THE PENGUINES A. Distribution All 17 species of penguins live in the Southern Hemisphere. B. Habitat 1.

Penguins generally live on islands and remote continental regions that are free of land predators, where their inability to fly is not detrimental to their survival. 2. These highly specialized marine birds are adapted to living at sea. Some species spend as much as 75% of their lives at sea. They usually are found near nutrient-rich, cold-water currents that provide an abundant supply of food (Ainley, et al., 1983). 3. Penguin species are found on every continent in the Southern Hemisphere. They are abundant on many temperate and subantarctic islands. Different species thrive in varying climates, ranging from Galapagos penguins on tropical islands at the equator to emperor penguins restricted to the pack ice of Antarctica (Sparks and Soper, 1987). 4. The seasonal changes of the Southern Hemisphere are opposite those of the Northern Hemisphere. While continents above the equator experience spring and summer, the areas below the equator experience fall and winter.

C. Migration. 1. Penguins generally do not migrate great distances. They tend to disperse from breeding rookeries to feed in nearby coastal waters (Sparks and Soper, 1987). 2. Young birds usually disperse when they leave their colonies, and may wander thousands of kilometers (Marchant, 1990). They generally return to the colonies where they were hatched to molt and breed (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). D. Population 1. Population data usually are gathered during the breeding season. Some researchers count chicks to estimate the total population, others count breeding pairs. The Appendix lists population estimates by species. 2. Chinstrap penguins may be the most numerous, with a population estimated at 6.5 million breeding pairs

Physical Characteristics
A. Size 1. The emperor penguin is the largest of all living penguins, standing 1.1 m (3.7 ft.) and weighing 27 to 41 kg (60-90 lb.). 2. The smallest of the penguins is the fairy penguin, standing just 41 cm (16 in.) and weighing about 1 kg (2.2 lb.). For a complete listing of sizes by species, see the Appendix. B. Body shape 1 .The penguin body is fusiform and streamlined, adapted for swimming (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). A penguin has a large head, short neck, and elongated body. 2. The tail is short and wedge-shaped (Marchant, 1990). 3. The legs and webbed feet are set far back on the body, which causes penguins to stand upright when on land (Marchant, 1990). C. Coloration 1. All adult penguins are countershaded; that is they are dark on their dorsal (back) surfaces and white on their ventral (underside) surfaces. The dark dorsal side blends in with the dark ocean depths when viewed from above. The light ventral side blends in with the lighter surface of the sea when viewed from below. The result is that predators or prey do not see a contrast between the countershaded animal and the environment. 2. Many species have distinct markings and coloration. a. The emperor has a black head, chin, and throat with broad yellow ear patches on the sides of the head (Marchant, 1990).

b. The king penguin has a black head, chin, and throat with vivid orange, tear-shaped ear patches. The orange coloration extends to the upper chest (Marchant, 1990). c. The Adlie has a black head. Distinctive white eye rings appear during the breeding season (Marchant, 1990). d. The gentoo has a black head with white eyelids, and a distinct triangular white patch above each eye, usually extending over the head (Marchant, 1990). e. The top of a chinstrap's head is black and the face is white, with a stripe of black extending under the chin. f. The crested penguins (genus Eudyptes), such as the rockhopper and macaroni, are distinguished by orange or yellow feather crests on the sides of the head, above the eyes. g. The yellow-eyed penguin, as its name suggests, has yellow eyes and a stripe of pale yellow feathers extending over its dark head. h. The fairy penguin, also known as the little blue, has slate-blue to black feathers and a white chin and chest. i. Temperate penguins (genus Spheniscus), such as the Humboldt and Magellanic, have unfeathered fleshy areas on the face and one or two distinct black stripes across the chest. 3. Chicks, juveniles, and immature penguins may have slightly different markings than adults. Generally, they appear more drab. Adult markings take a year or longer to develop.

Adult penguins are countershaded; that is they are dark on their dorsal (back) surfaces and white on their ventral (underside) surfaces. Picture here are Adlie penguins. D. Flippers Wings are modified into paddlelike flippers. The bones are much flattened and, broadened, with the joint of elbow and wrist almost fused. This forms a rigid, tapered, and flat flipper for swimming (Marchant, 1990). Each flipper is covered with short, scale-like feathers. The long wing feathers typical of most birds would be too flexible for swimming through water (Sparks and Soper, 1987). E. Head

