Strindbergs Radical Aesthetics

Christopher Innes York University

adicalism is both political and aesthetic, but it is never a constant quality. The attitude of an individual may remain much the same, yet radicalism shifts its shape from period to period by changing rhetoric and developing new stylistic values and structural forms. Strindbergwho was arraigned for blasphemy, was a political outcast and sometime exile from his homeland, experimented with chemistry and photography, and entitled his first play (written under a pseudonym) Fritnkaren (1869; The Freethinker)classifies as a radical on numerous levels. However, his most significant influence has been as a playwright; I will therefore focus on his role as an aesthetic radical. In the 1870s, at the opening of the modern era, the artistic form radicalism took was naturalism. Linked to the representation of workingclass or ordinary people, attacking the bourgeoisie, and establishing new literary principles of scientific objectivity, naturalism challenged and outraged the ruling classes of the timeas the English reaction to Ibsen showedset up new moral criteria, and opposed the pictorial as well as melodramatic standards of theater at the time. Circa 18961900, radical self-definition had taken on a new theatrical form while naturalistic drama, having won social respectability, continued as the default performance style of mainstream English, American, and European theater for much of the twentieth century. While one line of radical innovation was initiated by Alfred Jarrys infamously provocative Ubu roi (1896), August Strindberg was responsible for developing the principles that formed the basis of theatrical modernism, which were more deeply, if less obviously, an attack on the economic, political, and cultural status quo of the European social establishment. Jarry was taken on by Antonin Artaud in the 1920s, and

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Artauds interpretations led during the 1950s to a College of Pataphysics that subsequently fueled the American and French avant-garde movements of the late 1960s. By contrast, Strindbergs influence was immediate and more deeply subversive in informing the new artistic movements that dominated the radical agenda, particularly in Germany and America as well as Scandinavia, up to the 1930s. Indeed, throughout his life Strindberg had defined himself in radical terms. When naturalism was seen as subversive, he wrote naturalistic drama; and as naturalism gradually became acceptable, he started to develop new forms. As such, whereas earlier Strindberg had been following, even if in radical terms surpassing, Ibsen and Zola he became a leader of the new modernist artistic movement that was to influence the next half century. In 1879 Noras slamming of the street door on her way out of Et Dukkehjem (A Dolls House) echoed throughout Europe by challenging the patriarchal infantilizing of women. Strindbergs first response was Rda rummet (1879; The Red Room), a naturalistic attack on the hypocrisy of Swedish society, its art, and journalists, which has been labeled the first modern Swedish novel (Meyer 79). Indeed its depiction of Swedish culture was so challenging that the novel also initiated the Swedish critics ongoing demonization of Strindberg, who found himself classified as plebeian, immoral, subjective, and therefore dangerous as well as mentally disturbed. While the relationship between Ibsen and his younger contemporary, Strindberg, has been previously explored, it still needs to be briefly marked in this context because it graphically demonstrates how Strindbergs radical attitude led him to associate with the leading radical movement of the time and then move through and beyond it. Like Ibsen, Strindberg began his career as playwright with a mix of contemporary and historical drama. Among these are student pieces such as Fritnkaren (which while never staged, has sometimes been taken as an autobiographical self-labeling) and Den fredlse (Ungdomsdramer) (1881; The Outlaw, based on Icelandic sagas), or Mster Olof (1872; Master Olof, first staged in 1881). This last play is similar to Ibsens Kejser og Galiler (1873; Emperor and Galilean) in focusing on religious issues, though in different historical epochs. However, Strindbergs Gillets hemlighet (Tidiga 80-talsdramer) (1880; The Secret of the Guild), while still historical, is clearly a reaction to the standard nationalist mythologies (including his own earlier work) in presenting history from a working-class perspective. It can be seen as an indirect response to Et

