen together.
1
Rinn,
" Marabouts et Khouan,"
p. 28G.
RELIGIOUS DUTIES
only
31
by
its
reflection
in
the water.
In the
Kahmaniyya Order the hand of the woman is not touched. It is sufficient if she recites after the
Shaikh certain prayers of initiation. Sometimes the ends of a rosary are held by each." ^ In addition to the duties involved in renunciation of the world, retreats, watchings
and
fasting,
the Ikhwan^
for
must observe the ziarat, the hadya and the dhikr. A ziarat is a religious visitation
the purpose of collecting funds \vhen the A regular revenue of the Order falls short. assessment is made which the Muqaddim collects
through the agency of the Cha'ush. The poorer persons suffer from this, often without a murmur, saying, "It is to God and not to man" we give. In Algiers the impost has been, with good results, but in regulated by the French Government Morocco, where there are no such restrictions, the Muqaddim lays heavy burdens on the people.
;
"
The rapacity
of the religious chiefs are a principal
cause of the misery which permanently exists in most of the Muslim States. This is especially so in Morocco, where the representatives of the
religious Orders abound."
1
'
'<
Depont et Coppolani, p. 199. In Northern Africa they arc
East, Darweshes.
Faqir (poor one). called AsMb (companions)." (Ibid, " Marabouts et 3 Khouan, Rinn,
called Khouan. In the The Qadiriyya Order keep the name In the Tijaniyya Order the members are
p. 195.) p. 91.
32
The hadya is an expiatory offering made by the Ikhwan for the infraction of some rule, or the It is also a kind of tribute neglect of some duty. which the Muqaddim exacts from the chiefs of the
and which few, owing to their fear of assassination or other injury, are bold enough to
local tribes
refuse.
The dhikr
daily
of
is
life
is a most important part of the Darwesh. There are various forms it. It may be recited aloud, in which case it or mentally or in a very low called dhikru'1-jali
^
of a
which case it is called dhikru'l-khafi. The Naqshbandiyya Darweshes adopt the former, the Chishtiyya and Qadiriyya Orders the latter.
voice,
in
dhikru'1-jali is as follows.
The worshipper
sit;
ting
down
in the usual
way
shouts out Allah
then, sitting as if for prayers, again in a louder then folding his legs under voice says Allah
;
* The origin of this frequent act of worship is to be found Believers remember God in Suratu'l-Ahzab (xxxiii) 40. "
!
with frequent remembrance and praise
evening"
Him morning and
The commentator 'Abdu'llah bin 'Abbds
means
is
"
Remember with tongue and heart

namiz."
says that \jj^S\ " and that
Sâ-*-.
equivalent to ":Say the

>
The Darweshes say that

repetition of the dhiiir.
frequent,
means the frequent
THE DHIKR
33
Mm
he shouts yet louder Allah. Then sitting again in the attitude for prayer he shuts his eyes and shouts la, drawing the sound from then he says ilaha as from the head his navel and lastly illa'llah from the left side. All this and is repeated hundreds of is called a darb, times on each occasion.
; ;
The Darwesh, who makes

his eyes,
dhikru'l-khafi, closes
and then inwardly and slowly says, as God the if from his stomach, AUahu Sami'un hearer; from his breast, Allahu Basirun God who sees from his head, Allahu 'Alimun God the knower. He keeps on going over these names backwards and forwards, not audibly but mentally, saying them to himself in an ascending and descending scale. Then in a very low tone of voice, as if from his right knee and left side, he says Allah : then he exhales breath and says, whilst so doing, la ilaha, and then inhales breath saying illa'llah. This darb is repeated hundreds of times and is most exhausting. By long practice a Darwesh attains great control over his breathing, and it is said of one man that, exhaling his breath, he used to say la ilaha there is no god at the midday prayer, and inhaling his breath, say
illa'llah
but
3
God
at
the
afternoon
for,
prayer.
at
least,
Thus he breathed out continuously

three hours.
34

Sometimes there
is also
a meditation on certain
verses of the Qur'an, as, " The Manifest: is the Last.

is
He
is
the First.
"
^
The Hidden
"
^
He "He
We (God) you go are closer to him (man) than the veins of his " neck ^ " Whichever way ye turn, there is the
with you
wherever
"
face of
God
"
"
God encompasseth
all
things."
The dhikr is said to produce union of the heart and the tongue in the act of saying the name of God, to cause the soul to recover its calm in
the
presence of
the
Shaikh.
The mysterious
virtue attached to the rite vanquishes evil desires. A Murid ought to say a dhikr three times in
one breath and so impress

is
it
on his heart, which
thus kept constantly occupied with the thought of God. Similar exercises to the dhikr are the
holiness to God tasbih, or saying subhanu'llah or al-hamdu'llah the tahmid, praise be to God ; or Allahu Akbar God is great. the and takbir, is reported to have said that he who
;
Muhammad
repeats the tasbih one hundred
times morning and evening will have all his sins forgiven. It is by the use of dhikr, by khilwat, or retiring from men for devotional purposes, by tawajjuh, or turning the face towards God devoutly in
prayer,
by
the
muraqabbah,
(Ivii.) 3.
or
contemplating
(Ivii.) 4.
Suratu'l-Mujddilali, 3Suratu'l-Qaf, (1.) 15. ^Suratu'l-Baqarah, 5Suratu'ii-Nis^', (iv.) 125.
Suratu'l-IMujadilah,
(ii.)
109.
THE DHIKR
God with
ualism,
fear,
35
by the
the
tasarruf, or mystical spirit-
that
fervent
spiritual internal powers, which It subdue the will of others.
Darwesh gains the enable him to is said of two

this,
Shaikhs, in
illustration
of
that
one
they saw some wrestlers equally matched, they determined to will that one particular
day and
man
He did so and then should gain the victory. they willed that the defeated man should conThe mechanical quer, and in turn he did so.
repetition, consecutive and prolonged, of the few words in the dhikr naturally weakens the personal
will of the
It
is
Darwesh, and deadens his intellect. produces a morbid state of mind in which he easily and blindly led by the stronger will of
It maintains the habit of his religious superiors. In fact, the whole of submission. and discipline
system is now so developed that individuality is crushed out and the Order is exalted. The will of the Shaikh is absolute and all venerate him
and implicitly obey his commands. There are now altogether eighty-eight Eeligious The first came into existence in the first Orders.^ year of the Hijra and the last was founded in
A.H.
1293 A.D.
1876.
It is said that the Khalifa
Abu Bakr
life.
1
first called
men
to a sort of
common
of a
short
account will
now be given
Khouan,"
pp. 26
The names
are given
by Rinn in
of the founders of these Orders, " Marabouts et
with dates,
51.
36

of the
few
ties
most important Darwesh Confraterni-
in their historical order.
The Siddiqiyya Order talies its name from the the righteous a title given to Abii word Siddiq to this day in Yemen, in Egypt, it exists and Bakr, aind in small numbers in Algiers. Its chief prin^
ciple is said to be the
profound contemplation of the person and virtues of the Prophet. The result is that they say the Prophet appears to a Dar-
wesh
of this
Order in times
of difficulty,
and
The joy of this is so in his hours of ecstasy. great that it can be known only by experience. The religious exercises are continued by the pious
members to them
until the
soul of
Muhammad
appears
and in their waking hours, to nourish them and to lead them on to heights
in
sleep
of spiritual perfection.
The Uwaishiyya Order arose thus

seventh
year of the
the
life
in the thirty-
Hijra, Uwaisu'l-Karani,
who
had
lived
of
a recluse, announced that
1 The BlsUmiyya, the Naqshbandiyya, and the Baktdshiyya Orders claim to have descended from the Siddfqiyya community founded by Abu Bakr. The Uwaisiyya, the Adhamiyya, the Qddiriyya, and the Sanusiyya Orders connected themselves with the Khalifa 'Umar and also with the Khalifa 'Ali, to whom all the other Orders look up as their original head. Each Order has its silsilah, or chain of succession, up to one of these Khalifas.
the
An Order name of
is
always called by the adjective formed from

founder.
its
THE ALWANIYYA OKDER

Gabriel
37
revealed to
had appeared to him in a dream, and him the constitution of an Order to
be started on strictly ascetic principles. Uwais carried his veneration for the Prophet so far as to extract his teeth, because Muhammad had lost
two
at the battle of
Uhud.
his followers to do the same.
Uwais then required The Prophet had
Uwais and commanded that his It was own mantle should be given to him. made of wool with a collar and long sleeves reacha great regard for
ing to the knee.
It is said to
be
still
preserved in
Constantinople by a descendant of Uwais. Once a year it is carried in procession to the Old The mantles of the Darwesh Orders are Seraglio.
made
Sharif.
after
the
fashion
of
this
the
Khirqa-i-
The Uwaishiyya Order has not spread
special rules and distinctive is the Alwaniyya, founded by exercises religious He was Shaikh Alwan in a.h. 149 a.d. 766.
beyond Arabia. The first Order with
the
first
to
make formal
rules
for
the
initia-
and to regulate the duties of the The whole spiritual directors and the Murids. system in its present form may be said to date from the time of this Shaikh. The Bistamiyya Order was founded by a PerA.D. 874 and traces its consian about A.H. 261
tion of a novice
nexion up to the Khalifa taught in

it.
'Ali.
Sufi doctrines are

its
Abu Bayazid
Bistami,
founder,
38
is

looked up to as a saint by the of the most famous Orders.
died
in
a.h. 561
Shaikhs
of
many
who
The Qadiriyya, founded by
'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jilani,
is
a.d. 1165,
one of the
Other Orders largest and most respected Orders.^ have arisen out of it. The banner and the turbans
Order are white. A rose is worn in the found in the northern parts of India cap. on the one side and in Algiers on the other. As
of this
It is
early as the fifteenth century it was introduced into Western Africa, by emigrants from Tuat A
.
settlement
Walata, being driven from that place the Order moved on to The great revival of religion at the Timbuktu.
was
formed
at
but
beginning
to the
of the
nineteenth century, probably due

Arabia, stirred
to
Wahhabi movement in the members of this Order

Shaikh Si
tation,
up
great
activity*
Ahmad
ibn Idris, a
chief
man
of
was then the
of great reputhe Order. He
in 1835 one of his disciples, Muhammad 'Uthmanu'1-Amir Ghani, to the Nile region where he enrolled many Muslims in the Order and proceeded to Dongola and then to Kordofan. In the latter country he stayed until his death in 1853 and gathered many pagan tribes into the fold of Islam. These he formed into a new
sent
Order, called the Amirghaniyya.

1 An excellent account of the founder is given by S. D. Margoliouth in the R. A. S. J. for April, 1907, pp. 267306.
THE QADIRIYYA ORDER
39
In their innumerable Zawiyahs the brethren of

the Order place much trust in their mystical ceremonies and seek in the hallucinations of the This ecstatic state to realize all their aspirations.
has been thus described
:
" at
each
moment
of
the day and night their thought strives to cross Their lips Unknown. space, to perceive the
repeat
the dhikr revealed to 'Abdu'l-Qadir
and,
with half shut eyes and the rosary slowly moving between the thumb and forefinger, they invoke
the
Supreme Being, and

if
listen to the beating of
their hearts, as
lation of the Divine

beatific vision.
they expected an inward reve^the beginning of the spirit-
Softly they rise and
bow and make
their ablutions, take a frugal meal and return to crouch in the same spot, still with the same ten-
when
sion of mind, awaiting the psychological the divine breath will visit their
i
moment
purified
Friday they gather together in silence and concentrate their faculties on a single Seated in a half circle idea, the majesty of God. or the before Shaikh Muqaddim, with legs crossed and the fingers of the open hand spread on the
minds."
knee,
On
they recite in unison many hundreds of times the dhikr compiled by their great founder. The dhikr of this Order is a very long one. The
novice, however,
1
on admission has only to add to

et Coppolani, p. 156.
Depont
40
THE RELIGIOUS OEDERS OF ISLAM
the namaz, or five obligatory prayers, the repetition one hundred and sixty-five times of the creeds
One form used by the most members is to recite the advanced spiritually Fatiha witli the intention that the reward for it shall go to the Prophet and to 'Abdu'l-Qadir to repeat one hundred and twenty-one times the words, "0 God, bless our Lord Muhammad and his " then one hundred and twenty-one times family " Glory be to God. Praise be to God. There is
la ilaha illa'llahu.
;
;
no god but He.
God
the
power
except
in
There is great. " Lord Most High

"
is
;
no
then
O Shaikh something for God"; then one then hundred times Suratu Ya Sin (xxxvi) then one Suratu'1-Jinn (Ixxii) forty-one times hundred and twenty-one times Suratu'n-Nasr then eight times Suratu'l-Fatiha then (ex) once Suratvi'l-Ikhlas (cxii) and finally three times
one hundred and twenty-one times
'Abdu'l-Qadir,
;
the words, "

All
God
bless the Prophet. "^
this must be done with great precision. The Shaikh gives the signal for prayer, controls and corrects the movements. Then slowly all
turn their faces to the right and, with an admirable

^
To each dhikr the

jaAx^\ ^gU^ " IMarabouts et
special
follovviug
words are added

J^-^*.'*
&U^
Jlo
&1!\
and
e?*^^
<_s^-^5^
\>s^^
Rinn,
Khouan,"
p. 184.
is
attitude in prayer
Ibid, p. 135.
adopted by members of
this Order.
THE QADIRIYYA ORDER
41
cadence, say Allah, then they turn to the left and say Allahu, then they bow their heads and say Allahi. They go on repeating this again and again, each
time increasing the pace of their utterances, until wearied and exhausted the words die on their lips, they become almost senseless and feel a delirious
vision filling their minds.
glimpse of Paradise
They seem to catch a and beside the throne of the

great
Almighty appears
their
Master,
'Abdu'l-
Qadir, in saintly glory. This goes on year in year out until they think they reacli the highest stage
of absorption in the Divine.
To the multitude
gifted with supernatural powers,^ exorcists, visionaries, miracle workers, though in reality they are either self-deceived mystics with
they are as
men
minds unbalanced, or pretended saints of doubtful These ecstatic practices were introduced into the Order by its founder. They are denounced by the 'Ulama as contrary to the Quran and the Sunna and are looked upon as
character.
profane.
of the
dispersed and is one endeavours to get on with rulers and with men in high positions it
is
This
Order
widely
most
tolerant.
It
charity and seeks their aid. The authority exercised by the Shaikh is very complete. At the time of the initiation of a
stimulates
their
novice, the Shaikh taking his
hand and placing

the
it
between
his arms, says
: " In
name
of
God
42
most merciful, most clement. I believe in God, in His angels, in His book, in His Prophet, in the day of judgment, in His decrees, in His favours, in His punishments, and in the resurrection from
" I am the novice replies a Muslim, and I am confirmed in my worship and in my faith. I purify myself by a sincere
the dead."
To
this
repentance,
heresy.
mad
is
I repudiate all from all my sins. There is no god but God, and MuhamHis servant and apostle. It is from him
I receive admission into this
Order.
all
I take
the
oath of
fidelity.
all
engage to obey
the divine
laws, to do
things as in the sight of God, to
accept what
to thank
He may be pleased to send me and Him for troubles which may oppress
Other ceremonies follow and a long list when they have been satisfactorily answered, the novice is admitted into the Order. All throughout the Western Sudan, a hundred
me."
of questions is pvit,^ after which,
years ago, small and scattered communities of the Qadiriyya were to be found. Then stirred up by a missionary spirit, they became active amongst
iheir
heathen neighbours and since that time have made great progress by their pacific propaganda. In fact, this Order and that of a more modern and a warlike one, the Tijaniyya, have been the principal agents in the extraordinary
1
Rinn, "Marabouts
et
Khouan,"
pp. 190-196.
THE QADIRIYYA ORDER
43
advance of Islam in the Western and Central Sudans in modern times.'^ As-Sanusi was once one
'Abdu'l-Qadir, its as founder, being a man of large represented heart and charitable feelings, and his Order was
of
is
of the
members
this Order.
founded
not only to improve by its mystical the corrupt morals of Muslims, but also teaching to relieve the miseries of men, to comfort the
afflicted
"
of the
Muqaddims
not sent
and to aid the very poor by alms." One of the Order has said that " if
Muhammad to be the seal of the would have sent 'Abdu'l-Qadir, for He prophets, Tie, by his virtues and charity, most of all men
God had
1 This is confirmed by the latest writer on the subject, " vfho writing in 1899 says By the instruction which they the their colonies they found on every to disciples, by give side, the Darweshes multiply in the Sudans their centres of " L'Islam dans action." (Chatelier, I'Afriqiie Occidentalle," The Rt. Rev. Bishop Johnson writing in Decemp. 254.) " A ber 1902 of the city of Benin, says ilosque has been erected there and the ]\Iuhammadan call to prayer is heard and both there and at Warri and at Sapele proselytizing
:
is going on. Already some Benin young men have be" come Muhammadans (C.M.S. Intelligencer, February 1903, The Synod of Western Equatorial Africa met on p. 115.) May 4 to 7, 1908 and amongst others passed the following
work
resolution,
" That the rapid growth of
Muhammadanism
iu
the Yoruba country calls for serious and prompt action on the part of the Church." Spealîng of the success of the QAdiriyya Darweshes in parts of Algiers, the French Sudiln and Senegal, a French authority says of the converts : " The apostles (Darwesh missionaries) become their masters spiritual and temporal, veritable princes and at the same iime priests and warriors" (Depont et Coppolani, p. 311).
44
THE EELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAM
resembles Jesus Christ." He is called the Saint of Saints, the Qutbu'l-Qutub, and the Ghauthu'l-
A'zam
that
the greatest defender.