1 . Different species of penguins can be identified by their head and facial markings. 2. Penguins have a variety of bill shapes which are used to capture fish, squid, and crustaceans. Generally, the bill tends to be long and thin in species that are primarily fish eaters, but shorter and stouter in those that mainly feed on krill (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). The mouth is lined with horny, rear-directed spines to aid in swallowing live prey (Marchant, 1990). 3. Eyes. a. The color of irises varies among the species. (1) Many species have brown, reddish-brown, or golden-brown eyes. (2) Rockhopper and macaroni penguins have red eyes. (3) Fairy (little blue) penguins have bluish-gray eyes. (4) As their name implies, yellow-eyed penguins have yellow eyes (Marchant, 1990). b. The pupil of a penguin eye is circular. When constricted, however, the pupil of the king penguin is square (Welty, 1982). c. Like many animals, penguins have a nictitating membrane, sometimes called a third eyelid. This is a clear covering that protects the eye from injury. F. Legs and feet 1. Penguin legs are short and strong. Feet are webbed, with visible claws. The legs are set far back on the body to aid in streamlining and steering while swimming. This placement also causes penguins to stand vertically and walk upright (Marchant, 1990). 2. Penguins walk with short steps or hops, sometimes using their bills or tails to assist themselves on steep climbs (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). The maximum walking speed for Adlie penguins is 3.9 kph (2.4 mph). Emperors and kings walk slowly and do not hop. The maximum speed for emperors is 2.8 kph (1.7 mph). Some species, like the rockhopper, jump from rock to rock (Miller-Schwarze, 1984; del Hoyo, et al., 1992). 3. Antarctic species can move much faster over ice by "tobogganing" on their bellies, using their flippers and feet to help them move along (Simpson, 1976). G. Tail The tail is short and wedge-shaped, with 14 to 18 stiff tail feathers. Members of the genus Pygoscelis have longer tail feathers, which they often use as a prop when on land (Marchant, 1990).

Shiny, waterproof feathers overlap to cover a penguin's skin. H. Feathers 1. Shiny feathers uniformly overlap to cover a penguin's skin (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). Feathers are highly specialized-short, broad, and closely spaced, helping to keep water away from the skin. Tufts of down on the feather shafts contribute to the insulative properties of the feathers. 2. Penguins have more feathers than most other birds, with about 70 feathers per square inch. 3. Most penguin species go through one complete molt (shed their feathers) each year, usually after the breeding season. The exception is the Galapagos penguin, which usually goes through two molts annually (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). a. Molting is an essential function, as feathers wear out during the year. Feathers become worn when penguins rub against each other, come in contact with the ground and water, and regularly preen (clean, rearrange, and oil) their feathers (Sparks and Soper, 1987). b. The new feather grows under the old one, pushing it out. The old feather does not fall out until the new one is completely in place. The molt is patchy and can give individual penguins a scruffy look (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). c. During the molt, feathers lose some of their insulating and waterproofing capabilities, and penguins stay out of the water until their plumage is restored to optimum condition (del Hoyo, et al., 1992; Sparks and Soper, 1987). d. Depending on the species, the average length of the molt varies from 13 days for the Galapagos penguin to 34 for the emperor penguin (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). e. Because penguins don't enter the water to feed during a molt, they fast. Before their molt, they build a fat layer, which provides energy until the molt is over (del Hoyo, et al., 1992).

1 . Generally, penguins are not sexually dimorphic; males and females look alike. Crested penguins are exceptions: the males are more robust and have larger bills (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). 2. During the breeding season, female penguins are sometimes identifiable by muddy footprints on their backs, left by males during mating activity.

Sexual Dimorphism
1 . Generally, penguins are not sexually dimorphic; males and females look alike. Crested penguins are exceptions: the males are more robust and have larger bills (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). 2. During the breeding season, female penguins are sometimes identifiable by muddy footprints on their backs, left by males during mating activity. A penguin's eyes are adapted for underwater vision. In air, penguins are nearsighted
A. Swimming 1 .Some penguin species spend as much as 75% of their lives in the sea. Some species spend several months at a time at sea, only coming ashore for breeding and molting (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). The Fiordland crested penguins sometimes grow barnacles on their tails, an indication that they are at sea for long periods (Muller-Schwarze, 1984). 2. Swimming speeds generally are not well known (Kooyman, 1975). Earlier estimates of swimming speeds were taken from observations of penguins swimming alongside moving ships, a method that proved to be unreliable (Croxall and Davis, 1990). The fastest swimmers belong to the genus Aptenodytes. Emperors have been observed swimming 14.4 kph (8.9 mph), though they normally do not exceed 10.8 kph (6.7 mph). Both kings and chinstraps have been recorded at 8.6 kph (5.3 mph), Adlies at 7.9 kph (4.9 mph), and fairy penguins at 2.5 kph (1.6 mph) (del Hoyo, et al., 19921- Marchant, 1990).