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Dukkehjem, in mounting a parallel challenge to the standard mind-set of the social establishment. At the same time, it is generally recognized that Strindbergs Herr Bengts Hustru (Tidiga 80-talsdramer) (1882; Sir Bengts Wife) is a refutation of Ibsens provocative dramatic call for womens rights. In fact Strindbergs attitude was more nuanced and ambiguous since the heroine of Herr Bengts Hustrua role written for his wife, Siri von Essenalso justifies her right as a woman to control her own life. And indeed his preface to the first volume of Giftas (1884; Getting Married) explicitly supports the contemporary battle for womens rights, and its various short stories illustrate a whole range of marital relationships including several in which wives defy conventional gender roleseven if the second volume (1885), addressing issues such as lesbianism led to his being prosecuted for blasphemy and forced into temporary exile from Sweden. This second volume also includes stories that are distinctly misogynistic in tone; and both Strindbergs Marodrer (1886; Marauders) and its revision as Kamraterna (1888; Comrades) are plays focusing on the domination of a weak-willed painter by his vicious and manipulative artist wife. Strindbergs misogyny, of course, has received much attention, particularly with the emergence of modern feminism: so, for example, the political dimensions of his fictional depiction of women have been discussed by scholars such as Genevieve Fraisse while its literary functions have been analyzed by others like Elena Balzamo. Thematically this leads directly to a drama like Fadren (1887; The Father). While naturalistic on the surface, it focuses on a radical gender divide involving the Captainthe protagonistwho is both a distinguished soldier and scientist. Focusing on issues of paternity, this play presents an overt battle of the sexes, where the patriarchy is defeated by underhanded means: the mother (Laura) openly lies in order to destroy the Captains socially-mandated authority over their daughter. This results in the Captains being committed to an insane asylum, which Strindberg, perhaps in personal response to the critical attacks on his own sanity, shows to be completely unfair. Even though Laura is motivated by understandable maternal feelings and her vision for her young daughters future (as an artist, rather than as an atheist) is more socially appropriate than her husbands, the audiences sympathies are directed to the victimized Captain. By any standard, it is a startling demonstration of the sexual entrapment and psychological damage inherent in marriage, the basis for bourgeois society at the time. At the same time

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and in sharp contrast to the conventional melodramatic response that characterizes Ibsens drama, here audience support for the Captain is rendered ambiguous and divided: Laura is undoubtedly right in her attempts to protect and further the ambitions of her daughter as a free individual in a society that denigrates women, yet the way she gains control over her dominant husband through open lies as well as suggestions that he is not in fact the father of their daughter is represented as despicable. Since the victimized male figure characterized solely by his status as The Father or The Captain, as with figures by their professions (Doctor, Nurse, Pastor), and only the wife and daughter by individual names, this play already undermines its naturalistic surface in moving towards a purely symbolic struggle in which the emerging reality is in the depths of the psyche. These qualities of abstraction and interiority not only challenge the naturalistic focus on individuality and external social realities, but also anticipate the far more radical changes that were to come in Strindbergs later plays. Frken Julie (1888; Miss Julie)generally accepted as Strindbergs most quintessentially naturalistic playexpands these qualities in even more radical ways. The well-known preface, which is usually taken as a foundational statement of naturalism, defines an individual (the focus of naturalistic drama) as a konglomerater av frgngna kulturgrader, och pgende (Frken Julie 105) [conglomerations of past and present stages of civilization (65)], a fragmentary patchwork of contradictory and transient elements: sjlar (souls) rather than self-aware and consistent personalities. This is the opposite of the type of characters projected by Zola and Ibsen, who, while psychologically influenced by social environment and biologically determined by hereditary factors, are defined by a unified consciousness. The minor figures are designated as abstrakta ... det vill sga osjlvstndiga (Strindberg, Frken Julie 108) [abstract ... that is to say ... without individuality (68)]. One of the major influences in the play, Julies aristocratic father, is completely absent and represented only by a pair of boots, and the diagonal setting is designed to create oknda perspektiv(112) [unfamiliar perspectives (72)]. While Strindberg may actually be basing his stage design on an angled backdrop (en sned fond) he saw in a conventional production of Verdis opera Ada (Strindberg, Frken Julie 112), in terms of the naturalistic drama pioneered by Ibsen and promoted by Andr Antoine at the Thtre Libre, it appeared quite radical to mainstream reviewers, who, even over two decades later, labeled it a weird distortion, with