now between
It is said that his
soul hovers
earth and heaven,

his
God always answers
behalf of others.
No
saint
and made on prayer him in the equals
working miracles, nor are such marvellous The oflfice of Shaikh is any other. If the is a minor when his father son hereditary. dies, the Ikhwan appoint one of their number to act for him until he reaches the age of twenty.
power
of
stories told of
The Eifa'iyya, often called the howling Darweshes, belong to an Order founded by Ahmad ar-Eifa'i of Baghdad who died in a.h. 578 a.d. 1182 and was buried in the principal Zawiyyah
of
the Order, situated in a town in 'Iraq.
He
is
was a
repute.
nephew
of
'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jflani
and
considered to have been a
theologian of
great
tliey extinguish by rolling on the burning coals, and they even eat live coals and glass, and swallow serpents, or appear to do
so. In Mecca their agents are active, and they are very hostile to Europeans. Lane describes a scene he witnessed in Cairo thus: "A Darwesh
Order are black. make fires which
The banners, robes and turbans of this The members of the Order
^
took a large piece of live coal, plaKêd
it
between
" The 1 For the special prayers used by this Order, see Darweshes," by Brown, pp. 114-124.
THE
RIFA'IYYA
it
ORDER
then drew
it
45
Ms
his
teeth,
and kept
there;
on
tongue, and, keeping his mouth wide open for two minutes, violently inhaled and exhaled,
showing the inside of his mouth like a furnace and breathing out sparks. Having chewed and swallowed the coal he sat down, without ap^ parently having suffered any pain." In the course of years these Darweshes have been scattered about in the East, and have formed distinct groups. In recent years the chief matter
of interest connected with
them is that there is a movement towards union amongst the scattered

branches.
This has been mainly brought about
by the influence of Abii'l-Hauda, a great friend of the present Sultan of Turkey, 'Abdu'l-Hamid II.
who
the grand Sharif
members of this Order and Mecca agents in the recent " movement. Under the powerful pan-Islamic
has
the
of
made
direction of Abii'l-Hauda the Eifd'iyya Darweshes seem to recover their spiritual homogeneity and
become, at the same time, the sworn enemies of progress and civilization, the unscrupulous executors of the designs of the Ottoman Porte." ^ This gives the Order a political importance.
The Chistiyya Order was founded by Mu'inu'd1
Lane,
"Modern Egyptians,"
vol.
ii,
p.
190,
see also
vol. 1, pp. 305-7.

2 Depont et Coppolani, p. 327. On the other hand, C. Snouck Hurgronje, whilst admitting that the centre of the
46

who was born
in
a.h,
537 a.d. 1142. His tomb is a Ajmir of favourite He was a place very pilgrimage. of The members 'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jilani. disciple
din Chisti,
He
died
in
India.
of this
of
Order are mostly Shi'ahs. They are fond music and perform the dhikru'1-jali. The Suharwardiyya Order was founded by
Shahabu'd-din as-Suharwardi, who died in Persia about A.H. 623 a.d. 1226. The majority of its followers are still found in Persia, but its inThe teaching of fluence has been felt elsewhere.
as-Suharwardi was highly mystical and dealt with

the deeper aspects of Sufiism. Now, it is not so much an Order as a school of mystic philosophy which has had a great influence on the teaching
of
many
of the
African Orders and fosters the

in
growth
656 A.D.
amongst them. The Shadhiliyya Order was founded

of fatalism
a.h.
1258,
It
and
It
Muslim
lands.
spread through most flourishes in Egypt and in

is
has given rise to many branches Algiers. which now form separate Orders. Its doctrines are held by almost all the modern Orders. The
Sanusiyya are
afiSliated to
Abu Madian
al-Andalusia,
it. A famous teacher who was born in Seville
Pan-Islamic movement is in Mecca, does not think that the Grand Sharif and his assistants play any great part in He also thinks that the influence of the Religious it. Orders in this matter is over-rated (" Revue de I'Histoire des Religions" tome, quarante-quatritoe, p. 281.)
THE SHADHILIYYA ORDER

in A.D.
4T
1127, a disciple of 'Abdu'l-Qadiri'l-Jilani, brought the mystical teaching of his master into Northern Africa, whilst his disciple, 'Abdu's-Salam
taught
it
in
Western
Africa.
He
too
had an
earnest follower, Sidi Abu Hasanu'sh-Shadhil who, carried on the propaganda both in Northern and
Eastern Africa and in Egypt. Abu Madian added to his great knowledge of mysticism, a modesty of manner and a ready eloquence which helped to make him one of the most influential men of
his age.
in
The
early chiefs of the Order,
worthy
interest
disciples of their great master,
took
little
teaching and were
diligently disseminated his really the heads of a mystical One of the instructions of philosophical school. Shaikh before was "
worldly
affairs,
obey your sovereign." temporal your

dhil,
Shadhil
a
you obey
Abu Hasanu'sh-Shatheologian
as a mystic, gave his
a.h. 593.
man
of
great
reputation
moralist,
jurisconsult
and
of a
name
to the Order.
He was
born in
Muslim mystic and He was a good example were looked his followers upon as excellent Sufis.
He
said to
his
"
disciples,
You
will
not smell
the odour of sanctity until you are detached from the world and from men. He who desires glory in this world and in the next should accept my
Then he will reject from his heart teaching. all that is not God, will seek nothing, will love nothing but God. Hear him who calls you to
48
God has you to battle. which my companions and their disciples are enrolled and will be shelHe was known in Morocco tered from hell-fire.'' and his popularity so influenced the 'Ulama of the University of al-x\zhar in Cairo that he was
looked upon as the spiritual Master of confraterMecca, and wise men and philosophers of both these cities highly regarded him as an
nities in
peace, not liim who calls given me a register in
eloquent doctor, an im comparable master. When he died he left no heir. He appointed no successor, but the brethren retained his name
soon occupied the front rank of the existing Orders. In the course of time it gave rise to many other Orders which form distinct groups, tinged, however, with the mysticism of the older one. Some of them have made practical changes, and devote less time to mystical studies and more to practical ones but they now form a very great social and religious
;
and the Shadhiliyya
power.
The Maulawiyya, often called the dancing Darweshes, are the most popular Order in the Turkish Empire where they are known as the
There are no Zawiyahs of These men are famous Algiers. for their music and their mystic dance, which consist chiefly of whirling round and round. This is said to represent the revolution of the
this Order in
Mevlevi Darweshes.
THE NAQSHBANDIYYA ORDER
49
spheres and also the circling movement of the caused by the vibrations of its love to soul,
God. They say their prayers in silence, standing up and turning round from east to west. Their religious performances are to be seen in
The Order was Constantinople and in Cairo. founded by Maulana Jalalu'd-dfn Rumi who died It is a very wealthy A.D. 1273. in A.H. 672 is in it a There Order. singular union of austere
practices, political obsequiousness to the Sultan, The Shaikh of the and frivolous ceremonies. ^
office
Order must be a descendant of its founder. The is hereditary and so the marriage of the
Shaikh
is
obligatory.
The Naqshbandiyya Order was founded by Muhammad Beha'u'd-din Naqshbandi who died in He was a man Persia in a.h. 719 ad. 1319.
and piety and a Sufi. At first he did not wish so much to form an Order as to gather together an association of religious people, who might meet for prayer without much outward
of learning
show
or
terior is
special rites. for the world
He
;
held that
"
The
ex"
;
the interior for
God
but the association grew into a very large and

tral
important Order which is found chiefly in CenAsia and in Turkey, but is little known in
1 For a full account of the dauces, see Brown, Darweshes," pp. 199-201. 2
"
The
îÛ
^Û\ ^ji^
4
^&UiJ\
50
THE EELIGIOUS ORDEES OP ISLAM

It attracts
high social position learning. They generally perform the dhikru'l-khafi, or silent devotions, and are moderate in their mysticism. In addition to this each
Africa.
men
of
and
of
member must
for forgiveness,
daily recite the istighfar, or prayer once the salamat, or prayer for
;
the Fatiha seven times peace, seven times Suratu'l-Inshirah (xciv) nine times Suratu'l; ;
;
Ikhlas (cxii) once, and then the appointed dhikr an indefinite number of times. The conformity of its teaching to that of the Khalifa Abu Bakr, the dignity of its outward ceremonial, the high
class of 'persons affiliated to it are amongst the causes which give this Order a very high place in the esteem and regard with which other Darweshes look upon it.
The important Orders, the Qadiriyya, the Eifa'iyya, the Maulawiyya and the Shadhiliyya, were
when, through the influence of won for itself a secure and a in the Muhammadan Church. recognized position was forced to Orthodoxy accept the popular saintand to admit the miracles of the auliya', worship Muslim although many puritans raised their
Ghazali, Sufiism had
voices against the superstitious veneration which to the tombs of holy men, and against tlie prayers, sacrifices, and oblations offered by
formed
at a
time
"
was paid
the pilgrims
1
Nicholson,
who assembled." "A Literary History
of the
Arabs," p. 93.
THE QALANDAEIYYA ORDER
51
The Qalandariyya,* or wandering Darweshes, were founded as an Order by 'Ali Yusuf Qalandari,
a native of Spain,'^ who died in a.h. 724 a.d. 1323. He was a disciple of Jalalu'd-din Eiimi and of a memHaji Baktash and was also, for a while, afterwards he which Order of the ber Chistiyya
left
velled
He traand founded an Order of his own. much and finally settled down at Panipat, The where pilgrimages are made to his tomb.
statutes of the Order oblige its members to live on charity, to be always on the move, and not
to
cally Sufis.
amass wealth for themselves. They are practiThe Order exists in India, Persia and
Turkey. Their dhikr contains a prayer for the founder and certain passages from the Qur'an,^ repeated many times, and concludes with the
on Muhammad and The Qalandar twice. said which is his family, character in Eastern well known is a Darwesh
duriid, a prayer for blessing
tales.
1 The word Qalandar is also used for a man who need He may be a sort of not be connected with an Order. unattached wandering friar. Suharwardi says that they
are persons possessed of an intoxication^ peace of heart and that they are men
2
which they
call
who
totally dis-
regard the ordinary rules and customs of society.

3
Some authors say he was born at Panipat in Hindustan. The FAtiha, or the opening chapter, of the Qur'^n
;
Suratu
Ali
(Ixxxiii),
'Imran, three times

for
ii.
:
three times Suratu't-Tatfif, Suratu Yusuf (xii), ten times then the
('25G),
; :
durud (prayer
Muhammad and
his descendants) twice-
52

The Baktashiyya Order was founded by Haji
Baktash,
who
died in a.h.
738 a.d.
to
its
1337, and
is
connexion with the Janissaries.i It is very popular with the The symbol of the Order is the army still. mystic girdle which is put on and off seven
famous
in
Turkey owing
times.
The Darwesh
in
so doing,
says
;
: I
tie
up greediness and unbind generosity I tie up avarice and unbind piety I tie up anger and unbind meekness I tie up ignorance and unbind the fear of God; I tie up passion and unbind the love of God I tie up hunger and unbind I tie up the influence of (spiritual) contentment Satan and unbind the influence of the Divine.
; ;
; ;
The symbolical number

and so each
of its
of the Order is twelve, communities contains twelve
elders, to The special duties are assigned. esoteric doctrines held by these Darweshes are a
whom
curious mixture of pantheism and materialism and are thus described, "Each human soul is a portion of divinity which exists only in man.
by perishable mediums, constantly changes its dwelling without quitting the earth. Morality consists in enjoying the good of earth without injury to any one, whatthings
ever causes no
ill
The
eternal soul, served
to
wise
joy
man
is
is
he
who
1
a person is lawful. regulates his pleasures,
The
for
a science
which has degrees, made known

Ante,
p.
5.
THE BAKTASHIYYA OEDER

little
53
is
by
^
little to
all
the initiated.
Contemplation
to
the best of
vision."
joys, for it belongs
the celestial
favour on this
Orthodox Muslims now look with disOrder. This has been attributed to the influence of the Hurufi sect^ amongst In 1871-2 some the Baktashiyya Darweshes. Baktashis published a Hurufi work which was
condemned by the orthodox 'Ulama. Gibb says that the Huriifis were antinomians who, believing themselves to be identical with God, looked upon the moral law as not binding " upon them. He adds, such beliefs may lead to no practical evils so long as they are confined to but when they are proclaimed saints and sages to all of society, and when, in adclasses openly dition, the promised Paradise is declared to be here in this present world and the Houri-brides to be none other than the beauties of earth, the flood gates of social anarchy have been flung
severely
;
open.
Here we have the
real explanation of the

^
relentless hostility shown towards the Huruf is." This sect originally Persian is now unknown in
Persia.
It
exists
it
in
is
Albania, where,
1 2
Turkey and is strong in said, the Baktashiyya Order
Rinn, "Marabouts et Khouan," p. 37. For an account of this curious sect, see articles by Professor Browne, R. A. S. J., January 1898, pp. 6194 R. A. S. J., July 1907, pp. 53340; also Gibb, 'Ottoman Poetry," \ol. I, pp. 83842 353-5 373. " Ottoman 3 Gibb, Poetry," vol. I, p. 387.
; ;
54
has also eighty thousand lay members, supposed to be more or less connected with the political
disturbances in that region.
The
initiation of a
Baktashiyya Darwesh
of
all
is
made
nearly deprived ing to show that he makes a voluntary sacrifice of the world and its wealth. With a rope round his neck, he is led into the assembly and, as a
in secret.
He
is
his cloth-
He slave, begs the Shaikh to pardon his sin. then goes through the ritual of initiation. The Shaikh whispers in his ear the secrets of the Order which he is charged most solemnly never to
divulge.
special
sign
is
by which
all
the
members
made known to him of his own Zawiyah,

is
or Takya, can recognize him. The origin of the Khilwatiyya Order

to Brahimu'z-Zahid,
traced
who
lived about the
middle of
the fourteenth century

into notice
by
Si
a.d., but it was brought Muhammadu'l-Khilwati and still
more especially by 'Umaru'l-Khilwati, who died in A.H. 800 A.D. 1397. In Turkey and in Egypt iie
is looked up as the practical founder of the Order. Influenced by the ascetic practices and the doc-
trines of the Qadariyya Order, he fasted long and The practice lived in strict retirement (khilwat).
" of holding " retreats is still kept
up
as a
custom
derived from the
Shaikh.
In the Zawiyahs of
where the
the Khihvatis there are a great number of cells l^rethren shut themselves up for stated
THE KHILWATIYYA ORDER
55
periods, often for forty days, in solitary secluThe sense of sion for contemplation and prayer.
hunger, thirst and isolation disappears

of
the idea
souls existence vanishes, and they say ]n are rapt in the contemplation of the Divine. hear the and see voice of God imagination they
their
the angels who are near to him. The ultimate to be desired is the annihilation of individgoal
by the absorption of the individual into the essence of God. They pray for the welfare
uality
of all
Muslim people and