3. To maintain streamlining with least resistance while swimming under water, a penguin keeps its head hunched into its shoulders. The feet are pressed close to the body against the tail to aid in steering (Marchant, 1990). 4. Penguin wings are paddlelike flippers used for swimming. The motion of the flippers resembles the wing movements of flying birds, giving penguins the appearance of flying through the water (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). The wing and breast muscles are well developed, to propel the penguins through water, a medium much denser than air (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). 5. Having solid, dense bones helps penguins overcome buoyancy (Simpson, 1976). 6. Although it is more energy efficient for penguins to swim under water than at the water surface, they must come to the surface to breathe. They compromise by "porpoising" - leaping in and out of the water, like dolphins or porpoises (Sparks and Soper, 1987). a. They are able to continue breathing without interrupting forward momentum. They can maintain a steady speed of 7 to 10 kph (4.3-6.2 mph). Porpoising also may confuse predators (Sparks and Soper, 1987; del Hoyo, et al., 1992). b. Not all species exhibit porpoising. Emperors are not known to porpoise, and this behavior is infrequent in kings and members of the genus Spheniscus, but common in other penguins (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). B. Diving 1. Most prey of penguins inhabit the upper water layers, so most penguins generally do not have to dive to great depths or for long periods (Moller-Schwarze, 1984). a. Most species stay submerged less than a minute, but gentoo and Adlie penguins have been recorded staying under water for seven minutes (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). b. Chinstraps can reach depths of 70 m (230 ft.), but most dives are less than 45 m (148 ft.). Nearly half are less than 10 m (33 ft.), and last between 20 and 30 seconds (Sparks and Soper, 1987). 2. Studies using radio tracking and automatic depth recorders reveal that emperor penguins sometimes hunt at great depths (Sparks and Soper, 1987). a. Emperors hunt fast midwater squids and fishes and therefore tend to dive more deeply and remain submerged longer than other penguins (Sparks and Soper, 1987). b. The deepest dive recorded for an emperor penguin was 535 m (1,755 ft.). The longest recorded dive for an emperor was 21 minutes. Both of these measurements are considered extremes; most dives are within 21 m (70 ft.) of the surface and last two to eight minutes. (Kooyman, pers. comm., Sparks and Soper, 1987; Simpson, 1976; del Hoyo, et al., 1992). 3. During deep dives, the penguin heart rate slows. a. Adlie and gentoo penguins reduce their heart rate from 80 to 100 beats per minute (bpm) to about 20 bpm (Muller-Schwarze, 1984). b. The heart rate of a diving emperor penguin is about 15% lower than its resting heart rate (Kooyman, 1992). 4. Under experimental diving conditions, penguins exhibit reduced peripheral blood flow (Scholander, 1940). The extent of blood redistribution during deep dives in penguins is still unknown (Ponganis and Kooyman, 1990). C. Respiration When swimming, penguins inhale and exhale rapidly at the surface (Simpson, 1976). D. Salt secretion Like other seabirds, penguins have glands in the bill that help rid the body of excess salt. The secretion of salt and fluid often collect as droplets on the bill and are shaken off. These glands are so effective that penguins can drink sea water without ill effects (Simpson, 1976). E. Sleep 1 . A penguin sleeps with its bill tucked behind a flipper, which some sources believe serves no known purpose in penguins, but is a remnant of ancestral relations to

flighted birds (Sparks and Soper, 1987). Other researchers believe the behavior may reduce the amount of heat lost through the face, particularly the nostrils (Campbell and Lack, 1985). 2. To conserve energy while fasting, penguins may increase the time they spend sleeping (Davis and Darby, 1990). 3. During the antarctic winter, when the period of darkness may last more than 20 hours, huddling emperor penguins incubating eggs may spend most of a 24-hour period sleeping (Groscolas, 1990).

To release excess heat, penguins may hold their flippers away from their bodies, so both surfaces of the flippers are exposed to air. F. Thermoregulation 1 . The internal temperature range of penguins is 37.8C to 38.9C (100F-102F) (Simpson, 1976). 2. Overlapping feathers create a surface practically impenetrable to wind or water. Feathers provide waterproofing critical to penguins' survival in water that may be as cold as -2.2C (28F) in the Antarctic. Tufts of down on shafts below the feathers trap air. This layer of air provides 80% to 84% of the thermal insulation for penguins (Muller-Schwarze, 1984; Sparks and Soper, 1987). The layer of trapped air is compressed during dives and can dissipate after prolonged diving. Penguins rearrange their feathers by preening (Moller-Schwarze, 1984). 3. To conserve heat, penguins may tuck in their flippers close to their bodies. They also may shiver to generate additional heat (Marchant, 1990). 4. A well defined fat layer improves insulation in cold water, but probably is not enough to keep body temperature stable at sea for long. Penguins must remain active while in water to generate body heat (Sparks and Soper, 1987). 5. Species in colder climates tend to have longer feathers and thicker fat than those in warmer climates (Simpson, 1976). 6. The dark plumage of a penguin's dorsal surface absorbs heat from the sun, which increases body temperature (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). 7. On land, king and emperor penguins tip up their feet, and rest their entire weight on the heels and tail, reducing contact with the icy surface (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). 8. Emperor penguins huddle together to conserve heat (Simpson, 1976). As many as 6,000 males will cluster while incubating eggs during the middle of the antarctic winter (Sparks and Soper, 1987). 9. Emperor penguins are able to recapture 80% of heat escaping in their breath through a complex heat exchange system in their nasal passages (Sparks and Soper, 1987). 10. On land, overheating may sometimes be a problem. a. Penguins may prevent overheating by moving into shaded areas and by panting (Marchant, 1990).