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the stage set diagonally (August Strindberg). The drama itself has a strong interior psychological quality in the struggle of lady and servant for dominance in the context of a midsummer folk festival, games that reverse and invert the social order, and an ending in which the woman demands that her lover/servant order her to commit suicide. Written at the height of the naturalistic movementtwo years after the Saxe-Meiningen players had performed Ibsens Gengangere (1881; Ghosts), one year after Antoines founding of the Thtre Libre in Paris and the appearance of Chekhovs Ivanov (1887), and in the same year when Ibsens first deviation from naturalism surfaced in Fruen fra havet (1888; The Lady from the Sea)Frken Julie emerged as a transitional play. Strindberg must have been feeling that naturalism had lost its radical edge and was being transformed into mainstream social commentary. This is indicated in his preface to the play in which he defines the principles of composition he had used in musical terms in sharp contrast to the standard dramatic patterns of cause and effect: och drfr irrar ocks dialogen, frser sig i de frsta scenerna med ett material som sedan bearbetas, tages upp, repeteras, utvikes, lgges p, ssom temat i en musikkomposition (Strindberg, Frken Julie 109) [the dialogue wanders, gathering in the opening scenes material which is later picked up, worked over, repeated, expounded and developed like the theme in a musical composition (69)]. Since Strindberg was one of Scandinavias most insightful music critics (just as his near contemporary Bernard Shaws reputation as a music critic is still classified as among the best in the English-speaking world) this is no throwaway comparison. The play is indeed structured abstractly along musical lines, with the closest comparison being perhaps a fugue. This innovation was so radical stylistically that it was completely overlooked at the time of its performance. Though published in 1888, Frken Julie was not performed, even in Paris by Antoine, until five years later. Since it was so shocking, it was not until 1905 that it appeared on the Swedish stage and then only in a private performance. Clearly the social challenge attracted so much critical attention that the more subtextual elements of the structure were almost automatically ignored because the critics were overwhelmed by the social radicalism of the play. Indeed this is still the case. For example, a review of the most recent British production (Manchester Royal Exchange, April 2012) at which violin music was introduced as accompaniment for the scenes, makes no mention of the musical structure but focuses, just as the early reviews had done,

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solely on the breaking of sexual and class taboos: Strindbergs darkly sexual Miss Julie is more shocking and stirring than ever ... far more modern and daring than such popular present-day TV series as Downton Abbey and Upstairs Downstairs in its feverish account of the relationship between the proud young aristocrat, Miss Julie and her fathers footman (Miss Julie, Royal Exchange). Indeed the musical structure has yet to be generally acknowledged in this play, even though it was followed through in subsequent plays gaining its fullest form nearly two decades later in Spksonaten (1907; The Ghost Sonata), where Strindberg uses the title itself to specifically point out the musical form emulated in the dramatic structure. In addition to his musical expertise for which he continues to be admired, Strindberg was also well known as an art critic, one of the first to introduce the concepts of impressionism to Scandinavia through a series of articles written in 1876 for Dagens Nyheter. He included impressionism as his preferred style of scene design in the preface to Frken Julie: As to the scenery, I would displace the present elaborate stage settings by impressionist painting. I believe by this means complete illusion could be obtained (Strindbergs Odd Views). Indeed, although previously largely overlooked perhaps because they were precursors to a movement so many decades aheadthe abstract expressionism of the 1950sStrindbergs own paintings are radically and quintessentially modernist; and in parallel with his increasing use of musical structure, his paintings inform his later plays. This has been recognized in terms of his trilogy Till Damaskus (18981901), which incorporates motifs and images present in his pictures (see for example Holm 6975). But it also applies to other plays, in particular Ett drmspel (1901; A Dream Play). In letters, Strindberg describes his style of paintinglandscapes or seascapes which are both abstract and heavily framed inside the picture, with strong visual textureas being
den subjektivaste af alla konster s att endast mlaren sjelf I frsta hand kan njuta ... verket.... Hvarje bild r s att sga dubbelbottnad: har en exoterisk sida som alla, med nd dock, kunne se, och en ensoterisk, fr mlaren och de utvalde ... Alla bilderna endast mlade med knif och oblandade frger, hvilkas hopkomst til hlften fverlemnats t slumpen, likasom hela motivet. (Brev 10: 177) the most subjective of all art forms, so that in the first place only the painter himself can enjoy ... the work.... Each picture is, so to speak, double-bottomed, with an exoteric aspect that everyone can make out,

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with a little effort, and an esoteric one for the painter and the chosen few.... All the pictures are painted using only a knife and unmixed colours, whose combination has been half left to chance, like the motif as a whole. (2: 494)