State that
it
in
Turkey and in Egypt

be preserved from
all
for the
may
temporal evils. In the eleventh century

of
of the Hijra, a
number
Khilwatiyya Darweshes went forth from their Zawiyah in Egypt and built many monasteries amongst the ruined ones of Christian monks.
the
Arabia, Khurdistan, Turand Northern Africa. Many other Orders have branched out from this one. The initiation of a neophyte is long and to him
They
settled in Persia,
key,
Syria
is
It the great merit of solitude is highly extolled. said that the Prophet in speaking to 'All laid
great stress on this habit and that, through a long

line
of men, this teaching of Muhammad was handed down to the Founder of the Order. Tlie Tradition is that one day 'All said to the Prophet, " which is the shortest way to the knowledge of
God?"
He
replied,
"repeat
daily
the
name
66 of
"

God
in
solitary
places,
shall I
such
is
the
of
virtue
attached to the invocation of the
name
'
God."
"
In what position
'
make the invocation ?
There is your eyes and say after me 'Ali did this no god but God three times." and thus the sanctity of the idea of solitude
" Close
came dov^n
to the
to
the
Khilvs-'atiyya
leaders,
who
present day have maintained intact the doctrines and practices of the Founders of their
Order.
rigours,
They observe
this solitude with
all
its
they keep long and exhausting fasts, they repeat the dhikr unceasingly in solitude with a special posture of the body and head.
The
veil
old Persian
of
pantheism appears under the
Sufiism.
is
The oath
of
allegiance to the
one and is rigidly observed. is crushed out, the mind Intellectual freedom is enslaved. Such is the inward condition. OutShaikh
a
strict
wardly there is systematic opposition to political and social progress, persecution of those who
or endanger, the temporal power of the Order which, from its wide-spread influence and the sanctity which has gathered round it, owing to its prolonged periods of meditation in the
touch,
darkness
of
seclusion,
is
a great
antagonistic
element to the cause of civilization and enlight" The very secrecy with which much enment. of their worship is done tends to produce in men animated by the same passionate sentiments
THE BAKAYIYYA ORDER

this retrograde political spirit.
57
They have
stirred
up trouble in Egypt and many of them joined It is largely rethe Mahdi in the Sudan." ^
cruited
from
who come
to live
pilgrims of an ascetic tendency in the sacred cities of Mecca
and Madina. The Orders more recently formed are to be found in Timbuktu, Algiers and Morocco. They are, generally speaking, offshoots from the older I give ones, especially from the Shadhiliyya.
some account of the more important ones. The Bakayiyya Order has its centre in Timbuktu. It was founded by Ahmad Bakkay, who
died in the year a.h. 960 A.d. 1552. offshoot from the Shadhiliyya Order
It is an and has
It is entirely the Marabout family of Bakkay. In former years its members extended the religion of Islcim to bhe extreme south of the Sahara and
much
influence south of Morocco.
in the
hands
of
now
the Bakkayis are in
many
tribes
the real
political
and
spiritual rulers.
The Shaikhiyya Order was founded in a.h. 1013 It is named after Sid 'Abdu'l-Qadir A.D. 1604. Muhammad, known as Sidi Shaikh. He was a
descendant of the Khalifa Abii Bakr. not so distinctly an Order as others are,
lineal
It is
but
rather a confederation of individuals, often disagreeing among themselves, but united in one
1
Chatelier,
" Les confreries
Mnsnimanes du Hedjaz,
p. 74.
68

of regard for the Sidi Shaikh,
common bond
and
for the spiritual teaching of Hasan ash-Sliadhil. It is powerful in the southern part of Algeria and
its
influence
ous.
than religiis now more political The distinguished lineage of its Founder,
and the character of many of its leaders, who as Marabouts died in the odour of sanitity, have greatly increased and maintained the reputation At present the aims of its leaders of the Shaikhis.
seem
their
to be directed less to the religious
good of
followers,
than
to
tlie
all
temporal and
political ends, notions and practices of the Marabouts.
maintaining, for the superstitious
The Karzaziyya Order was founded in a.h. 1607. The founder, a member of the royal family of Morocco, had been a Muqaddim
1016 A.D.
Shadhihyya Confraternity. He tauglit his followers to reject reason as it was a guide to error, to place absolute confidence in the Shaikh,
of the
meet death boldly and to be ever ready to The leaders adopted fight in the cause of God. an ascetic life and assumed a voluntary poverty. This caused them to be held in great esteem.
to
The Muqaddims
the Order.
of
It is
are chosen by the members of spread over the east and south
TNIulai
Morocco.
Ilis
Shaikh
was
a patron of the Berbers
Karzaz, the founder, and of the nomadic
tribes.
for the poor
Zawiyah and for
at
tliose
Karzaz was an asylum who were oppressed
THE TAIBIYYA ORDER

by the warlike Tuwariq Tribes.
59
His successors
follow his kindly example and so tliis Order is highly esteemed by the common people. It has kept the favour of the Sultans of Morocco and
has also maintained friendly relations witli the Its members are scattered over the French. and the Order, if hostile, could from its Sahara
head Zawiyah, situated near to Tuat, give

trouble.
much
Mulai
The
Taibiyya
Order was founded
l)y
1090 a.d. 1679. The 'Abdu'llah, first Zawiyah erected was at Wazzan where the chiefs of the Order are buried and which is now
who
died in a.h.
The Sultan of Morocco of pilgrimage. this founded that Order, by a member of hoped the royal family would be a great support to liis
a place
dynasty. The Order is named after its second Shaikh, Mulai Taib, a man of austere life, devoted Converts to the interests of liis Confraternity.
were numerous from the negroes, who became

henceforth free from the danger of slavery. Order is inclined to be political in its aims.
dhikr
as,
is
The The
J
long and complicated.

of
Such sentences
!
"I implore the mercy
God, the Almighty

;
I celebrate the praises of
blessing to our Lord
O God Muhammad, his

God
no god
))ut
give tliy
wives and
descendants
There
is
God and Mu-
the apostle of dreds of times in a day.

is
hammad
God"
are repeated hun-
The very pious members
60
of

the
Order
make
over four thousand recita-
The leaders are careful not to offend tions daily. men in authority. It is said that some Sultans
have heen
affiliated to
it.
The neophytes swear
that they will
render implicit obedience to the Shaikh and obey all the rules laid down for their
guidance.
Every year inspectors go

to
forth
from
Wazzan
look into the affairs of the different
Zdwiyahs,
zeal of all
to strengthen the weak, to stir up the and to collect money. The Order has cultivated friendship with the
French, whilst still remaining devoted to the cause The Shaikh 'Abdu's-Salnn in 1876 of Morocco. wished to be declared to be a citizen of France
and
was an admirer
married an
family
of
of
European
civilization.
He
the
English
a
lady, a governess in gentleman in the diplomatic

to
service, and sent his sons
be educated in a
took no part in the opposiLycee at Algiers. tion to the entrance of the French into Tuat,
or to their occupation of the surrounding country. Still, the interests of the Order with Morocco
He
We very strong and a French writer says enorof of the to not lose possibility sight ought
is
"
mous
difficulties to our interest from the Taibiyya Order in Algiers, Senegal and Morocco, should its Shaikh become hostile to our authorities."
They
in
are said to
appearance, with some
be rather unfriendly, at least of tlie other Orders,
THE HANSALIYYA ORDER

such as the Qadiriyya,
61
the Tijaniyya and the Darqawiyya, though this does not prevent their working with them when an occasion calls for it.
ibn
The Hansaliyya Order was founded by Sayyid Yusufu'l-Hansali, a native of Morocco who
died in the year a.h. 1114 a.d. 1702. It is another olfshoot of the Shadhiliyya confraternity.
The founder was connected with

After
a Berber family. the pilgrimage to Mecca, he studied for awhile at the al-Azhar University in Cairo but
;
undergo in his long journey home made him forget all he had learnt. So he led an ascetic life, and spent a long time
the
toil
and fatigue he had
to
in
constant
devotion
his
at
a shrine
of
a famous
saint,
with the result that his
memory
returned
to
to
him and
vocation was revealed

are
him
the
by God.
There
many
legends
about
marvellous things that happened to him on his The influence of this Order is very journey. great amongst the Berbers of the Atlas Mountains, a people of an independent spirit, fanatical and In addition to the dhikr, the Ikhwan warlike.
recite
some portions of a famous poem on the ninety-nine names of God. It is said that, if the Darwesh who recites any one of these verses
not in a state of complete moral purity, he On exposes himself to the divine displeasure. the next page I give a translation of a few verses on ten of the names.
is
G2

Pardoning God,
I cry to Thee,
Thy pardon
to implore.
Sovereign Lord, subdue thro' Whoe'er subverts Thy law.
me
Thy
glory, Glorious Being,
doth
JNIy feeble
strength increase.
Thou who humblest in the dust. Cause lying tongues to cease.

Knowledge and understanding 0, Giver of all, to me.
Sustainer, for my sustenance I look for ease from Thee.
give,
The
souls of all Thine enemies,
Seizor of spirits, seize.
Scatterer of
gifts,
increase desire
In beauty's devotees. Of
Humbler, humble Thou the power all who Thee oppose.
Thou who
In spite
of these
raisest, raise foes.
me up
my
^6
iUa^j
'
J'
e-^
^^))
^-
^)^
V.
^j<>j
U*.i5^
-V?
'Xi
^^^ ^t^
J^^ ^^;^
e^^;
^?.
THE HANSALIYYA ORDER

The
of the
63
doctrines of the Order are similar to those
ShadhiUyya, but Hansali introduced
many
austere practices and exacted rigorous penances.
The mystery which surrounds their teaching made these Darweshes a dangerous secret assoTurks until French occupied Algiers. Since then, they have been loyal to French rule but there are only The prestige of the five Zawiyahs in Algeria. Order is high and its leaders have a renown for the devotions and habits peculiar to Darwesh
ciation in constant conflict with the
the
saintliness.
This
is,
perhaps, the reason
why
the
amulets
they
prepare
have a
great
reputation
for preserving the wearers in safety in times of accidents. They are scarce a.nd difficult for a
Those who carry them foreigner to obtain. believe that they will be preserved from evil and
that all their enterprises will prosper. Should it be otherwise, then their faith must have become weak or some impious hands must have touched
their
supernatural power is conOne of the most sidered to be beyond dispute.
charm, for
its
famous charms worn is to protect the wearer from danger in battle. The following words may " be written on such an amulet, God, if any one stirs up against the bearer of my present
writing any manner of evil, smite off his head. Kestrain his evil heart, bridle his tongue and turn God, let the bearer of this away his cunning.
64
THE RELIGIOUS OEDERS OF ISLAM

Thy
safe-keeping, within
writing be in
Thy
is
favour
which never
tower
;
faileth.
Thy
safeguard
;
a strong
Thy
I
irresistable.
Thy power protection is mighty seek shelter witli Him that hath
power and might and lordship." Various invocations and passages from the Qur'an are also
written.
Another amulet is worn as a protection against the evil eye, always a source of dread to the After reciting the praises of God.> superstitious.
be for a hindrance to
these words find a place in the charm, "Let these my enemy, the frowning
forehead, the dazzling flame, the dark night, the smooth sword, the dry rock. O God, tear forth his eye who would curse therewith, snatch the
evil tliought from his forehead and the word from his tongue. Let his mischief fall upon his own head, upon his goods and on those most dear' to him." Another charm contains these words, " In the name of God, the merciful, who sitteth on the throne l)efore which kings bow their heads. The eyes of conquering nations have been closed
in the presence of the believers they hear not, of the ruler not. see God, mighty, of the they
;
fearful
proud nations, of the peoples of old, smite with punishment the man who hath concerned Thou who smotest the elephant evil against me. and sentest against them birds to cast on them
THE TIJANIYYA ORDER
66
stones marked with the signet of heaven,^ with Thee we take refuge, for from Thee cometh forth
victory.
him who has plotted against

bearest
this writing,
I
unconquerable conqueror overthrow O thou who us.

strengthen thee as
God
did the Prophet

tracts
Muhammad."
There is much more written than the brief exwhich I have given. The charms all contain ascriptions of praise to God, curses on the supposed enemy, protection from evil and the assurance of safety from the special evil against which
is supposed to guard. The and the power to distribute them adds not only to the renown and the in-
the particular
charm
authority to prepare
tlie
fluence of
of
Shaikhs, but
is
a lucrative source
income.
A.D.
'
The Tijaniyya Order was founded in a.h. 1196 1781 by Ahmad bin Mukhtar bin Salamu'tTijani, who for a time was a student in the important
Muhammadan
University of Fez.
After-
A reference to the invasion of Arabia by the Abyssiniaus who brought an elephant with them, a circumstance so remarkable that the invasion, the army and the year are known as that of the " elephant." According to Hishamf and Wakidf, the army perished from an outbreak of small-pox,
but the Qur'an ascribes it to a miraculous divine interposi" Hast thou not seen how thy Lord dealt with the army of the elephant ? Did He not cause their stratagem
tion,
to miscarry? And He sent against them birds in flocks clay stones did they hurl down upon them, and He made
them
like stubble
eaten
down"
(Suratu'I-Fil [cv] 1-5.)
66
THE EELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM
wards, in a.h. 1186, he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, where he astonished the theologians by his
erudition and knowledge. Five years after he returned to Eez and the idea of founding an Order
began
ous
to take
shape in his mind
but Fez was a
and religisuch an attempt, and so he moved further south. In due time he announced to a small l)ody of devoted followers that the Prophet had directed him to form an Order, different to
place too
to political
strife for
much given up
For instance, no member of it was under permitted, pain of the severest penalties,
all
others.*
to
become
affiliated
to
another Order.
An
ear-
nest
propaganda followed
and the Order soon
became exceedingly powerful in Tunis, in the Sahara, the Western Suddn, and even as far as Timbuktu. The chief Zawiyah was, in due time, located in Fez under the patronage of the then Moorish Emperor. The Order has been a militant
2
of its
as well as a teaching one. leaders, in 1833 went to
Ha'.ji
'Umar, one
Bornu and then
l"The Prophet appeared in great splendour and said, Abandon all the ways thou hast pursued. Be my vicar upon the earth. Proclaim thy independence of the Shaikhs,
'
who have
will be
initiated
thee into their mystical doctrines.
thy intercessor before God and thy guide before the believers, who will be inspired by thy counsels and will " follow thy way.' (Depont et Coppolani, p. 416.) 2 For an account of its wars and for a detailed account of " L'Islim dans I'Afrique Haji 'Umar's work, see Chatelier,
Occidentale,"
p.
167.
THE TIJANIYYA ORDER

to the
67
of great
Hausa country.
He was
man
and very fanatical. He reproached the ordinary Muslims with their gnorance and their apathy. Even the Qadiriyya were too tolerant for him. Later on, under his influence and by means of his military expeditions many converts were made and the Order extended its operations from Senegal to Timbuktu, and as
vigour, of considerable learning
far south as the hinterland of Sierra Leone. ^
The
kingdom he thus
set
up soon became divided into
various smaller ones, but the influence of Islam remained. Thus, this Order, a result of the active
revival
Islam at the end of the eighteenth century, has done more to advance the cause of Muhammadanism in Western Africa than any other has accomplished, and it is still a living
of
power.
From the mouth of the Senegal to two thousand miles, there is said to over Lagos, be hardly any town of importance in the seaboard
which there
is
"
in
not, at least,
one mosque, with
^ Since the estabactive propagandists of Islam." lishment of French influence in the Senegal and
Niger regions the political power of the Tijaniyya has declined. The European occupation
in the
these regions may stay any further political influence and development, but so active an Order
of
1
Chatelier,
" L'Isl4m daus I'Afrique Occidentale," p. 17G.
" The preaching of Blyden, quoted by Arnold in the Islam," p. 277.