b. Penguins can ruffle their feathers, breaking up the insulating air layer next to the skin and releasing heat (Sparks and Soper, 1987). c. If a penguin is too warm, it holds its flippers away from its body, so both surfaces of the flippers are exposed to air, releasing heat (Sparks and Soper, 1987). d. Temperate species, like the Humboldt and African penguins, lack feathers on their legs and have bare patches on their faces. Excess heat can dissipate through these areas (Sparks and Soper, 1987). 11. A penguin's circulatory system adjusts to conserve or release body heat to maintain body temperature. a. To conserve heat, blood flowing to the flippers and legs transfers its heat to blood returning to the heart. This countercurrent heat exchange helps ensure that heat remains in the body (Brooke and Birkhead, 1991). b. If the body becomes too warm, blood vessels in the skin dilate, bringing heat from within the body to the surface, where it is dissipated

The elephant Update: The riverside research station of Iain Douglas-Hamilton, Save the Elephants, in northern Kenya, was destroyed on the morning of March 4, 2010 by a flash flood, which resulted from a storm many miles upstream. Although no one was killed, due to hasty evacuation, buildings and equipment were wrecked, computers and cameras were washed away, and some precious data were lost. The nearby tourist camp of Douglas-Hamilton's wife Oria, Elephant Watch, and seven other lodges were also devastated. Readers who wish to help the rebuilding effort can do so through the website savetheelephants.org. The biologist Iain Douglas-Hamilton is walking up on an elephant, a sizable young female, nubile and shy. Her name, as she's known to him and his colleagues, is Anne. She stands half-concealed within a cluster of trees on the knob of a hill in remote northern Kenya, browsing tranquilly with several members of her family. Around her neck hangs a stout leather collar along which, at the crest of her shoulders, like a tiny porkpie hat, sits an electronic transmitter. That transmitter has allowed Douglas-Hamilton, flying in by Cessna, proceeding here on foot through the tall grass and acacia scrub, to find her. Crouching now, he approaches upwind to within 30 yards. Anne gobbles some more leaves. She's oblivious to him, or maybe just not interested. Elephants can be dangerous animals. They are excitable, complex, and sometimes violently defensive. Douglas-Hamilton is a world-renowned expert who has studied them for 40 years. Don't try this at home. He wants a clear look at the collar. He has heard reports that it may be too tightthat she has grown into it since having been tranquilizer-darted, fitted, and thus recruited as a source of research data. Ordinarily, Douglas-Hamilton does his elephant-watching more cautiously, from the safe

containment of a Land Cruiser, but no vehicle can drive this terrain, and Anne's comfort and health are at issue. The collar should hang loose, with a dangling counterweight below. He wants to be sure that Anne's isn't snugged up to her throat like a noose. But at present, amid the thicket, she's showing him only her imperious elephantine butt. So he creeps closer. Three other men lag back. One is David Daballen, a bright young Samburu protg of DouglasHamilton's, who often accompanies the boss on missions like this. The second man is a local guide holding a Winchester .308 rifle. The third is me. As we watch Douglas-Hamilton edging forward, we notice another female elephant, a big one, probably the group's matriarch, sidling around craftily on his right flank. We duck low to escape the matriarch's view. We freeze. As this female comes on, suspicious and challenging, Douglas-Hamilton seems unconcerned with her, but Daballen begins to look nervous. He is calculating (he'll tell me later) how fast an elephant might be able to charge across such a rocky, rubble-strewn slope. Then the big female commits herself to a sequence of gestures suggesting nonchalance, if not outright contempt: She pisses torrentially, she defecates galumphingly, and she turns away. Anne herself swings daintily out of the brush. She steps toward Douglas-Hamilton. The gap between them is 50 feet. For a few seconds the young female graces him with a frontal view of her large forehead, her flappy ears, her pretty tusks, as though posing for beauty shots in the glow of a flash. She gives him a profile. He raises his camera and clicks off several frames. Then she too turns and ambles away. Through his lens, in those seconds, he has seen that the collar hangs just as it should. The alarm was a false one. Anne is in no dangeror anyway, no danger of chafing or choking. As we withdraw, circling back toward our vehicle, I think: So that's how it's done. Show a little caution, a little respect, get the information you need, back off. And everybody is happy. After four decades Douglas-Hamilton knows this species about as well as anyone in Africa. He has a keen sense, well earned by field study and sharpened by love, of the individuality of the animalstheir volatile moods, their subtle signals, their range of personalities and impulses. Nothing about his interaction with Anne has prepared me for the moment, some weeks later, when I'll watch him charged, caught, thrown, and nearly tusked through the gut by an elephant. SOON WE'RE ALOFT again in Douglas-Hamilton's Cessna, flying low over the contours of the landscape. It's his preferred style, flying low; why go up a thousand feet when you can caress the topography? So we rise and descend gently over the rocky slopes, the ridges, the dry acacia plains,