Surface appearances versus inner or subjective meaning, dissolving boundaries, shapes blurring in the texturesall these qualities are present in Strindbergs later plays; and in his preface to Ett drmspel written specifically for its 1907 premiere at The Swedish Theater in Stockholm, Strindberg makes a comparison between the drama and painting: Whoever accompanies the author for these brief hours along his sleepwalking path will possibly discover a certain similarity between the apparent medley of the dream and the motley canvas of our disorderly life, woven by The World Weaver (Trnqvist and Steene 109). As Strindberg summarizes the play, Indras Dotter har stigit ner p jorden fr att f reda p hur menniskorna ha det, och s fr hon knna hur svrt det r. Och det svraste r: att graandra ondt, hvilket man tvingas till om man vill lefva (Brev 14: 187) [Indras daughter has come down to earth in order to find out how mankind lives, and thus discovers how hard life is. And the hardest thing of all is hurting others, which one is forced to do if one wants to live (2: 692)]. Notably Indras daughter is named Agnes (echoing agnus, the figure of Christ as the Lamb of God). Sacred beliefs are woven together following the principle of his painting in combining an exoteric beliefthe Christian tradition familiar to his Swedish audienceand an esoteric beliefthe foreign eastern tradition that Strindberg had turned to during his Inferno years. Similarly the play is built on a double journey structure: an exoteric journey, depicting the plight of pitiful mankind, and the esoteric journey, depicting the process of imaginative creation. Strindbergs phrase concerning the path of his sleepwalking designates an internal journey through the creative process. Following this concept, the dream is art, and the sleepwalkers path is the journey of the imagination where, as the playwright explains in the well-known foreword to the play text,
allt kan ske, allt r mjligt och sannolikt. Tid och rum existera icke; p en obetydlig verklighetsgrund spinner inbillningen ut och vver nya mnster: en blandning av minnen, upplevelser, fria phitt, orimligheter och improvisationer. Personerna klyvas, frdubblas, dubbleras, dunsta av, frttas, flyta ut, samlas. Men ett medvetande str ver alla, det r drmmarens;

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fr det finns inga hemligheter, ingen inkonsekvens, inga skrupler, ingen lag. (Strindberg, Ett drmspel 7) everything can happen, everything is possible and probable. Time and place do not exist; on an insignificant basis of reality the imagination spins and weaves new patterns: a blend of memories, experiences, spontaneous ideas, absurdities, and improvisations. The characters split, double, multiply, evaporate, condense, disperse, and converge. But one consciousness holds sway over them all, that of the dreamer. (176)

While also intrinsically musical, Strindberg urged the plays director, Victor Castegren, att frhandla om sttet att gra drmmen till bild utan att materialisera den fr mycket (Strindberg, ppna Brev 232) [(to) transform the drama into visual representation without materializing it too much (293)], even if this was not realized in the production. As in the majority of his paintings, Strindberg uses a framing device, specifying paintings hanging on either side of the stage as part of the set in conjunction with the proscenium arch above. This framing establishes the importance of the series of frames throughout the work, and significantly after completing his script, Strindberg refers to the play, as Meyer points out, as a dream picture (432; see also Rutherford, passim). This integration of painterly perspectives with musical formatting in the dramatic structurewhich has also been repeatedly mentioned with reference to Ett drmspelis so aesthetically radical that Castegren ignored it in his production, and no critic realized it during Strindbergs lifetime. It is a form of Gesamtkunstwerk very different from Wagners: buried in subtext, effectively abstract and subjective, appealing to artistic sensitivity, rather than the melding of overt artistic forms. Similarly, Till Damaskus I (1898; To Damascus I) extended Strindbergs modernist abstraction through its unitary and symbolic characterization together with its contrapuntal structure to present a completely subjective world. The title image of the trilogy, of course, is the Biblical Saul of Tarsus and his spiritual illumination on the road to Damascus, while the structure reproduces the Stations of the Cross in part one with a pattern of scenes leading up to the insane asylum, then repeating the scenes in reverse order to arrive back at the street corner where the play began. This geometric format complements the plays use of universalized characterization, in which none of the figures have personal names. The central figure of the Unknown (or the Stranger), an author who doubts his life has any more reality than his own writings, is clearly autobiographical. The Invisible One and his unseen powers, whom the

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Unknown challenges in his aim to free mankind from suffering, are all projections of his mind, while the Lady, simultaneously redemptive and destructive of the male spirit, whom he names Eve, is also on another level representative of Strindbergs wives: Siri von Essen and Frieda Uhl in the first parts of the trilogy, Harriet Bosse in the third. Other characters stand for alternate or auxiliary egos, and in the asylum scene all the figures are refracted yet again, with the Unknown recognizing the Beggar, the Lady and the Mother in different lunatics, and himself in a megalomaniac who believes he is Caesar. Salvation is the recognition by the Unknown that his antagonists are aspects of himself, coupled with an act of will by the artist, transforming this enclosed and regressive internal world through the act of creative imagination:
Detta r att leva! Ja, nu lever jag, just nu! och jag knner mitt jag svlla, strcka ut sig, frtunnas, bli ondligt: jag r ver allt, i havet som r mitt blod, i fjllen som ro mitt skelett, i trden, i blommorna; och mitt huvud rcker upp i himlen, jag ser ut ver universum som r jag, och jag knner skaparens hela kraft i mig, ty det r jag. (Strindberg, Till Damaskus 65) This is life ... I feel myself swell and stretch, rarefy, become boundless; I am everywhere, in the sea which is my blood, in the mountains which are my skeleton, in the trees, in the flowers. And my head reaches to heaven. I look over the Universe which is, I feel the strength of the Creator within me, for I am the Creator. (2: 58)