2
G8

yet give trouble, and its religious influence
may
is
not likely to decrease under the more settled conditions of these lands. The two Orders, the Qadiriyya and the Tijaniyya have played the chief part in the propagation of
Under the Qadiriyya the propaganda was by peaceful methods. By the instruction its leaders gave to their disciby the colonies they founded, they multiplied Sudan their chief centres of action. The Order is widely scattered. Its members are found as far south as Sierra Leone and in the Upper " The whole religious movement in Niger regions, the Eastern Sudan also has been directed by the influence of the Qadiriyya Darweshes since the
ples,
Islam in the Western Sudan. ^
in the
first
half of the nineteenth century."
Tijaniyya, as we have seen pursued opposite methods and, so long as they had power, won
The
their way by force. Chatelier speaks of them as " " ardent aux and of the Qadiriyya saintes guerres
It is, however, said as " pacifique et debonnaire." ^ that of late years the Tijaniyya Order has pursued
peaceful methods more regularly, and that it is now loyal to the French Government and readily
assists
French travellers in the Sahara.

Morocco,
Si
The Eahmaniyya Order was founded by another

native of
1
Muhammad
ibn 'Abdu'r-
" L'Islam dans Chatelier, I'Afrique Occidentale," p. 318. 3 2 Ibid, p. 16G. Ibid, p. IGG.
THE RAmiANIYYA ORDER
69
Eahman, who died about the year a.h. 1208 a.d. He was for a while a student in the al1793.
Azhar College in Cairo. After this he travelled and preached in many lands. Thus his fame as a saint, renowned for his miraculous powers,
to his native land. preceded his return
After his
preaching to the formation

a powerful
tribes.
arrival there, great numbers flocked to hear his and to receive his instruction. This led
of
the Order, which soon became

association
of
proselytising
among
the
Kabyle
The fatwas
the 'Ulama, given
at the instigation of the
feared this rising power,
Turkish authorities, who were unable to check its
growth.
said
to
At present, the Eahmaniyya Order is disunited by the internal rivalry of its chiefs and to have thus lost much of its early It has now become a politicoreligious spirit. by no means inditierent to religious society, and which is still powerful advantages, temporal
be
enough
to require careful observation.
This Order has great influence in the western Sudan. It also has in Algeria one hundred and
and seventy-seven Zawiyahs, and eight hundred

seventy-three
fifty-six
Muqaddims and one hundred and

In the chief Zawiyahs
thousand members.
the Ikhwan keep up, by means of relays day and voice of the name night, the repetition in a loud
of God.
The ceremony
of
the initiation of a
Darwesh
70
the Kahmaniyya Order is given as follows. The Shaikh takes the right-hand thumb of the
into
neophyte and says to him, shut your eyes and say " I seek me, refuge with God against Satan I ask forgiveness of God. the stoned. Let us return to God and to His messenger and renounce sin. God of the worlds forgive the past and make
after
The Shaikh then tells and says three times, " There is no god but God," which the person to be initiated
us better in the future."
to be silent
him
also
repeats three times.
Then both together
they repeat the Ftitiha and invoke the aid of the Prophet and of the founder of the Order. The
disciple is then directed to obey God and the " There is no god but God," Prophet and to say, three hundred times after the morning and the
after-noon
prayer respectively.
of
From
the after-
Thursday till that each week, the Darwesh must say,

thy favour
his family salvation."
noon prayer
of Friday in " God, let
rest upon our Saviour Muhammad, and his Companions and grant them The afternoon prayer of Friday must conclude with a prayer called al-'Ummi (the un" God, let Thy favour rest on our Savilettered),
our,
Muhammad
and his Companions."
the unlettered Prophet, his family This prayer should be re-
peated twenty-four times
when God
will
remit the
sins of twenty-four years. The neophyte is then exhorted to practice the duties of brotherhood.
THE DARQAWIYYA ORDER

to
71
be resigned and to repeat the dliikr of the Order faithfully. He is told that entrance into the ranks of the brotherhood is like entering into the ark of Noah or into the home of Abraham, and
that
all
who
in
did this obtained
salvation,
is
and so
to be
will he
the
Order to which he
now
admitted.
The Darqawiyya Order was founded by

of
a Sharif
Morocco, Mulai al-'Arbi ibn Ahmad ibn alHasanu'd-Darqawi at the end of the eighteenth
preached the doctrine of absention during his life time and his successor, the Order kept clear of all entanglements but about the year 184:0,
affairs and,
;
century.
that of
political
He
from worldly
a fanatical and ambitious man. Si 'Abdu'r-Kahman Tuti became the leader. Since then many of the
brethren have discarded the views

their
of
their first
Shaikh and hold quite opposite opinions as regards

relation to worldly affairs. " Most of the l)rethren appear inoffensive : in reality they are
very dangerous,
we may
look
upon them as the
^ In precursors and initiators of the Sanusiyya." Morocco the Order is now distinctly political in its aims and is in full sympathy with the more turbulent tribes. Its members are said to have
been largely concerned in many insurrections. " In all the rebellious movements in Algiers
and Morocco, we have found the hand

1
of these
Frisch,
"
Le Maroc,"
p. 191.
72
frightful sectaries, these men in rags, these puritans of Islam, these fanatical Darweshes." ^
Africa
will
The Darqawiyya Order is now what the Wahhabis were
in
North-Western
in Arabia.
They
not submit to any yoke and are always in rebellion against constituted authority whether In 1888 one of its of Arabs, Turks or Christians.
leaders proclaimed a jihad, or sacred war, against the French. In the opinion of the Turks the
term Darqawi
The
chief
synonymous with the word Zawiyah is at Ferkla, about a

is
rebel.
day's
journey north-west
of Tafilet.
The
selves
richer
members
to
of the
Order content them-
Friday prayers, the going recital of the special the the hadya, offering dhikr and occasional re-unions in the Zawiyahs. In their outward life they can hardly be dis-
with
of
the
tinguished from other Mushms. Other members, tribes and poorer originally from the mountain
classes pass their lives in wandering from place to place, chanting the Qur'an and begging for their daily subsistence. They wear the khirqa, a mantle composed of many different pieces, sewn
together without sign

of humility.
any order and often torn as a The investiture of a neophite

is
with the khirqa
great importance. admission to the Order.

1
looked upon as a matter of It is the sign and: seal of the

et Coppolaui," p. 504.
"
Depont
THE MADANIYYA OEDER

The Madaniyya Order
spirit of intolerance
is
73
influenced by the
is
same
which
characteristic of the
It was founded about Darqawiyya Darweshes. 1820 by Muhammad ibn Hamza al-Madani, a member of the Darqawiyya Confrat6rnit3\ It very
where
soon attained to a position of influence in Tripoli, in the head Zawiyah of Misrata numerous
trained.
proselytes were
The Shaikhu'l-Madani
professed to teach the doctrines of the Shadhiliyya and of the Darqawiyya Orders, but his son and
successor, Shaikh Ja'far, gradually modified these and adapted his teaching to tlie principles which underlie the pan-Islamic movement, of which he was one of the originators. He has ever since His been one of its most ardent supporters.
treatise "
The shining
stantinople in
his teaching. tions on the
light," published in Con1885 contains a full exposition of
In addition to the usual dissertaUnity of God (tauhid) and on mysticism (tasawwuf), such as the Shadhiliyya leaders would give, there is a political section bearing Shaikh Ja'far in the direction of pan-Islamism.
who found
soon obtained the favour of Sultan 'Abdu'l-Hamid, in him a most useful agent for the
propagation of a doctrine so dear to himself. home was founded for the Shaikh in the palace
Yildiz
A
of
Kiosk
near
to
his
imperial
of
master,
to
whom
grand chaplain. There are three Madaniyya Takyas, or Zawiyahs,
he stood in the relation
74

The Shaikh sends
parts.
in Constantinople.
forth his
to inspire
Darweshes into
the
all
tlie
They seek
Shaikhs
of
various other
Orders with
their political propaganda. they appear as teachers of their doctrines, to the Darqawiyya as ardent reformers, to the 'Ulama
To the Shadhiliyya
and to
with any Order they and power dignity of the Sultan as the Khalifa of Islam. In this way they ina of with themselves great number gratiate influence. and much They keep people gain alive a spirit of restlessness and encourage the
extol the
men unconnected
hope that
the yoke
all
Muslim lands
will
be freed from
the infidel, and will be reunited under one great theocratic rule the Empire of
of
the Khalifa.
progress
and
of
They owe much

the
are the stern enemies of real

of
their
power
to the
protection
Government.
the
In
iVlgiers
they
Musalmaus employed by the French. They endeavour to win them over to their views and to employing them as secret
find recruits
among
two Zawiyyahs in Algiers. Order has not much influence. Its connexion with the Turkish Government is known, and this discredits it because in Morocco the claim made by 'Abdu'l-Hamid to the Khalifate of Islam is not acknowledged. They have a few there but their Zawiyahs Muqaddims have little influence, and probably remain in Morocco chiefly
agents.
are
There
In Morocco the
THE RELIGIOUS REVIVAL

as
spies.
75
In other parts
of
Africa and in
the
Hedjaz they are active and powerful. The rapid development of the pan-Islamic movement owed
of
skill very much to the zeal and administrative Shaikh Ja'far and his disciples of the Madaniyya Order. In some places, especially in Barka, the memhers of this Order have been absorbed in the still more dangerous one of the Sanusiyya, I have now given a brief account of some of
the older Orders and of some of the more modern

ones,
of religious revival which, stimulated
which owe their existence to the great wave no doubt by
the
Wahhabi movement in Arabia, passed over the Muslim communities in Africa and led on to an
Islam as a theocratic system
does not recognize the limitations made by political influences between the various Muslim peoples,
dividing
active propaganda.
them
into different States, and so these
to all lands, can at any time Orders, and everywhere exercise a very real influence in any direction which their leaders may choose. For many centuries Islam has prevailed not only on the northern coast of Africa but has
common
progressed in the interior. Still, the great advance is to be dated from the end of the eighteenth
century, or the beginning of the nineteenth, and has been mainly due to the increased energy and
devotion of the
The whole Keligious Orders. hinterland from the Bed Sea to the Atlantic, as
76
far
south as six degrees north latitude, and the country on the eastern side of Africa down to the
Portuguese territory
is
now more
Muhammadan
influence.
or less under Islam has passed also
from the Sudan into the equatorial regions. It extends from two centres. From the west it has
gone along the Atlantic coast to Senegal, Timbuktu and the Hausa land. From the eastern side the
modern movement began when

Idris, the
Si
Ahmad
bin
Shaikh
of the
Qadiriyya Order, sent out
missionaries, during the early part of the nineteenth century. They won over the Muslim Nubians who then joined this Order in large
numbers and, after this, missionary work began This work amongst the pagans of Kordufan. was afterwards carried on under the influence of the Mahdi, and is now sustained by the great These two currents, someSanusiyya Order. and more warlike times fanatical; at other times more social and commercial, are advancing rapidly The presence of the into all the pagan regions. officials of the great European Powers in Senegal, Timbuktu, Nigeria and other parts may have a deterrent effect on this expansion, for trade will no longer be in the hands of Muslim merchants, who,
to their credit be
it
said, are active Missionaries.
One
article of
commerce
It
also, that of slaves,
will
no longer
exist.
has, however,
out that the improved
means
of
been pointed communication.
THE MUSLIM ADVANCE
77
which follow on orderly rule in x^frica, in one way facilitates the Muslim propaganda. "Muhammadan North Africa is advancing surely and steadily sovithwards across the Sahara, which is no longer the barrier it once was. Instead of being an unbroken desert, as once thought, it is
now known
to contain
of
teeming pagan
tribes.
mountains has hitherto proved an great range obstacle to advance, and Muhammadanism has been
kept in check, but with the partition of Africa amongst the Powers of Europe has come a new
danger. The old mountain-passes are now being crossed by roads, and the existence of a protective government is encouraging a new activity. The
Qur'an
tribes
is
being brought
down amongst
and is prevaiHng. the Muslims these tribes

difficult
When
the
the pagan once claimed by
will be ten times

^
more
Another gospel." point is that the Arab slave-dealers have been overthrown and thus the action of the civilized Powers has taken away from Islam a great reproach, which the pagans who were asked to be-
to
reach with
come converts could urge

missionaries.
against
the Muslim
Amongst the movement are

race in
1
earlier
the
agents of this extensive Fulahs, the most superior
the Western
T.
Sudan.
They
M.
are
S.
strict
The Rev.
Broadwood
" C. Johnson,
Review,"
June 1908,
p. 354.
78
Muslims and under Shaikh Danfodio, about a hundred years ago, became a powerful kingdom, warlike and aggressive. They spread to the west and to the south, won many of the Hausa people
to Islam,
made
Muhammadan
State,
Sokoto, in 1837, the capital of a then advanced as far as the
Yoruba country and built the large city of Ilorin. Four large, important kingdoms in Senegambia and the Sudan represent the result of the energy infused into the Fulah people by Shaikh DanThe very rapid growth of Islam amongst fodio.^
inferior races is not
of
wholly due to
Its
its
a low moral standard.
faith
is
acceptance based on
than love. The Muslim convert himself on his prides superiority as a believer in the one true religion and is scornful of all
pride
rather
other men and all other creeds. The pagans then see and desire to emulate this haughty condescension and, as such a position can only be obtained by conversion, they very easily accept
the religion of
Islam.
Bach new convert
dis-
plays the same feeling of superiority and so, with increasing and rapid force, the religion spreads
where
it
to contend against.
has no higher form of faith and morals It is natural to every man
1 It is said that he prophesied that his green flag would be the passport to victory for a hundred years. If this is so, his words have come true, for the decisio\i that the Fulah country shoiild become a part of the British Empire
was made in 1900.
EESULT OF THE MUSLIM ADVANCE

to desire to
of
79
become the equal, if not the superior, and when a pagan reahzes this fact others, he is well on the way to become a Muslim. The Muslim missionary finds easy access to an
uncivilized
"
negro tribe for, as Sir Bartle Frere he can at once communicate the shibboleth of admission to a social and political communion, which is a passport for protection and assistance from the Atlantic to the wall of China. Wherever a Moslem house can be found there the negro convert who can repeat the dozen syllables
said,
of his
creed,
is
sure of
shelter,
sustenance and
finds
advice,
at
and
in his
own country he
himself
once a member of an influential, if not of a dominant caste. This seems the real secret of
the success of the Moslem missionaries in
Africa."
i
West
At the same time the rapid proselytism, so vigorously carried on by various Darwesh Orders really hinders all sound progress in the long run.
a pagan race to some vices, such puts away
It
elevates
certain
level.
It
as cannibalism
and
insti-
infanticide,
but teaches the converts that slavery,
facility of divorce
and polygamy are divine
God's latest revelation and enforced by the command and example of his latest The convert is taught that this system prophet.
tutions, set
forth in
is
1
perfect and final and he
is
thus fixed at this low

of Islam," p. 286.
Quoted by Arnold,
"
The Preaching
80
stage of moral life. He lias no discontent and, where that is absent, desire of improvement or of
Eeform implies a higher life is rarely found. imperfection in Islam and that no Darwesh teacher The very pride in it will admit can be the case.
which leads men
to accept
it
keeps
it
stationary.
To admit that any other people are the equals of Muslims, or that any creed can possibly be favourably compared with that of Islam is heresy of the worst kind and, wherever Islam is predomition.
nant, would raise up a fanatical spirit of opposiThe Darwesh propaganda in Africa is then
for the well-being of humanity, or for the prospects of civilization. Two French writers,
neither
men who
views,
are by no
said,
means narrow
is
in
religious
impossible, when comparing the present state of Africa with its former state, not to see how evil the influence of Islam
have
" It
has been, and not to desire that