the sand rivers, returning northeast toward a place called Samburu National Reserve. Just beyond the reserve sits a gravel airstrip and, not far from that, his field camp. We'll be home before dark. Samburu National Reserve is one of the little known jewels of northern Kenya, taking its name from the proud tribe of warriors and pastoralists in which David Daballen, among others, has his roots. The reserve is a relatively small area, just 65 square miles of semiarid savanna, rough highlands, dry washes (known locally as luggas), and riparian forests of acacia and doom palm along the north bank of the Ewaso Ngiro River. Lacking paved roads, sparsely surrounded by Samburu herders, it teems with wildlife. There are lions, leopards, and cheetahs, of course, but also Grevy's zebras, reticulated giraffes, beisa oryx, gerenuks, Somali ostriches, kori bustards, and a high diversity of showy smaller birds such as wattled starlings, pin-tailed whydahs, and lilac-breasted rollers. But the dominant creatures are the elephants. They play a major role in shaping the ecosystem itselfstripping bark from trees or uprooting them, keeping the savanna open. They intimidate even the lions. They come and go across the boundaries of the reserve, using it as a safe haven from human-related dangers in a much larger and more ambivalent landscape.

Elephants are the largest living terrestrial animals. African elephants stand 3 4 m (1013 ft) and weigh 4,0007,000 kg (8,80015,000 lb) while Asian elephants stand 23.5 m (711 ft) and weigh 3,000 [10] [11][14] 5,000 kg (6,60011,000 lb). In both cases, males are larger than females. Among African [18] elephants, the forest form is smaller than the savannah form. The skeleton of the elephant is made up [50] of 326351 bones. The vertebrae are connected by tight joints, which limit the backbone's flexibility. [51] African elephants have 21 pairs of ribs, while Asian elephants have 19 or 20 pairs. An elephant's skull is resilient enough to withstand the forces generated by the leverage of the tusks and head-to-head collisions. The back of the skull is flattened and spread out, creating arches that protect the [52] brain in every direction. The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength. These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance. The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the [50] entire head. The lower jaw is solid and heavy. Because of the size of the head, the neck is relatively [39] short to provide better support. Lacking a lacrimal apparatus, the eye relies on the harderian gland to keep it moist. A durable nictitating membrane protects the eye globe. The animal's field of vision is [53] compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes. Elephants are [54] [55] considered dichromats and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light. The body temperature averages 35.9C (97F), similar to a human. Like a camel, an elephant can raise or lower its [56] temperature a few degrees from the average in response to extreme environmental conditions.

Ears
Elephant ears have thick bases with thin tips. The ear flaps, or pinnae, contain numerous blood vessels called capillaries. Warm blood flows into the capillaries, helping to release excess body heat into the

environment. This occurs when the pinnae are still, and the animal can enhance the effect by flapping them. Larger ear surfaces contain more capillaries, and more heat can be released. Of all the elephants, [57] African bush elephants live in the hottest climates, and have the largest ear flaps. Elephants are [58] capable of hearing at low frequencies and are most sensitive at 1 kHz.

Trunk
The trunk, or proboscis, is a fusion of the nose and upper lip, although in early fetal life, the upper lip and [39] trunk are separated. The trunk is elongated and specialised to become the elephant's most important and versatile appendage. It contains up to 150,000 separate muscle fascicles, with no bone and little fat. These paired muscles consist of two major types: superficial (surface) and internal. The former are divided into dorsals, ventrals andlaterals, while the latter are divided into transverse and radiating muscles. The muscles of the trunk connect to a bony opening in the skull. The nasal septum is composed of tiny muscle units that stretch horizontally between the nostrils. [59] Cartilage divides the nostrils at the base. As a muscular hydrostat, the trunk moves by precisely coordinated muscle contractions. The muscles work both with and against each other. A unique proboscis [60] nerve formed by the maxillary and facial nerves runs along both sides of the trunk.