Et drmspel also presents subjective time, returning to its beginning, where the chrysanthemum of spiritual transcendence, bursting into bloom in the final scene, is already beginning to unfold in the opening dialogue:
dottern: Det borde vl blomma snart efter som vi ro frbi midsommar? glasmstaren: Ser du icke blomman droppe? (9)
daughter: Wont it flower soon? Were past midsummer. glazier: Dont you see the flower up there? (2: 186)

Again the form mirrors the vision with the elliptical effect being a hallucinatory foreshortening designed to echo the nature of dreams; and (explicitly in the character of a Poet) the central topic is just as much about artistic creation and the subjective nature of our surroundings as Till Damaskus. Recurrence, the subconscious, and artistic creativity are intertwined in this key dialogue:
diktaren: Mig tyckes att jag upplevat detta frr ...

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dottern: Mig ven! diktaren: Kanske jag drmt det? dottern: Eller diktat det, kanske? diktaren: Eller diktat det! dottern: D vet du vad dikt r! diktaren: D vet jag vad drm r! dottern: Mig tyckes att vi sttt ngon annanstans och sagt dessa ord frr! diktaren: D kan du snart rkna ut vad verklighet r! dottern: Eller drm! diktaren: Eller dikt! (Strindberg, Ett drmspel 1012)
poet: I think I have seen this before ... daughter: Then you know what poetry is. poet: Then I know what dreaming is. daughter: I feel we stood somewhere else and spoke these words. poet: Then you can soon work out what reality is. daughter: Or dreaming. poet: Or poetry. (2: 243)

In outlining the ways autobiographical elements have been transmuted into symbols through the prism of subliminal contrasts and connections, the well-known authors note illuminates the principles of intensification and condensation through which what Strindberg defines as a pattern of consciousness (by clear implication superior to the logical perceptions of the waking world) have been created. Yet, as the Daughter reveals, the identification of poetry, dreams, and reality is carried through the play by echoing the prologue that features Indra (whom Strindberg added to Ett drmspel in order to make explicit his Inferno-motivated search into Hindu and Eastern religions) and by repeating his diary entry for the day he finished writing the play, it is den gudomliga urmnets (Ett drmspel 115) [the divine primal force (2: 628)] that ultimately creates the vision of life. In these terms all reality is illusory, since life is Indras dream in which men are no more than phantoms, while as the final imagery of flame and flower affirms, dden verkligen r uppvaknandet (Strindberg, Brev 14:150) [death really is the awakening (Meyer 431)]. This intense subjectivity together with the theme of spiritual transcendence and emotional release projected in a form that echoed its material and rejected the rational logic of cause and effect or consequences was designed to attract the subliminal minds of the audience by merging spectators imaginatively and emotionally into the onstage imagery and action. All this was extraordinarily radical at the time. Its dramatic

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abstraction echoed and indeed prefigured developments in other arts that expressed modernity, such as cubism. It also directly fostered the rise of expressionist drama, as I have argued elsewhere (Innes 3757). Productions of his plays became a natural focus for avant-garde rejections of society since the standard turn-of-the-twentieth-century critics of the time attacked Strindberg. Comments made in The New York Times illustrate that even a newspaper of the day at a significant cultural distance from Strindberg did not escape participating in the general critical denigration of the playwright as unpleasant beyond expression and suffering from abysmal pessimism (Foreign Plays for Pessimists); incarnating all that is most hideous; all that is most deadly; all that is most terrifying to the human soul (L.H.W.); whose plays are horrible and revolting in ... coarse infamy with characters a very synthesis of Nordaus degenerates (August Strindberg: The Heresies); and even when praising his work, prefacing it with a subheading like: How he would reform the stage by making theatre-going a torture and striving to prove in plays that all the world is evil (Strindbergs Odd Views). Automatically seen as subversive, then, the qualities of Strindbergs plays that would be picked up and formed into artistic modernism were borrowed enthusiastically by the German expressionists as much for their political implications as for their aesthetic radicalism. Expressionism (a label supplied by the German dramatist and poet, Walter Hasenclever) became the style of choice for young radicals, even those wholike Bertolt Brecht, Eugene ONeill, or T.S. Eliotwould subsequently change or develop very different dramatic approaches. And the direct impact of Strindberg on this radical theater can be clearly seen. For instance, the Stations of the Cross from Till Damaskus were to become a clich of expressionist drama, while significantly Strindbergs model of inverted repetition used in structuring the play was copied by Tom Stoppard in Artist Descending a Staircase (1972), a play focusing on the European avant-garde. Strindbergs radical influence extends almost the whole of the twentieth century. Subjectivity promoted the primacy of the individual (against the hegemony of society); the projection of emotion involved spectators on a new level of intensity (both denying the validity of rationalism the defining quality of nineteenth-century Europeand potentially gaining converts to the cause); abstraction was a way of universalizing messages, gaining wide relevance (while also a tool against censorship); and the primacy of the artist in Strindbergs later plays lent authority to