'
it
may
shortly
give place to a political system less limited and " The less demoralising." mystical and merciless doctrines of
of all progress.
Islam are the absolute enemies The East remains immobile." ^
To return, however, to the Fulahs, it must be borne in mind that they never thoroughly occupied the country. They held the larger towns but
never subjugated the pagan tribes in the moun1
Ganniers, Le Maroc," p. 87. " Le Maroc," p. 47. Frisch,
"
THE FULAH DYNASTY
'
81
tainous regions. A Fulah army left a district where it operated a depopulated desert. Every form of handicraft, every pursuit in life was taxed
Bribery, corruption and extortion marked the so-called administration of justice, whilst the multiplication of harems and the growth of a large class of idle
princes led to nepotism and imposition of tax after tax to meet the necessities of the rulers
so heavily that decadence soon set in.
"
and was
their idle sons
and
relatives.
No man's
life
safe
common
;
compunction
tortionate
people were killed without notables were removed by poison
or secret murder.
levies
Trade was paralaysed by exand rendered difficult by the

^
insecurity of the roads."
The Fulah dynasty

not have lasted being denuded
tracts of
as a
dominant power could
much
of
its
longer, for the country
was
population and enormous land had gone out of cultivation. The

of
overthrow
civilization
this
evil
rule
and humanity.
the Fulah Sultanate, was
is a great gain to Sokoto, the capital of easily captured by a
British force in March 1903, and the empire founded by Shaikh Danfodio amongst the Hausas of Nigeria came to an end. A few months after the Sultan and many of his Emirs lost their lives
in the defence of
1
one of the towns.
If
the spread
" Blue
Book on Northern Nigeria." No.
409, 1903, p. 20.
82
amongst pagan races had really conferred some persons claim for it, if the Fulah rule had been of any real service to the country and its people, then the easy conquest of the Sultan of Sokoto would have been impossible but it was a cruel, despotic rule and slave raids had rapidly depopulated the country. Fifty years ago the traveller Barth estimated the population This was probably too high, yet at fifty millions. the fact that now there are not more than ten or twelve millions shows the ruthlessness of Muslim Chronic disorder and conrule in this fair land.
of Islam
all
the blessings
stant warfare has been the distinguishing mark of Fulah rule, and this has led to the hatred of the Had still unconverted pagans to their late rulers. to the it would have been been Sultan, loyal they impossible for a few British officers, with a small body of trained and disciplined native troops, to
have overthrown a comparatively powerful ruler Islam under Fulah rule and his government. failed to make the pagan people happy, peaceful or prosperous, and so it justly came to an end.
The most recent

propaganda
is
carried
and, indeed, the chief present on by an Order which sur:
passes all the others in its power and its influence an Order, which specially sets itself against all
western and modern civilization and is absolutely hostile to all progress, whether it comes from an
European or from
Musalman
source.
It
thus
SHAIKH SANUSI
constitutes a very real danger, ^
83
It is that of the bin Si 'Ali Si Muhammad founded by Sanusiyya, bin Sanusi, who was born in the year a.h. 1206
A.D.
He belonged to a noble family and 1791. claimed to be descended from the Khalifa 'Ali, the
son-in-law of the Prophet. The name by which is usually known is that of Shaikh Sanvisi.
he
He was a native of Algiers, where he spent the At the age of thirty he early part of his life. and for about to seven years studied went Fez,
Muhammadan law and
theology under the most In a Zawiyah of the famous teachers there. he became Darweshes acquainted with Taibiyya the philosophy and the mysteries of the Shadhil-
He then returned to Algiers just iyya Order. before the French occupied that country. Whilst there he wandered about as a religious teacher
and so spread his views amongst a number of people. After a while he made up his mind to proceed on the pilgrimage to Mecca, and took the opportunity of conversing with learned men at the several places at which he stayed on the way.
He was
also initiated into
some
of the Religious
intended to make a stay of some Orders. in Cairo, in order to study at the famous length Theological College of al-Azhar but, in some way
;
He
Isldm at the present time is the formation of the new Order of the " Ltes Confreries Musuhnanes," Sanusiyya." (Chatelier,
1
"
The predominant
fact in the evolution of
p. 12).
84
THE EELIGIOUS OKDERS OF ISLAM
or other, he gave offence to the more influential 'Ulama attached to the College, who denounced him as an innovator in religion, a fatal fault in
so
conservative a place.
The
result
was that
Shaikh Sanusi had to proceed on his way. He, however, gives quite a different reason for his He says that one day, when he was departure.
making the usual wadu, or ceremonial ablution, before engaging in the namaz, or stated prayers, in the Mosque attached to the College, he saw
a man who looked mean and poor. who was quite a stranger, thus spoke:
The man
"
O know my name?" He
thou do so with me,
of the age."
Sanusi
"
"
Why How do
"
:
dost
you
"I am the Qutb replied; " " it is tliou I said Then," Sanusi,
am
seeking."
The man
said
to
him
Thou
hast nothing to do with me, go to Mecca." In after years, it suited Shaikh Sanusi to show that
left Cairo owing to a supernatural direction, and not that he was expelled as a troublesome student. But, whatever was the cause, he did go, and proceeded on his way to fulfil his original intention of making the pilgrimage to Mecca. As his mind had already been directed towards the life of a Darwesh, when he arrived at Mecca he placed himself under the tuition and spiritual guidance of Shaikh Ahmad bin Idris, the Shaikh of the Qadiriyya Darweshes. Owing to some local disputes Shaikh Ahmad was exiled from
he
THE SANUSIYYA ORDER
85
Mecca. His devoted pupil and follower went with him, and on the Master's death in 1833
claimed,
followers,
though opposed by some others

to
of his
be
his
successor.
This led to a
of
division in the
Order,
the result
which was
that
his
Shaikh Sanusi,
fellow
having
induced
many
of
Darweshes to join him, formed a new Order, of which he assumed the headship. He then commenced an active propaganda in
Yemen, but the members of the older Orders looked upon his work with disapproval and sucHowever, he remained in cessfully opposed him.
Mecca from 1835 to 1843 gathering men around him and developing his plans. He called his
" teaching the Tariqatu'l-Muhammadi, or Way of Muhammad," and said that his community was
of the great Shadhiliyya gave his own Order the name of Tariqatu's-Sanusi, or "Way of Sanusi." Men in the position he had now assumed profess to
reformed
branch
Order.
He now
have special revelations

divinely directed
in
from
God and
to
be
movements; so not finding sufficient scope in Mecca for his plans and purposes, he one day announced to his disciples that Muhammad had appeared to him and had ordered him to leave Mecca and to
their
settle his disciples in
Zawiyahs
in
many
different
lands.
of
This he did most effectually.
In course
Arabia,
time,
Zawiyahs were established in
86^
Egypt, the Central Sudan, Tunis, Algiers, Tripoli, Senegambia and even in the Eastern Archipelago. The rapid extension of this Order has been marvellous.
There
is
nothing
its
like it in
the modern
Muslim world.
has increased.
With
extension
its
power
also
Shaikh Sanusi, after settling his course of action, soon gathered a large body of disciples together, over whom he exercised a most Whilst displaying adminisrigorous discipline. trative abiUties of a very high order, he continued his theological studies and became a prolific writer on religious subjects. M. Duveyrier says,
that
there
;
are
three
million
members
of
the
Order but the Sanusis themselves say there are eight millions. Probably there are five or
six,
for
the
inhabitants
of
Wadai, now nearly

three millions.
to
all
Sanusis,
number almost
are nearly always hostile and Shaikh Sanusi very soon Darweshes,
The 'Ulama
the
leai-nt
that his growing influence stirred up a spirit of
The 'Ulama of Constantinople, Cairo, and Mecca were all ranged in opposition to him.
jealousy.
A Mufti
named
against
of
the Maliki
school of
x\bu 'Abdu'llah
Muhammad, who
and his master
jurisprudence, died in
1881, published in Cairo a book containing fatwas
Shaikh
Sanusi
Shaikh
the re-
Ahmad
bin Idrls.
One fatwa condemns
luctance of Shaikh Sanusi to admit persons into his presence, his absence from public prayers on
FATWA AGAINST SHAIKH SANUSI
87
Friday, which is described as an impious habit, and the use of a number of ritual practices which
differ
from those
of
the Maliki
of
rite.
One
act
objected to
was the crossing
the arms on the
breast and the holding of the list of the left hand between the thumb and first finger of the right when engaged in prayer. The Malikites pray with
the arms at the side of the body. The fatwa also refers to his abandonment of the four orthorites and of his accepting without an intermediary the prescriptions of the Qur'an and the Sunna, that is, he did not follow the rulings of -the four great Imams, Hanifa, Malik, Shali'i and
dox
Hanbal, Such conduct

strongest proof
is said,
"
to constitute the
of his ignorance."
To
this
fatwa,
which shows the hatred
of the
'Ulama, the Shaikh might have replied in the words used by his Master, Ahmad bin Idris, " the
interpreters
error.
of the Qur'an do not keep us from There are numerous interpretations at As a matter of fact variance with the Traditions."
Shaikh Sanusi claimed to be a restorer of the and pure faith and practice of Islam, before it was, as he considered, :corrupted by the Mujtahidun and 'Ulama, the official interprters of the canonical law and of theology. Whatever effect this fatwa' had in Mecca and in Cairo, it had none whatever in the districts controlled by the Sanusis or amongst the Bedouin or with
early
88

tribes
of
the
nomadic Sudan .^
Tripoli
and the central
In consequence of the opposition of the 'Ulama, Shaikh Saniisi in the year 1855 withdrew altogether from their spheres of influence, and in
in the Libyan desert, midbetween way Egypt and Tripoli,"' founded a which became the head-quarters of the Zawiyah Order. The site was well chosen. It is situated about one hundred and fifty miles south of Tobruk, a Mediterranean port used by the Sanusis, and occupies a commanding position on the " It is great caravan routes of North Africa. at once a fortress and a convent, a university and a shrine." Except to modern artillery it is an almost impregnable place. It possesses a fine mosque and many buildings. It grew rapidly
after the
the oasis of Jaghbiib
whom many came

It
conversion of the people of Wadai, of as students or as labourers.
was a place to which tribute of ivory, slaves and ostrich feathers were sent by many chiefs,
1
For the
better
"
full
2^-*^-*=^.
fatwa, see Depont et Coppolani, pp. 54G-51. Sometimes the plural form e:^Â*=. is used.
as Jarabub.
It
is
i
known by Europeans
Tripoli, nominally Turkish, but practically under the rule of the Sanusiyya Confraternity is dangerous ground,
into
which France with her experience of this powerful and highly organized Muhammadan sect, on the border land of the Sahara and Algeria itself, may well hesitate to enter." Silva White, " The Expansion of Egypt," p. 123.
THE SANUSI CAPITAL
89
stores
and to which, from harbours Uttle known, great Pilof warlike material were brought.
grims on their way to Mecca stayed to worship and to receive a blessing. This place, in which matters of the greatest moment to Africa were Europlanned, has been jealously guarded from been has ever not one of whom travellers, pean
able to tread
its
streets, or
look
upon
its walls.
Neither Turkish nor Egyptian

authority in
ruler.
it.
officials
had any
The Shaikh was an absolute
The
oasis, a
transfer of the capital in 1895 to the Kufra movement to be described later on, has
importance of Jaghbub, which is more than the university of the Order. Jaghlnib was not only the administrative centre, but was also the theological home of the Order where hundreds of its missionaries were trained as teachers and preachers and then, year by year, sent forth in large numbers to proclaim
lessened
the
now
little
the doctrines of Islam in

Africa.
all
The names
of
all
parts of Northern the brethren of the
Order were carefully entered in the record books

kept there. It is said that had seven hundred pupils.
its ^theological
school
of
The Order
the
Sanusiyya
is
more than an organization
to reform
;
what
is
its
leaders consider to
be lax in Islam
it
a powerful proselytizing ])ody. The isolation of the desert life at Jaghbub, and the freedom gained
90
from the opposition of the 'Ulama and orthodox Mullas and Maulavis gave Shaikh Sanusi that peace and tranquillity which increased his spiritual influence over his followers. Soon after his arrival there, he began work amongst the negro races. He purchased slaves from those nomad tribes who in the internecine wars of their respective territories had after a victory taken them as prisoners, or had acquired them by successfully pillaging slave caravans. Shaikh Sanusi brought these slaves to his Zawiyah, placed them under religious instruction for a time, and then, when fitted
for
it,
sent
them
to their
own
countries as free
men and
and
as preachers of Islam. They remained his most faithful followers.
became
Shaikh Saniisi died at Jaghbub in the year a.h. 1276 A.D. 1859 and was buried in that place. His mausoleum in the great mosque there is a very magnificent one and it is common for his
followers
to
to
make
pilgrimages
to
it
instead of
Mecca. Though little known in the Western world, he was one of the most remarkable men of the age. No obstacle checked him. He astonished the educated by his knowledge, he won
the populace by his skilful adaptation of his teaching to their needs, by the fervour of his methods and the fame of his miracles. He made the fetish
tribes
from
lake
Chad
to
the
Mediterranean
take a long step forward in political and economic
INFLUENCE OF SHAIKH SANUSI
91
but with activity and in religious knowledge; fanaticism of a all this he roused deeper spirit
and a greater hatred
of
all
non-Muslim people.
He thus placed a barrier to any real enlightened The highest progress for the African races.
level has
it
been attained and any departure from would now be considered a mark of offence against God.
Without shedding blood or calling in the aid any temporal ruler, by the energy and force of his character he raised up in the Ottoman Empire and its adjacent lands a theocratic system which is independent of any political Power. His great object was to restore the original Islam and to revive what he conceived to be the This religious and moral laws of the Prophet.
of
being the attitude of his mind, he naturally opTurkish rule and posed all modern innovations in
hfe,
an impassable barrier and the influence of against European civilization lands. He had Muslim in Powers the Christian
and wished to
raise
been influenced by the earher Wahhabi revival, for he followed that sect in some of its rigorous whilst he prohibition of many harmless things, At the same its bold opinions.^ aloof from kept
1
tween the Wahhabis and the Samisi's, they differ in the The Wahhabfs forbid matter of pilgrimages to shrines. them. the Samisfs encourage them,
Though
there are
many
points
of
resemblance be-
92
THE RP:LIGI0U3 ORDERS OP ISLAM

stiffness
time, with all this

he, as
of
thought and
life,
the head of a
Darwesh Order, introduced

all
a mystical element into
that he taught.
Shaikh Sanusi was succeeded by his son, 'Ali bin Sanusi, 1 a lad then of about thirteen years
of age,
who by European
writers
is
also
called
Shaikh Sanusi, but by Muslims and his own followers Shaikhu'l-Mahdi. In order to distinguish
him from
his father, I shall speak of him as the He Shaikhu'l-Mahdi, or simply as the Shaikh.^
had no connexion whatever with the late Mahdi in the Eastern Sudan. He and his brother Si Muhammad Sharif were both very young when their father died, being respectively fourteen and thirteen years old, but Shaikh Sanusi had wisely appointed some of the ablest Muqaddims to be their tutors and guides, and so the administration went on as usual and the lads gradually gained experience. In due course the Shaiku'lMahdi took the administrative oversight of the
Order, whilst his brother, who died in 1895, looked after the religious teaching. His follow'
His
full
name
is
Si
al-Mahdi bin Si
Muhammad
bin
Si 'Ali bin Si Sanusi.