African elephant with its trunk raised, a behaviour often adopted when trumpeting

Elephant trunks have multiple functions, including breathing, olfaction, touching, grasping, and sound [39] [61] production. The animal's sense of smell may be four times as sensitive as that of a bloodhound. The trunk's ability to make powerful twisting and coiling movements allows it to collect food, wrestle [62] [39] with conspecifics, and lift up to 350 kg (770 lb). It can be used for delicate tasks, such as wiping an [62] eye and checking an orifice, and is capable of cracking a peanut shell without breaking the [39] seed. With its trunk, an elephant can reach items at heights of up to 7 m (23 ft) and dig for water under [62] mud or sand. Individuals may show lateral preference when grasping with their trunks: some prefer to [60] twist them to the left, others to the right. Elephants can suck up water both to drink and to spray on [39] their bodies. An adult Asian elephant is capable of holding 8.5 L (2.2 US gal) of water in its [59] [39] trunk. They will also spray dust or grass on themselves. When underwater, the elephant uses its [41] trunk as a snorkel. The African elephant has two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk that allow it to grasp and bring food to its mouth. The Asian elephant has only one, and relies more on wrapping around a food item and [10] squeezing it into its mouth. Asian elephants have more muscle coordination and can perform more [59] [39] complex tasks. Losing the trunk would be detrimental to an elephant's survival, although in rare cases individuals have survived with shortened ones. One elephant has been observed to graze by [59] kneeling on its front legs, raising on its hind legs and taking in grass with its lips. Floppy trunk

syndrome is a condition of trunk paralysis in African bush elephants caused by the degradation of [63] the peripheral nerves and muscles beginning at the tip.

Teeth
Closeup of the cheek teeth of a dead juvenile bush elephant

Elephants usually have 26 teeth: the incisors, known as the tusks, 12 deciduous premolars, and 12 molars. Unlike most mammals, which grow baby teeth and then replace them with a single permanent set of adult teeth, elephants have cycles of tooth rotation throughout their lives. The chewing teeth are replaced six times in a typical elephant's lifetime. Teeth are not replaced by new ones emerging from the jaws vertically as in most mammals. Instead, new teeth grow in at the back of the mouth and move forward to push out the old ones, similar to a conveyor belt. The first chewing tooth on each side of the jaw falls out when the elephant is two to three years old. The second set of chewing teeth falls out when the elephant is four to six years old. The third set is lost at 9 15 years of age, and set four lasts until 18 28 years of age. The fifth set of teeth lasts until the elephant is in its early 40s. The sixth (and usually final) set must last the elephant the rest of its life. Elephant teeth have loop-shaped dental ridges, which [64] are thicker and more diamond-shaped in African elephants.

Tusks

Asian elephant debarking a tree with its tusks

The tusks of an elephant are modified incisors in the upper jaw. They replace deciduous milk teeth when the animal reaches 612 months of age and grow continuously at about 17 cm (7 in) a year. A newly developed tusk has a smooth enamel cap that eventually wears off. The dentine is known as ivory and its cross-sectionconsists of crisscrossing line patterns, known as "engine turning", which create diamondshaped areas. As a piece of living tissue, a tusk is relatively soft; it is as hard as the mineral calcite. Much of the incisor can be seen externally, while the rest is fastened to a socket in the skull. At least one-third of the tusk contains the pulp and some have nerves stretching to the tip. As such it would be difficult to remove it without harming the animal. When removed, ivory begins to dry up and crack if not kept cool and moist. Tusks serve multiple purposes. They are used for digging for water, salt, and roots; debarking or marking trees; and for moving trees and branches when clearing a path. When fighting, they are used [65] to attack and defend, and to protect the trunk.

Like humans, who are typically right- or left-handed, elephants are usually right- or left-tusked. The dominant tusk, called the master tusk, is generally more worn down, as it is shorter with a rounder tip. For the African elephants, tusks are present in both males and females, and are around the same length in [65] [66] both sexes, reaching up to 3 m (10 ft), but those of males tend to be thicker. In the Asian species, [65] only the males have large tusks. Female Asians have very small ones, or none at all. Tuskless males [67] exist and are particularly common among Sri Lankan elephants. Asian males can have tusks as long as Africans', but they are usually slimmer and lighter; the largest recorded was 3.02 m (10 ft) long and [68] [69] weighed 39 kg (86 lb). Hunting for elephant ivory in Africa and Asia has led to natural selection for [70] shorter tusks.