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visions that through the 1920s became increasingly political rather than spiritual (at the same time as providing escape from repressive morality). All these modernist artistic principles were not only radical, but in the hands of those playwrights Strindberg inspired, revolutionary.

Works Cited
August Strindberg: The Heresies with Which His Disciples Would Terrify Us Amount But to a Little Sawdust and Excelsior. New York Times 22 Sep. 1912: 513. Balzamo, Elena. De bon usage de la misogynie. August Strindberg et les femmes. Paris: Centre culturel sudois, 2000. 2534. Chekhov, Anton. Ivanov: Six Plays of Chekhov. Trans. Robert W. Corrigan. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1979. 362. Foreign Plays for Pessimists: Not Much of the Joy of Life Shown in These Two Dramas From Russia and Sweden. New York Times 23 May 1908: 295. Fraisse, Genevive. La Misogynie de Strindberg: Entre Politique et Metaphysique. Les nouveaux espaces politiques: Actes de la table ronde de lU.R.A. 1394, philosophie politique, conomique et sociale, anne 19901991. Eds. Georges Labica and Nicole Beaurain. Paris: LHarmattan, 1995. 7485. Holm, Ingvar. On the Road to Damascus: Strindberg as a Painter. August Strindberg and the Other: New Critical Approaches. Eds. Poul Houe, Sven Hakon Rossel, and Gran Stockenstrm. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2002. 6975. Ibsen, Henrik. Et dukkehjem. Eds. Francis Bull, Halvdan Koht, and Didrik Arup Seip. Henrik Ibsens Samlede Verker Hundrersutgave. Vol. 8. Oslo: Gyldendal, 1933. 245476. _____. A Dolls House. Plays: Two. Trans. Michael Meyer. London: Methuen Drama, 2000. _____. Kejser og Galiler. Eds. Francis Bull, Halvdan Koht, and Didrik Arup Seip. Henrik Ibsens Samlede Verker Hundrersutgave. Vol. 7. Oslo: Gyldendal, 1929. _____. Emperor and Galilean. Plays: Five. Trans. Michael Meyer. London: Methuen Drama, 2000. _____. Fruen fra havet. Eds. Francis Bull, Halvdan Koht, and Didrik Arup Seip. Henrik Ibsens Samlede Verker Hundrersutgave. Vol. 11. Oslo: Gyldendal, 1934. 9260. _____. The Lady from the Sea. Plays: Three. Trans. Michael Meyer. London: Methuen Drama, 2000. _____. Gengangere. Eds. Francis Bull, Halvdan Koht, and Didrik Arup Seip. Henrik Ibsens Samlede Verker Hundrersutgave. Vol. 4. Oslo: Gyldendal, 1941. 7176. _____. Ghosts. Plays: Two. Trans. Michael Meyer. London: Methuen Drama, 2000. Innes, Christopher. Holy Theatre: Ritual and the Avant Garde. Cambridge: Cambridge up, 1981. Jarry, Alfred. Ubu roi: Drame en cinq actes en prose restitu en son intgrit tel quil a t reprsent par les marionnettes du Thtre des Phynances en 1888. Paris: Mercure de France, 1896. L.H.W. New Strindberg Plays: The Swedish Dramatists Introduced to American Readers in Three Dramas Showing Him as Realist and Symbolist. New York Times 3 Mar. 1912: sec. 6, 1. L.K. Miss Julia in Paris: Effect of the Performance by Antoine at the Theatre Libre. New York Times 5 Feb. 1893: 13.

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