2
his
In 1902 it was reported that he had died in Kanem, most recent acquisition. Nothing is known as to the
;
character of his successor but it is Jiot likely that there will be any change in the plans and purposes of the Order, which is too far committed to a fanatical policy to make a
change
of leadership materially alter its
methods or objects.
COUNCIL OF THE SANUSIYYA OEDER

ers,
93
or at
all
them,
looked
events the more ignorant amongst upon the elder brother as the
in
coming Mahdi, who was expected
the thir-
teenth century of Islam, a period of time which expired in the year 1882. In support of their expectation they said that he bore between his
shoulders the indubitable sign of his designation

to
some high office, a round bluish spot, such which had, according to Muslim belief, appeared on the bodies of Moses, Christ, and
as that
Muhammad,
phetic order.
the three great leaders of the proTheir belief has not been verified,
lasted
it
but whilst
it
added power and prestige
to the rule of the Shaikh.
The Grand Council of the Order used to meet, annually, on the great feast day, known as 'Idu'lAdha, at Jaghbub, under the presidentship of the
Shaikh, who was in this work assisted by his Two of the latter brother and his councillors.
held the office of Wazirs.
of the
One was
in special
Zawiyah Jaghbub, while the other charge the all the other Zawiyahs. affairs of superintended
at
The organization
live in
is very simple. The Darweshes the various Zawiyahs, each of which is under the charge of a Muqaddim to whom the
members must
were
in
There yield implicit obedience. 1886 one hundred and twenty-one different Zawiyahs, all subject to the one at that time situated in Jaghbub, in which there used to be
94

four hundred
^
about
all
Darweshes, gathered
from
them were unmarried, and parts. so were ready at a moment's notice to go anywhere the Shaikh might direct them to proceed, or to undertake any duty he might call upon them
Most
of
A hundi-ed negro slaves did the perform. household work and attended to the gardens. The inmates of the Zawiyah were well armed, and a large reserve of guns and ammunition was kept in stock. Five pieces of artillery had been purchased in Alexandria and were kept ready for A certain number of artificers and workuse.
to
men
lived
outside
the
Zawiyah.
tliis
One day
or
the
Shaikh was asked whether all play was against the French
'*
warlike disthe
Turks.
said
Neither against the one nor

"
the other,"
he.
My
I
father began a
work which had great

on."
results.
simply carry
of
it
Taxes are levied
at the rate
tal
two and a half per cent on capione hundred and twenty-five francs, exceeding
extraordinary contributions are sometimes from the possessors of treasure, warecattle.
and
called for
The Order itself is rich in and camels, the latter being branded with the name of Allah. Whenever the
houses and
slaves, houses, sheep
delegates of the Shaikh visit the brethren in the
subordinate Zawiyahs they receive offerings.

1
The
Zawiyahs
Duveyrier, writing in 188G, gives this number of but there must be many more now.
;
ADMINISTKATION OF SHAIKH SANUSI

poorer brethren,
95
who cannot pay the taxes, are employed in building Zawiyahs, in attending to the gardens and cattle and in carrying despatches. For the latter purpose a system of couriers was organized, by means of which communication between Jaghbub and distant Zawiyahs was easy and The Shaikh was thus kept comparatively swift. The well informed of all that was going on. a of at arrival stranger Jaghbub was probable known before he came near to it, and, unless he had something in the shape of a passport from a Muqaddim, he was subjected to a very strict examination before he was allowed to have any interIf all was satiscourse with the Darweshes. after some days accord factory, the Shaikh might a interview of the him but, as personal privilege his person is looked upon as sacred, such interIn order to views were very rarely granted.^ ensure secrecy, the orders of the Shaikh and of
;
Muqaddims sent by letter are nearly always written in a vague and impersonal form. Thus a " Your serletter from Mecca to Jaghbub reads
the
:
vant whose writing

1
is
known
to
you.
Its super-
referred to
This was one of the things denounced in the fatwii, on page 8G. It says, " The pretensions put forward that the action of shutting himself up and of not receiving visitors, except at particular hours and then only after repeated demands for an audience constitute the way (tarlq) of the Sufis are simply lies," (" Depont et
Coppolani,"
p. 548).
S6

is
scription
also a little
it
known.
arrive at
By
the grace of
God Most High may

it
Jaghbub and may
be referred to the lords of the brothers
God keep iis in peace. Amen. Under the invocation of Bedoub." i In the salutation at the
beginning of a letter no name is ever mentioned. Conventional terms are used to disguise the
purport of the correspondence, and great care taken to ensure the safe delivery of letters.
is
Muqaddims laave much inlluence over are not actual members of the Order, who people and who have not taken the calling of a Darwesh
parts the people hold a kind of feudal tenure, and are by the vassals of the Order. The principractically in a such district is not the Turkish pal person
their lands
The
upon them.
In some
Mutasarrif,
but the Saniisi leader, and the chief
work of the Turkish officials is to keep the members of the Samisiyya Order contented. It is said that 'Ah' Kamali Pasha, sometime Governor of Barca, looked upon himself, first, as a humble
the high
servant of the Shaikhu'l-Mahdi and, secondly, as official of the Ottoman Empire. The
most active centre of its influence was, until the removal to the Kufra oasis, the peninsula of Barca,
nominally
1
belonging
to
the
really to the Shaikhu'i-Mahdi.
Ottoman Empire, Thus the Saniisi's

:
The meaning
it
is
of this is not known outside the Order probably a kind of talisman.
THE SANUSI ARMY
97
occupied the most fertile part of Tripoli and the Sultan did not dare attempt to expel them. Some Turks have, indeed, become brethren of the Order,
but just as in Syria with the Druzes and in Khurdistan with the Khurds, so here the Porte
is
obliged to compromise and to conciliate
men
has no power of control. It is said that the Shaikhu'l-Mahdi could command the
over
it
whom
of
services
soldiers,
twenty-five
of
fifteen
and
thousand men as foot hundred mounted men.

of
In the north-eastern
part
Africa,
excluding
Egypt, a very common form of oath used by the " al-Haqq Sidi as-Saniisi," people is to swear by In that is, "by the truth of Sidi as-Sanusi." ^
addition to these volunteers, there are the regular Darweshes and a large number of slaves always
available
when
fighting
men
are needed. Shaikhu'l-
Mahdi did not commit the error of neglecting the masses. A Muslim traveller, if found worthy
of
it,
receives hospitality in
;
any Zawiyah he may

he receives
be near
and,
if
he
is
intelligent,
much
attention from the
Muqaddim.
In this way the
Order has become very popular. In the annual conference held formerly at Jaghbub, and now at al-Istat, the Shaikh, assisted
1 " If a Bedouin of these May I be parts swears one may be sure excluded from the Ziwiyah, if ,' " he is speaking the truth." (Silva White, From Sphinx to
' :
Oracle," p. 123.)
98

his
Muqaddims, examines the temporal and spiritual condition of the Order, and discusses with them plans for the future, especially as by
regards the extension of their influence. In their propaganda work they seek to influence men of
position, and of the young.
pay much attention to the education In provinces long subject to Islam, such as Egypt, where they wish to reform the
schools,
they generally commence by opening and trust to time for the gradual spread In this way they are able each of their views. year to consider the operations of the Order as a whole, and the success they meet with is extraordinary. For example, they went first to Farfara, an oasis in the Lybian desert, in the year 1860, and in less than thirteen years they completely changed the character of the people and acquired
religion,
One very favourite method was to purchase the slaves taken from it, and after teaching Islam to them to release and to send them back as preachers to
valuable property.
of reaching a
new
tribe
their
own
people.
In this way much success
was met with in the Wadai country, the Sultans of which have been and are ardent admirers of the Sanusis. The first object of the Shaikhu'lMahdi was the conversion of the Chief, by showing him the advantage, primarily to himself and then
to his people, of the establishment of commercial The Sultan relations with the Sanusiyya Order.
THE SANUSIS IN WADAI
99
of the "Wadai country, 'Ali bin Muhammad, soon became an enthusiastic follower of the Shaikhu'l-
At his decease in 1876, the succession to the Sultanate was disputed, and it shows the enormous influence the Sanusi's had then obtained, that they were able to stop the internecine conflict
Mahdf.
and
to secure the accession of the candidate they
preferred.
The new Sultan then
elected
became
a loyal subject, and held his oflice as a tributary To the north-west of to the Jaghbub Zawiyah.
which has In 1855, the people of that country were all pagans, in 1888 they had all become Muslims, and the chief had been He used admitted as a member of the Order.
Wadai, there
is
a State called Ennedi,
now become
a vassal one.
to send to
Jaghbub not only rich presents, but the choicest of his young men to be fully trained and instructed under the personal direction of In fact, the whole region the Shaikhu'l-Mahdi. round lake Chad is more or less under Sanusi
influence.
To the north-west
of lake
Chad
lies
an inhos-
the midst of which, about five pitable desert, in of south Jaghbub, is the great oasis of degrees Kufra.
oasis
is
The large Zawiyah

the
of
al-Istat
of
in this
all
second in
for
importance
the
years was looked to as a probable future asylum in an almost unapThe move thus anticipated proachable region.
Zawiyahs, and
many
100
actually came to pass in the year 1894 or 1895 when the Shaikhu'l-Mahdi, with many of the
wealthier
residents of Jaghbub, left that town for Kufra, a half-way resting place for caravans
going to and fro from Wadai to Benghazi and thus, from a strategical point of view, an important position. Although, at present, the Turks hold Tripoli, their power does not penetrate into the interior, the districts of which are entirely in the hands
of the
Sanusis.
About the time
of the
Fashoda
incident, the Shaikhu'l-Mahdi
made an important
In movement in the hinterland of Tripoli. March 1899 the Anglo-French agreement was
made, defining the respective spheres of influence between the two countries in North Central Africa. It was then found that the Saniisi country lay Since then entirely within the French sphere. the Sanusis have extended westward into Kanem.
of June 19, 1902, reported that on the 20th of January a body of French Sudanese troops inflicted a severe defeat on the Sanusis
The Patrie
and the Tuwariq Berbers in the lake Chad disIn the spring of 1908 the French had trict.i to send an expedition to this region. again The hatred of the Sanusfs to Muslims who
1 u rpjjg Tawdriq Berbers are a very bigotted race and " Search for are largely under Sanusf influence." (King,
the Masked Tuwareek,"
p. 147.)
THE ZAWIYAH OF AL-ISTAT

submit to the
political
101
supremacy
of
the Christian
Powers, or who would effect a compromise with western civilization, is so great that good Muslims are exhorted to leave such countries as Turkey and Egypt. This naturally arouses hostility them and so, in order to avoid reprisals against
and to be free from such evil influences, the Shaikh transferred his seat of Government to al-Istat, an isolated place, where he can be nearer to his chief centre of proselytism and better survey the movements which interest him. He himself
is
close
said to live not in the Zawiyah, but at Joffa It will be interesting to see what by.
attitude
the Saniisis take
up with reference
in
to
recent reform
movements
that
Turkey.
They
will
probably
their head-quarters
New
it justifies the removal of from Turkish territory. routes have been opened up in various
hold
directions.
"
Shaikhu'l-Mahdi
From this inaccessible fortress the now governs all the territories
;
Swift messengers carry occupied by the Sanusi's. his orders to all parts of North Africa and he
is
all
kept
constantly
informed
by
his
agents
of
that transpires in the outer world, receiving books, pamphlets, newspapers, and all the require-
ments
the
1
of his responsible office.
His military and
political organization is
complete.
^
The
Saniisi
never
changes."
Mr.
policy of Vischer, a
Silva White,
"From Sphinx
to Oracle," p. 129.
102
THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLIm
British official, reports that in 1902 he found " the Sanusi head-quarters at Kufra to be a
regular arsenal of modern arms and ammunition and that in the schools children are taught to
^ The foreigners in the deepest hatred." Order has now seventeen monasteries in Egypt, but in Tripoli there are many more. It there
hold
all
defies all rules
and is a great social and political The Sanusiyya Darweshes sometimes, in places where they were likely to meet with much Thus in Tunis opposition, assumed other names. the Qadiriyya Order they appeared as members of when they commenced operations there. The success they have met wîth has been comparatively small, and they have only five Zawiyahs in that country. They have been more successful in the oases of the Sahara, where they have won over many of the Ikhwan of the Eahmaniyya
power.
Order.
In the Algerian province of Constantine have had great influence with the active they and fanatical Tijaniyya Confraternities. They commenced work in Morocco in 1877 and soon had three Zawiyahs there, at Tangiers, Tetuan and Fez. In that country, however, they are very closely connected with the Darqawiyya Darweshes, with whose political views and tendencies they In the locality where have much in common. the Darqawiyya Shaikh resides, his followers
1
C.M.S. Review, June 1907,
p. 382.
THE PROGRESS OF THE SANUSIS
103
are looked upon as close friends and allies of the In the various oases and amongst the Sanusi's.
Berber tribes of the Atlas range they have many adherents. 1 In the country of Tibeste and of Borku, to the north-west of lake Chad, they used their utmost endeavours to convert the heathen
population or to
stir
up the Muhammadans
life.
to
greater strictness of religious had gone as far as Senegal
were
in
Timbuktu.
In 1873 they and in 1888 they At that time the Order had
not penetrated into the Upper Nile region, nor into Nigeria, but their infienence on the Orders
already there is so great that it is probably only a question of time when the influence of the
Saniisis will be
predominant in these regions.
In
the year 1900, the Kev. E. F. Wilson reported that the Sanusis were in Lokoja, a town in Upper
Nigeria, and were giving trouble by proclaiming that a massacre of Christians would shortly take This seems to have been an isolated effort, place.2
for the official testimony is that " there is practically no SaniisI cult in Northern Nigeria, except possibly in Bornu."^ To the Muslims of these
districts,
the
leaders.
1
Sultans of Sokoto have been the So long as their influence was parathese tribes, see Duvreyrier, "
For a
list of
La
Confrerie
Musulmane,"
2
p. 38.
C.M.S. Report, 19001, p. 94. Blue Book No. 409, 1903, Northern Nigeria,
p. 77.
104
mount, even so powerful an Order as that of the Sanusiyya could gain no permanent footing. It has made attempts and has sent preachers to Kano, but has gained no real influence. It is to
be hoped that the Hausa Muslim Chiefs will still maintain the same attitude towards the Saniisis,
but, as the advent of this Order
affect
would no longer
it
their
be,
political
power, for they
is
gone, and,
to
their
would
recent
moreover, a serious trouble
conquerors,
may now
look
upon
the Sanusiyya propaganda in a more favourable Still, in various parts of Africa this Order light.
has
spread
much
with great rapidity and influence and power.