Skin

An Asian elephant after wallowing; the mud may act as a sunscreen

An elephant's skin is generally very tough, at 2.5 cm (1 in) thick on the back and parts of the head. The skin around the mouth, anus and inside of the ear is considerably thinner. Elephants typically have grey skin, but African elephants look brown or reddish after wallowing in coloured mud. Asian elephants have some patches of depigmentation, particularly on the forehead and ears and the areas around them. Calves have brownish or reddish hair, especially on the head and back. As elephants mature, their hair darkens and becomes sparser, but dense concentrations of hair and bristles remain on the end of the tail as well as the chin, genitals and the areas around the eyes and ear openings. Normally the skin of an [71] Asian elephant is covered with more hair than its African counterpart. An elephant uses mud as a sunscreen, protecting its skin from ultraviolet light. Although tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive. Without regular mud baths to protect it from burning, insect bites and moisture loss, an elephant's skin suffers serious damage. After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dust onto its body and this dries into a protective crust. Elephants have difficulty releasing heat through the skin because of their lowsurface-area-to-volume ratio, which is many times smaller than that of a human. They have even been observed lifting up their legs, presumably in an effort to expose [71] their soles to the air.

Legs, locomotion and posture

To support the animal's weight, an elephant's limbs are positioned more vertically under the body than in most other mammals. The long bones of the limbs have cancellous bone in place of medullary cavities. [72] This strengthens the bones while still allowing haematopoiesis. Both the front and hind limbs can [73] support an elephant's weight, although 60% is borne by the front. Since the limb bones are placed on top of each other and under the body, an elephant can stand still for long periods of time without using much energy. Elephants are incapable of rotating their front legs, as the ulna andradius are fixed

in pronation; the "palm" of the manus faces backward. The pronator quadratus and the pronator [74] teres are either reduced or absent. The circular feet of an elephant have soft tissues or "cushion pads" [73] beneath the manus or pes, which distribute the weight of the animal. They appear to have a sesamoid, an extra "toe" similar in placement to a giant panda's extra "thumb", that also helps in weight [75] [10] distribution. As many as five toenails can be found on both the front and hind feet. Elephants can move both forwards and backwards, but cannot trot, jump, or gallop. They use only two [72] gaits when moving on land, the walk and a faster gait similar to running. In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the hips and shoulders rising and falling while the foot is planted on the ground. With no "aerial phase", the fast gait does not meet all the criteria of running, although the elephant uses its legs much like other running animals, with the hips and shoulders falling and then rising while the feet are on [76] the ground. Fast-moving elephants appear to 'run' with their front legs, but 'walk' with their hind legs [77] and can reach a top speed of 18 km/h (11 mph). At this speed, most other quadrupeds are well into a gallop, even accounting for leg length. Spring-like kinetics could explain the difference between the [78] motion of elephants and other animals. During locomotion, the cushion pads expand and contract, and [73] reduce both the pain and noise that would come from a very heavy animal moving. Elephants are capable swimmers. They have been recorded swimming for up to six hours without touching the bottom, [79] and have travelled as far as 48 km (30 mi) at a stretch and at speeds of up to 2.1 km/h (1 mph).

[72]

Internal and sexual organs

The brain of an elephant weighs 4.55.5 kg (1012 lb) compared to 1.6 kg (4 lb) for a human brain. While the elephant brain is larger overall, it is proportionally smaller. At birth, an elephant's brain already weighs 3040% of its adult weight. The cerebrum and cerebellum are well developed, and thetemporal lobes are [56] so large that they bulge out laterally. The throat of an elephant appears to contain a pouch where it can [39] store water for later use.

GIANT SNAILS
A new outbreak of giant, disease-carrying snails is threatening Florida's crops, experts say. The giant African land snail is finding itself right at home in the Sunshine State, whose hot and humid climate resembles the species' tropical Nigerian habitat. (Related: "Giant Snails, Once a Delicacy, Overrun Brazil.") Now found throughout the world, including the contiguous United States andHawaii, these invasive plant-eaters pose a particular danger in Florida because of its vibrant agricultural industry. "We're producing food that the nation depends on ... [and this snail] eats 500 different plants, including pretty much everything that grows in Florida," said Mark Fagan, a spokesperson for the Florida Department of Agriculture. "This is not something we can walk away from. These snails are a major threat to Florida's agriculture." Some snails are smuggled into the U.S. as pets or for religious practices and, once here, get transported around the country in plants or cargo by unwitting people, experts say. (Read more about invasive species.) "These snails have been intercepted by customs and border patrols at airports. There was one woman who was flying back from Nigeria [who] was intercepted, and she had hidden some snails under her skirt," Fagan said. The exact reasons for smuggling the snails is unknown, he added, "but we are aware that these snails are used in certain religious practices. Some people also like to keep these snails as pets because they're exotic." Hardy Pest