it
possesses
has found no footing, except at Constantinople. In Asia there are about twelve Zawiyahs, of which three are in Arabia; there being one each in Jedda, Madi'na and Mecca. In Europe
The archives of the Order are kept in the one Mecca. The Order is popular in the Hijaz, the tribes of which are much attached to it. It
at
forms a material force ready to oppose the 'Ulama and the civil authorities when the time arrives. The Sanusiyya Darweshes are also found in the Malay Archipelago. The geographical limit of the Order
full of
is
not yet reached, for
it
is
community
which by its austerities and its promises attracts the sympathy of many Muslims and so tends to absorb and to unify the mighty
life
THE SANUSIS AND OTHER ORDEES

forces of
105
the various Orders.
It
is
also active
in its mission
it
work amongst pagan
tribes
whom
converts in large numbers.
A point of great importance is the apparent readiness and success with which the Sanusiyya
Order attaches to
nities.
itself
:
other religious Confrater-
" It is important to reDuveyrier says member the tendency of the Sanusiyya Confraternity to assimilate to itself other religious
associations
which
in
common with
it
have issued
forth from the school of the Shadhiliyya, that is to say, almost the whole of the Musalman Orders.
These
in
tactics, of
which the
political results
may
be very grave, have been crowned with success
Einn says that a great number of cases." ^ the object at which these Darweshes aim is " to unite all the Orders into one federation, having a
theocratic pan-Islamitic form, free from
control, and opposed
to all
all
secular
^
modern
ideas."
The Shadhiliyya, the Tijaniyya and the Qadiriyya Orders, after having commenced by repudiating the claims of Shaikh Saniisi, now bear, more or less, the intellectual yoke of the Sanusiyya and conform, to some extent, in political matters, to the views held by it." The Madaniyya Order is
1
"
La
Confrerie IMusalmane,"
p.
8.
Einn, "Marabouts et Khouan," p. 510. 3" All these Orders, or Confraternities, formerly divided seem, on the contrary, to-day to obey a common impulse,
2
106

much under
its influence.
also very
It is said
by some writers that Shaikh
Sanusi
tolerated
certain of the special rites and ceremonies of these other Orders, and thus extended his personal influence over a
into his
mass
own
people not actually initiated Order, especially over the superstiof
tious, warlike
and fanatical Tuwariq. A man may become a Sanusi, without abandoning his own
Order, provided that he submits
to
certain
re-
capacity for assimilation " is a special characteristic of the Order. Thus, the Sanusis claim the support of no less than
strictions.
fact, this
In
forty (or, as
groups
more
Orders, or branches of them or less allied to the Shadhiliyya school of
Eeligious
some
authorities
would
say, sixty-four)
philosophy, which embraces the majority of the Muslim Orders. Amalgamation is undoubtedly
aimed
in fact, progressing rapidly the Sanusis settle there they because wherever thus conlatitudinarianism rule. Its eventually
at,
is,
;
and
of the Sanusis."
stitutes the great cohesive force in the propaganda ^ Its secret agents are to be found
in Zawiyahs of other Orders, and these men duly report to the Shaikh all that is of importance for
him to know. They also quietly spread Sanusi views amongst these other Darweshes. Conscious
the origin of which is as yet unknown." (Frisch, Maroc," p. 186.) 1 Silva White, " From Sphinx to Oracle," p. 117.
"
Le
THE DHIKR OF THE SANUSIS

of the
107
power which an air of mystery gives, they keep the rules of their Order secret and avoid The rosary they any outward distinctive sign. use is one common to otliers. In the namaz, or
public prayer, they use no peculiar rites, bvit a special dhikr is made known to their followers.
as follows.
The usual form of dhikr used by the Sanusis is The worshipper, after Salatu'i-Fajr,
or the usual morning prayer, says forty times, " O my God, preserve me at the moment of death
then one and in the trials which follow it " then hundred times, " I seek pardon from God " one hundred times, There is no god but Allah
; ;
"
and Muhammad is the Prophet of God then one hundred times, " O my God, grant thy favour to our Lord Muhammad the illiterate prophet, also to his family and companions, and give them ^ The three last should then be repeated safety."
;
"
over again three times, making altogether nine hundred repetitions. The ritual directions of the dhikr are that the rosary should be carried
all
and
on the hand and not be suspended from the neck, in all meetings for worship music and dancing
are strictly prohibited. Whilst the Sanusis strongly assert the truth that God alone is to be exalted, they allow a
i^n
j^
^y\
^\
iz^ lij^
js.
-
j^
_
^\
c- -
108
very high veneration to be paid to saints, though The novice is they would not call it worship. expected to entirely renounce the world, and to Shaikh as his yield implicit obedience to the
Luxurious spiritual guide and temporal leader. dresses, silk embroidery, ornaments (except for women) and gold and silver vessels are forbidden
things but the precious metals may be used in the hilts of swords, as they may be employed in the Jihad, or Holy War. Coffee and tobacco ^
;
Tea may be drunk, but not sweetened with loaf sugar, for that is said to be clarified with the bones of animals slain without the use of the expression Bismillah (i.e.^ in the name of God) by the persons who killed
are strictly forbidden.
that appertains to them is thus and so unlawful for use by Muslims. impure, Music and dancing are not allowed. Intercourse with Jews or Christians is not permitted.^ No salutation should be made to them, and no business transacted with them. If the Jew or Christian should not be a Rayah, or Dhimmi, he must be dealt with as an enemy.^ He- is
All
1
them.
This
rule
is
Muqaddim
said,
"
somewhat 'relaxed in Algeria, where a Those who are rich may smoke, but the
poor had better abstain, for in order to indulge in this whim they may deprive their children of bread." (Depont et Coppolani, p. 556.)
2
Duveyrier,
<<
"
La
Confrerie
What
specially characterizes
Musulmane," p. 7. them (the Sanusiyya),
THE OETHODOXY OF THE SANUSIS

either a
109
Dhimmi, that is, one allowed to live on payment of a tax, or he is a fair subject for oppression and death. The Order is thus absolutely
hostile
in
its
spirit
non-Muslim
peoples.
and intention to all The members of the Order
should not carry their disputes before alien law The Shaikh is the supreme judge, who courts. alone can settle the civil and criminal cases which
arise in so large a body. They profess to quite orthodox in their religious principles. They look upon the Qur'au as God's word direct
may
be
to
His people, and consider the Sunna
to be that
will, declared in the daily actions and words of the Prophet. They look upon bid'at, or inno-
same
vations on the traditional beliefs and practices, as hurtful and heretical they assert the absolute
;
necessity
of the
Imamat, that
is,
the
constant
presence of a spiritual Pontiff, in their Shaikh. They consider
whom
they find
that the ideal
religious life is one of contemplation. All this leads the Sanusiyya, the most
uncom-
promising, and the most powerful of all the Orders, to view Islam as a Theocracy and to consider that all good Muslims should with
them so look upon

above every
it.
The
result
is
great
Muhammadan Order or Sect, is, not merely the fanaticism within their own religion, but their burning hatred of Christians." (Eohlfs, quoted by Silva White in
"From Sphinx
to Oracle," p. 127.)
110
and conpan-Islamic movement. Intelligent vinced, too, of the excellence of their cause, they can with patience wait for the full result of
their
to
teaching.
Not that
for
this
is
likely to lead
one of the most recent of the best informed French writers on Islam in Algiers declares that, if it were possible to drive the French into the sea and to establish a theocratic State, the religious Orders would do it at once.i But for the present, the Sanusi's
toleration,
more
enter into no political engagements with Christian or Muslim Powers, and simply trust to the leaven which their principles introduce amongst
MusHms.
generate
state, as
The end
Islam,
by restoring
to be sought for is to so reit to its ancient
may
tive
they conceive it to have been, that it present an effective barrier to the destrucspirit.
forces of
dern
European civilization and They do all this from a

tliat
the
mois
religious
motive for they affirm
the glory of
God
their only aim. They do, however, look forward to a temporal kingdom, which the Theocracy they
hope
to
see will
be
work
^
for that object in their
but for the present they own way, and that
caught a glimpse of the posof casting us into the sea and of substituting a theocratic Musalmdn State for the actual Government ;
sibility
" If these secret Societies
then, without the least doubt, they would seek to overthrow in one supreme effort the Christian rule." (Comte Henry de Castries, "Isl^m," p. 236.)
THE MAHDI OF KHARTUM

way
the
is
111
Powers.
any entanglements with worldly In 1872 the Prussians tried to stir up Sanusis to proclaim a Jihad against the
to avoid
The French, but in vain. ordered the Shaikh to send

fight
Sultan of Turkey him some men to the Russians, but not a man went. The
influence
Italians have
Frencli
sought their aid in counteracting in Tunis, but have not suc-
ceeded in getting it. During the revolt of Arabi Pasha in Egypt the Sanusis did not stir.
In the year 1885,
six
envoys came from the
Mahdi
the Sudan to Jaghbub with a letter addressed to the Shaikh of the Saniisis.^ The
in
Mahdi
wrote
somewhat
as
follows
"
:
have
defeated the English and Egyptian troops. I shall continue the war until Egypt falls into
the hands of the true believers.
Thou
art
all
powerful in the West. The Shaikh asked his

say in reply.
Holy War." Darweshes what he should

Join
"
me
in a
They
said,
Thou
art the Master,
and we follow thy order." The Sudanis were well treated, and on the fourth day the Shaikh " Tell addressed them as follows your master that we will have nothing to do with him. His way is not good. I send no letter in reply."
:
The
jNIahdf,
Muliammad Ahmad, who was
originally
a I\Iuqaddim of the Qidiriyya Order, had acquired in, the Zdwiyah of Keneh, a town in Upper Egypt, a great reputation as a mystic and a worker of miracles.
112

a great
clanger to civilization was happily The Shaikh saw plainly that the revolt was premature and lacked the conditions of permanence and success. No doubt also it was the implied ignoring by the Mahdi of his own pretensions as the foremost and most excellent of all the Shaikhs, and not any consideration for Egypt, which led the Sanusi leader to refuse his countenance and aid to the Eastern Sudan movement. The destruction of the Mahdi of Khartum has very materially strengthened the
averted.
of the
Thus
Saniisiyya Order by the accession to its ranks Darweshes of the Nile whose power, as a
separate body, has now been broken and by the extinction of any rival authority to that of its own Shaikh, who is undoubtedly the most powerful leader of
men
in Africa at this present
time,
for negroes, converted to Islam in their thousands every year, form excellent soldiers and these by
the million are at the call of the great Sanusi He is now the head of chief, Shaikhu'l-Mahdi.
the anti-christian
movement from Morocco to Mecca and from lake Chad to Darfur. The direct action of the Samisis in any
the
;
of
insurrections
in
Algiers
has never been
but even though no overt acts can proved be alleged, yet the widespread influence of their
teaching and their
known
dislike to all
modern
methods
of civilization
have doubtless been very
SANUSI RELATION TO THE FRENCH

powerful
of
113
leading others on in the and pronounced opposition, way and their Zawiyahs have always been open to In order to remove a standing menace rebels. to Algeria, it was necessary for the French to occupy the oasis of Tuat in force. The Taibiyya and the Karzaziyya Orders seem to have been friendly over this, but the Bakkayiyya and the Sanusiyya Darweshes strongly opposed the French. It lies near It is a most important place to hold. the centre of the Sahara and its possession gives In 1881 a control over many trade routes. French expedition was destroyed by the Tuwariq, instigated by 'Abdu'l-Qadir, the head of the Samisis in Tuat. They foresaw that punishment would come and persuaded the Sultan of Morocco to declare Tuat to be a part of his dominions which he did in a letter in 1886. The French remonstrated and he then said that the letter was a It became quite clear that under Sanusi forgery. influence Tuat would become a centre of intrigue, and so about the year 1900 the French took
factors
in
more
active
absolute possession of
it.
The present
policy, however, of the
Order seems
to be to encourage emigration from lands under alien rule to lands which European influence has
or in which it has not yet any way a power. This really means a vast emigration to the oases of the Sahara and
not yet reached,

in
become
114
THE EELIGIOUS OEDERS OF ISLAM
other parts. " The exodus from all the Musalman countries grows more numerous every day." ^ Thus all the main caravan routes are being brought
under SaniisI control, wells are dug, trees are planted and cultivation is carried on by freed
slaves,
now
carefully instructed in
the dogmas
and practices of the Order. In this way it is thought that the true believers may be gathered together and be preserved from living under the yoke of Christian powers, or under the scarcely less hated rule of the Sultan and Khedive, who, in the opiniou of the Sanusis, are under the control of European Governments and suffer, from that pernicious influence. In fact, Turkey, Egypt, Syria, and other countries where modern civilization has had some influence, are looked upon with much reprobation. The facts of material and moral progress cannot be denied, but the fanatical heed to such improvement. little spirit pays " The Sanusis are the most violent enemies of the Christians, and they equally call themselves the enemies of the Turks." ^ The motto of the Order
is
The Turks and the Christians are category we will destroy them both
:
:
"
in the
at the
same same
time."
for
1
^ None of these countries, then, are suitable the development of the theocratic views of
Comte Henry de Castries, " L'IsMm," " Le Maroc," p. 190. Frisch,
p.
238.
EMIGRATION OF SANUSIS
115
the Order, and departure from them was urged many years ago. In this respect the practice
of
the
Order has been most consistent.

letter,
In a
Leave those who God wills that you should be as you are.' say, God does not reveal himself forcibly to an Arab or to a stranger. His sole object is Himself, the One, who begets not, and is not begotten. O Is not brothers, do not neglect us or the Shaikh. the earth vast ? Change your residence, and then the dwellings of those who do not emigrate with But as to the feeble you will be burnt down. men and women, who cannot do so, perhaps God It is written, 'whoever fleeth will pardon them.
'
written by a pastoral the following passage occurs God. it opens the way to
Muqaddim
"
:
in 1869,
Eecite the dhikr,
his
country for the cause of God, will find many under like compulsion and abundant resources.'
first of
^
'
As
for those
who
led
the way, the
who
the Muhajirun,^ and the Ansar ^ and those followed their noble conduct, God is well
"
*
pleased with them.'
The Shaikhu'l-Mahdi
"
later
on said
to his followers, " Quit
your country.
Is
not God's earth vast ? There is much trouble in the Muslim world at
1
Suratu'n-NLâ',
(iv)
101.
3
i
That That
is, is,
first
emigrants from Mecca to Madina.
those
who
in
Madina helped Muhammad,

101.
Suratu't-Taubah,
(ix)
116

till
the growing Christian occupation of lands, Islam. lately open only to the followers of
Africa especially this is the Sultan of Turkey has no real claim to the Khalifate and so
seen to be the case.

to
In There power, and his

a
sort
of
universal dominion is by no means generally admitted. In Morocco it is absolutely denied.^ Thus had it not been for these religious Confraternities,
the flock in Islam
would, in some
without a shepherd. parts, have been as sheep The reason for the founding of new Orders, such as that of the Sanusiyya, is thus to be found in the need felt by large bodies of Muslims for clear direction and supervision, and
for
something which
sohdarity.
will give
them some
spiri-
tual
sought to give of its grand objects the federation of all the various Orders under its general supervision. This propaganda as I have shown has been carried out with much success, but recent writers
hold that
fortunately
This the Sanusiyya Order has by setting before itself as one
many
of
the leaders
of
the other Orders do not approve of this plausible attempt at the entire absorption of their Confraternities
into
that
the
Sanusiyya.
"
The
desire
for
wealth
and
of
now
influences
many
temporal the Shaikhs of other
power which
Confraternities also tends to hinder the Sanusiyya

iMeakin,
"The Moorish Empire,"
p. 198.
SANUSI INTEIGUES
propaganda amongst them."
i
117
"The
Shaikhu'l-
the teaching of the other brotherhoods, he will be respected but will not become their absolute and uncontrollable
flatter
Mahdi
will
in vain
Master. In Tunis and Algeria the same evolution dashes itself in vain against the solid position of the Qadiriyya and the Tijaniyya Orders,
. .
whose individual temper agrees

trines
of
ill
the Sanusis."
If this is
;
with the docthe case, a
must have set in but for all that the Sanusis are a most powerful organization, growThe official ing both in numbers and in influence.
reaction
leaders of
interest
some
of the stronger
Orders from
self-
propaganda of the Sanusis amongst their followers, but the influence of the SanusI Darwishes on the ordinary brethren of
may
resist the
is very great and their masses is most eifective. They are united in purpose and energetic in the dissemination of their views on the reform of Islam in dogma and in practice. They desire to revive
most Confraternities
appeal to the
the glories of the early days of Islam with

its intolerance
all
and fanaticism. It is this aspect of the movement which brings with an attendant danger. It is said by an observant traveller " that, Algeria is honey-combed with Sanusi intriguers .... so vast a combination is necessarily
1
"
Depont
et Coppolani," p. 568.
et
2"Depont
Coppolani,"
p. 558.
118

;
so fraught with danger to the peace of Africa intolerant and powerful a sect is, ostensibly,
capable of shaking Islam to its foundation, the moment of action arrives." ^
when
The French
in Algiers are perfectly aware of
the danger which arises from the presence of these fanatical communities in their midst.^
More than
Algeria
are
half
of
the
Muslim
with
inhabitants
of
connected
various
Eeligious
and
of
Orders, which possess no less than three hundred All these Darweshes are fifty Zawiyahs.
to
trained
their
yield
implicit
obedience to the will

rule
Shaikhs. they are simple, credulous persons, but for this reason are all the more easily led astray. Of all the Orders
that of the Sanusiyya is the most irreconcilable enemy of the French, and it is by patient workand by thorough ing, by ceaseless intrigue,
As a
knowledge
it
of the
Muslim mind and heart that

its
has attained to
its
great position of influence
and to
to the possible
present great power for evil. Referring danger and trouble which all this
may
bring,
Comte Henry de
Castries says that
should a continental war compel Prance to withdraw many troops from Africa, the Sanusiyya and
iSilva White,
2
11
"From Sphinx
of
to Oracle," pp.
1245.
the Sanusfs is an irreconcilable enemy, really dangerous to the French authority in
The Confraternity
North Africa."
p. 14.)
(Duveyrier,
"La
Coufrerie
Musulmane,"
THE MISSION WORK OF THE CHURCH
119
the other Orders might easily be stirred up by an
enemy
of France to open revolt.^ The only hope then would be that the Shaikhs of the various Orders in their bid for power would fall out
amongst themselves, and that tribal factions would lead to disunion. 2 He thinks this would be the
for "I'anarchie est le
probable outcome of such an adverse movement, mal endemique de I'lslam." This is true, for from the days of the internecine
strifes of the early Khah'fate there
has never been

political
universal
in Islam.
religious
or
permanent
unity
I have now given an account of the principal Religious Orders, the rise and progress of wliich has an important bearing on the mission work
Church. I have shown the political danger which may arise from this vigorous and fanatical movement the religious peril is no less imminent. Some of the Orders may be more actively
of the
:
missionary in their operations than others

there
is
but
no difference
of
<5ommon hatred
between them in their Christianity and in their desire
to forestall its advance.
For many centuries Islam has had an open door in Central Africa and the Sudans, and, during
1
"L'Islam,"
"
p. 239.
representatives of the different mystical Schools of Islam are generally in a state of severe competition with each other." (C. Snouck Hurgronje, " Revue de I'Histoire des Religions." p. 217.)
The
120
THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF

:last
ISLAIM
the
Lundred years
especially, has taken full

It
is
advantage
of its favourable position.
only
to
recently that facilities Christian Missionaries.
have been
afforded
Thus much valuable time

from the beginning
has been
of the
lost.
It is true that
has,
thirteenth century the Church of Eome from time to time, sent missionaries to
Morocco. These heroic men, under great difficulties and in the face of much persecution,
carried
death.
on their work and many found a martyr's The Franciscans are still at work there,
it
though,
is
said that their attention
is
chiefly
directed to the Europeans.^ This is natural, for the Eomanist must always, as compared with a
non-Eomanist,
dealing with recent years
be
at
great
disadvantage
in
Practically, until little has been done to place in an
Muhammadans.
acceptable form the Gospel before the Muslims of Morocco and Algeria. The North Africa Mission
is is
now engaged
in this most difficult work. It confronted by the influence of the great Con-
fraternities
which I have described, and so it all the sympathy and support it can obtain. Its work is highly spoken of and merits recognition. ^
justly deserves
1
Meakin,
2
For an account of Christian Missions in l\Iorocco, see " The Moorish Empire," pp. 307-34. " Spiritual forces are at work in Morocco among the
Moors, those self-same spiritual forces, which, as a righteous, leaven, raised our nature from a state of barbarism and
THE MISSION WORK OF THE CHURCH

Political
its
121
causes have brought civilized rule, accompanying protection of life and property, into Central Africa and the Sudans. This may, however, facilitate the modern Muslim
with
propaganda.
It is also possible that the
adoption
Government in Turkey and reforms in Persia, if they come to pass, may increase the dislike of the more fanatical Darweshes to these Muslim States. It may also cause some of the other Orders to follow the
of a constitutional
example
of the
Samisiyya and to seek in lands
now
occupied by pagan tribes, whom they will hope to win, an escape from modern influences which appear to them to be inconsistent with
the earlier teaching of Muhammadan law and custom, a.nd to be at variance with their ideal of a true Theocratic Muslim State.
In any
continue
to
case,
whatever
may
be the result of
the political activity of the great

. .
Darwesh Orders,
travellers
raise it. It is the popular custom of . disparage missionaries, a task as easy as to disparage the tiny worm which bores and buries itself, and in a lifetime severs less of the tree-trunk than a day's growth adds, but it is a work that tells and the tree falls. Let their work be difficult, their faith a mockery to those who share it not, their object hopeless, their achieve-
to
ments
insignificant,
or,
it
may
;
be, illusory
their faults
apparent, their methods, absurd the missionaries, of whatever creed, are the noble few who live for the future and no seed they sow is lost." (Meakin, " The Moorish Empire,"
1
p. 4.37.)
Ante, p. 77.
122

it
and
it
is
by no means devoid
of
serious
peril,
absolutely certain that the religious propaganda will be carried on with vigour. may
is
We
in
fairly accept the position that
Islam,
some
respects, raises a pagan tribe to a higher level of life and conduct, and yet, in the interests of social order, of moral life, of religious belief, and so
in
the best interests of
mankind, we
the conversion of sucli tribes to Islam with
may view much
No well-wisher of even the most degraded race can desire that it should be permanently fixed at what, after all, is a low level of conduct and that an almost impassable barrier should
concern.
of
be placed in the way of its rising to a higher stage life by the acceptance of a purer and more
faith. ^
elevating
Muslims have been and

;
will
be won
fold
for
Christ
still
it is
matter
of
common
experience that a people once gathered into the of Islam are extremely difficult to reach
and are
far
less
responsive
to
the
claims
of
Christianity than when in their heathen state. It seems very unlikely that the varied African races can remain long in their present religious
and social condition. They will soon become Muslims or Christians. Probably, in the past
history of
been a
crisis
the Church, there has hardly ever so acute as this is now. In many
field,
parts of the mission
people
79, 80.
now heathen
XAnte, pp.
THE MISSION WORK OP THE CHURCH

be no more
will be so forty or fifty years to reach difficult
123
hence and it will them then than now. It is not so in Africa. Let these years pass by and the Africans, then become Muhammadans, will be a hundred fold more difficult to influence then than now.
to
As regards the present relation of Christianity Islam, whilst the work of the Missionary
Egypt and
life is
it
Societies in
in other great centres of
Muhammadan
primary duty
in Africa
is
of
must be maintained,
by
the highest value and would yet seem that the
of arresting the progress of
Islam
forestalling its
It
is
operations amongst
fact
the pagan tribes.
this
which gives
such great importance to the Universities' Mission and to the C.M.S. Uganda Mission. " There was a time where the future of the Kingdom of Uganda
hung
in the balance.
It
was a struggle between

and,
if
Christianity
and
Muhammadanism,
the
had been delayed, even for a few years, we might have found Uganda
advent
of
the mission
Muhammadan
The formation
State."
of strong Christian Churches the best possible barrier to the onward march If Islam. the C.M.S. Hausa Mission is of
is
promptly and well

1
supported,
similar
progress
the Christianity or Muhammadanism in Uganda Diocese," (C.M.S. Intelligencer, July 1904, p. 489). I reproduce some portions of this interesting article in a note at the end of this book.
Willis,
"
124
THE EELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM

like result
with a
may
its
also be looked for in the
regions in
which
The
resources
of
operations are carried on. are Missionary Societies
limited in
men and
of
all
means.
In the wonderful
lands and in the great social opening up and political changes which are now in progress, the call for help comes with increasing force from
all
sides.
Some
call
The response can only be partial. estimate of the relative urgency of each
Is
in
it
must be made.
advance
too
much
to say that
Africa places that land in the very forefront of all the many claimants, and gives to Missionary Societies working there
the Muslim
a foremost place in
and the aid
of all
who
the prayers, the sympathy are interested in the per-
manent extension of the Kingdom of God. most urgent work which the Church is now
upon
of
The
called
to undertake is the speedy evangelization the pagan people in Africa, who will, if now neglected, soon pass on into the fold of Islam.
EXTRACT FROM AN ARTICLE,

"
Christianity or
Muhammad anism
"
in the
Uganda Diocese
by the Rev.
J. J. Willis in the
" C.M.S. Intelligencer," July 1904.
From
the
a missionary point of view the Kingdom of Uganda occupies a remarkable position. Though
large
it
Heathen,
Christian,
majority of its population are still may be almost regarded as a Christian

its legislature is practically
country, inasmuch as
and
most
of
its
Christian
by
it
centre of Equatorial surrounded by heathen countries, north, east, south, and west. Beyond, this belt of Paganism lies another belt, west, north, and east Muhammadanism. To the south there is none, and there is no advance of Muhammadanism to be feared from that quarter. But in the remain-
country
Africa,
stands in
profession. the
And
leading as a
men
are
Christian
ing
three
directions
there
is.
Paganism, natural religion based on no literaIt is vague, ture, is necessarily a weak religion.
126
Chrisformless, and takes no really strong hold. are both strong Muhammadanism and tianity which men hold to the death. And
religions,
between these two religions the battle in Africa It seems more than probable will be fought. that, before very many years are past, one of these or the other will be the dominant power
around Uganda who are at The danger of this present moment Heathen. to one be reckoned a Muhammadan advance is the adherents of that with, because, even though
among
the
tribes
faith in Central Africa
may know
almost nothing
of its teaching, and be scarcely, if at all, bound by its restrictions, once the Heathen have become, even in name, Muhammadan, our great opportuthere is no longer an open mind. nity is passed Now of the three possible directions from which Islam may advance, the most remote is the west. The Muhammadan States on or near the west coast of Africa are separated from us by an
;
immense
stretches of pathless forest
barred by vast and countries under another administration lie between. So that the danger from that direction need not be seriously In any case we have the Kingdom regarded. of Toro, some two hundred miles to the west, standing as an outlying fortress in that quarter. A more serious danger looms in the north, from the Muhammadanism advancing slowly from
distance
;
they
are
UGANDA MISSION
127
Egypt southwards through the Sudan. Every year is bringing Egypt nearer to us, as communication by river and road is perfected, and travel from north to south facilitated. The future
of the Nile tribes will not be long undecided, and much will depend on whether Christianity or
Muhammadanism
is
first
in the field.
Many
of
the Nile tribes farther north are already nominally Muhammadan, but the tribes lying immediately
to the north of
Bunyoro
to
are not only

at least,
but have,
in
one instance
desire
of
still pagan, expressed a
very
strong
be taught.
Now
is
our
opportunity
rejoice that
extending to the north, and

is
we
it
being seized.
But if the possibility of Muhammadan encroachment from the north is an eventuality clearly to be reckoned with, a very much more pressing danger threatens from the east. Here the distance
from the
is
once to be reckoned by months, reckoned by days. It was inevitable that with the railway should come in a rush of
coast,
now
to be
SwahiH
1
i
;
inevitable, too, that they,
with their long
" It
is
that
tribes
Muhammadanism
of
Islam is Zanzibar, know that language, it is evident that th.eir proselytizing efforts can only have a very superficial effect. Conversion practically may be said to consist in the utterance of a formula. Yet these Swahilis, and also
their so-called converts, are extremely difficult to
by these Swahilis, in the character of merchants, is propagated among the heathen the interior. As all the available literature of in Arabic, and very few Swahilis, even in
win to
128
experience of civilization, should exercise a dominant influence over the tribes in East Africa
still
in
their
infancy.
Christ they are so ignorant, even of their own ignorance, so impervious to argument, and they cling so stubbornly to their creed." (G.M.S. Report, 1907-08, p. 52.)
:
For the spread

p. 31.
of
Isl^m in Nigeria, see the same Report,
INDEX
Abdal, 24 AkhyAr, 24
Alwaniyj'a Order, 37
Amirghaniyya Order, 38
Amulets, 20, 68-4
Anwdr, 23
Autad, 23
Bakkayiyya Order, 57 Baktashiyya Order, 52 Bistdmiyya Order, 37
initiation into, 54
Chistiyya Order, 45
Darqiwiyya Order, 71
Darweshes, relation to progress, 1, in Turkey, 7 opponents of, 9 Dhikr, various kinds of, 32-3 effect
; ;
7,
80, 82
in Algiers, 7;
of,
34
Dhimmi, 109
Fatwd,
G9, 87
Faqlr, 26
Fulahs, 77, 81
130
INDEX
Pan-Isldmism,
2, 45,
131
73
dhikr of, Q4diriyya Order, 38 character of founder of, 43-4

;
40
extension
of,
42-3
Qalandar, 51 Qalandariyya Order, 51
Qutb,
19, 22,
23
Rifa'iyya Order, 44
political influence of, 45
Rahmanfyya
;
Order, 68
;
Religious Orders, growth of, 3; opposition to, 5 enemies of, 9 admisheads of, 10 officers of, 11-2 origin of, 18
; ;
sion into, 28-31, 42, 54, 55,70; dhikr of, 32-5,40; Siddfqiyya, 36 Alwdniyya, 37 Bistdmiyya, 37 Qidiriyya
; ;
38
Amfrghaniyya, 38
;
Rifa'iyya, 44
Chistiyya, 45
Su-
46; Shadhiliyya, 47; Mauldwiyya, 48; Naqshbandiyya, 49 Qalandariyya, 51 Baktdshiyya, 52 Khilwatiyya, 54; Bakayiyya, 57; Shaikiyya, 57; Karzdziyya, 58 Taibiyya, 59 Hansaliyya, 61 Tijdniyya, 65
harwardiyya,
Rahmd,niyya, 69
nusiyya, 83
of,
;
Darq^wiyya, 71
extent of influence
of,
IMadaniyya, 73 Sa43, 76-77 hostility

;
;
110.
Sdlik, 27
Sanusiyya Order,
its
its extension, 83 82, its founder 83-5 opponents, 86 head-quarters of, 88, 100 death of founder of, 90 character of founder of, 91 second Shaikh of, 92 death of second Shaikh of, 92 expec; ; ; ;
; ;
tation
of
of,
;
growth
of,
102-3
of,
al-Mahdf, 93; grand council of, 93, 98; 98, 100 organization of, 101 missionary zeal relation to other Orders, 105-7, 115 social cus; ;
;
toms
of
108
fanaticism
;
of, 109,
114
relation to
;
Mahdi
Khartum, 111 oppose the French,

114
;
113, 116
emigration
of, 101,
132
INDEX
Siddlqiyya Oixler, 36 Shadhiliyya Order, 46 Shaikhiyya Order, 57
Shaikh, 10, 26 Shuhadd', 22
Suharwardiyya Order, 46
Taibiyya Order, 59 Tijdniyya Order, 65
Talqlu, 30 Tilmidh, 26
Tariq, 26
extent of influence
of, G7,
68
Tuat, 60, 113
Tawariq, 100, 113
Uganda Mission, 123, 125, 127 'UlamsV, influence of, 1 opposed to Darweshes, 9 fatwa by, 87 opposed to Baktashfs, 63 opposed to Ralimaniyya
;
; ;
Order, 69
opposed to Sanusfs, 86
Umama', 23
Universities' Mission, 123
Uwaishiyya Order, 37
Wahhdbfs, 91
Waif, 15, 25
Zdwiyah,
Ziarat, 31
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^;<5^5<^ ;<i;^<j5i :sj^5;<^^^^

THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS

FELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS

Essays on Islam," published

and have added information more recent than

be more directly drawn to an important

being taken in African Missions,

conception of the seriousness of the position,

account of a little-known movement

conceivable that the

THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM

East these confraternities,

of Islam, are conservative

grown with great

Islam during the nineteenth century has led

to a great increase in the Eeligious Orders.

movement has not depended on

the orthodox ex-

xix. Siecle," p. 187.

THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM

Bosnia and Bulgaria is largely on the

rule in Central Africa

the Christian Powers are encroaching, and some

commerce and the wider

The development modern

CONTKOL OF RELIGIOUS ORDERS

has provoked a great reaction.

Maulawiyya, the Khilwatiyya,

THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF ISLAM

and his two

Darweshes connected with

ACTIVITY OF THE DARWSSHES

influence, for whenever, after a local insurrection,

temporal and spiritual relief. " jMarabouts et 2Rinn, Khouan,"

THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAM

looked upon as fetters to the inspired and exalted

the head of the

Shaikhu's-Sadat, or Shaikh of the " occuof these is said to be the

THE 'ULAMA AND THE DARWESHES

clergy in the middle ages.

reproach the former with being mere

the side of the

God, the favourites

of tlieir practices as border-

ing on the profane, yet, on the whole, respect

The ignorant man

also sees that,

destitute of the education needed for an 'Ulama,

THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAM

the Grand Master, and has

correspondence are transmitted to

in every act the disciple present to his mind.

In every word and must keep the Master

In a diploma conZawiyah. ferred by the Shaikh of the Qadiriyya Order on a

Muqaddim, the instructions given

the Ikhwan,^ or brethren of the

THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS OP ISLAM

are performed seriously and as a grave

Then comes the general body members of the Order. They

the simple called the

frequently in use. Outside of all these are what

are the lay members in the Zawiyahs, though they