There have been outbreaks of the snails in Florida and other parts of the country before, but Florida's latest boom began a year and a half ago in Miami-Dade County. "They're very prolific," said Awinash Bhatkar, a snail expert with the Texas Department of Agriculture. After reaching adulthood at about six months of age, the snails can produce up to a hundred eggs per month and live more than eight years. Whereas most snails feed on decaying organic material or on leaf molds, the giant African land snail is one of the few snails that actually feed on plant parts themselves, Bhatkar said. In addition to plants, young snails are known to munch on house stucco and even cement as they seek out calcium to strengthen their growing shells. The snails also pose a human and animal health threat because they can eat rat feces and contract rat lungworm, which can cause a rare form of meningitis. (See pictures of infectious animals.) "The parasitic nematode that causes rat lungworm can be present in the slime of the snail," Fagan explained. "So if a person comes in contact with the snail, the nematode present can then enter the person's body, eventually making its way into the brain." He added, "We have confirmation from the [U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention] that rat lungworm disease is present in some snail samples that we sent up to them." Because of this risk, the Department of Agriculture's Fagan said anyone who thinks they have a giant African land snail infestation should call the department immediately at 888-397-1517, rather than try to kill the snails themselves. "We'd rather go out and tell you, 'Nope, that's not a giant African land snail,' than you not call us ... We don't want to endanger anyone's health. We have protective gear, and we know how to pick them up." Long Battle Ahead Fagan is confident that his department has the outbreak in Miami-Dade County under control since switching to a much more aggressive form of bait that's more lethal to the giant African land snail. The bait contains a bittering agent that makes it unpalatable to domestic animals and wildlife. "It's truly a challenge, but it's not a challenge that we can't overcome," he said. "We feel very confident that we will be able to reach eradication." If past experience is any guide, however, achieving that goal in Miami-Dade County could take years. (Read about Burmese pythons thriving in Florida.) In 1966, an outbreak occurred in North Miami after snails smuggled by a 10-year-old boy from Hawaii were released by his grandmother. Nine years, and about 18,000 dead snails later, the snail pest was finally removed. But the Miami-Dade outbreak is much bigger, and as a result could take much longer to contain.

The dolphin
Dolphins are marine mammals closely related to whales and porpoises. There are almost forty species of dolphin in 17 genera. They vary in size from 1.2 m (4 ft) and 40 kg (90 lb) (Maui's dolphin), up to 9.5 m (30 ft) and 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons) (the orca or killer whale). They are found worldwide, mostly in the shallower seas of the continental shelves, and are carnivores, eating mostly fish and squid. The familyDelphinidae is the largest in the Cetacean order, and evolved relatively recently, about ten million years ago, during the Miocene. Dolphins are among the most intelligent animals, and their often friendly appearance, an artifact of the "smile" of their mouthline, and seemingly playful attitude have made them very popular in human culture.

Anatomy
Dolphins have a streamlined fusiform body, adapted for fast swimming. The tail fin, called the fluke, is used for propulsion, while thepectoral fins together with the entire tail section provide directional control. The dorsal fin, in those species that have one, provides stability while swimming. Though it varies by species, basic coloration patterns are shades of grey, usually with a lighter underside, often with lines and patches of different hue and contrast. The head contains the melon, a round organ used for echolocation. In many species, elongated jaws form a distinct beak; species such as the bottlenose have a curved mouth which looks like a fixed smile. Some species have up to 250 teeth. Dolphins breathe through ablowhole on top of their head. The trachea is anterior to the brain. The dolphin brain is large and highly complex, and is different in structure from that of most land mammals. Unlike most mammals, dolphins do not have hair, except for a few hairs around the tip of [15] their rostrum (beak) which they lose shortly before or after birth. The only exception to this is the Boto [16] river dolphin, which has persistent small hairs on the rostrum. Dolphins' reproductive organs are located on the underside of the body. Males have two slits, one concealing the penis and one further behind for the anus. The female has one genital slit, housing

the vagina and the anus. Two mammary slits are positioned on either side of the female's genital [17][18][19] slit. Though the exact methods used to achieve this are not known, dolphins can tolerate and recover from extreme injuries, such as shark bites. Thehealing process is rapid and even very deep wounds do not cause dolphins to hemorrhage to death. Furthermore, even gaping wounds restore in such a way that the [20] animal's body shape is restored, and infection of such large wounds seems rare. A study at the U.S. National Marine Mammal Foundation revealed that dolphins, like humans, develop a natural form of type 2 diabetes, which may lead to a better understanding of the disease and new [21] treatments for both humans and dolphins.

Senses
Most dolphins have acute eyesight, both in and out of the water, and they can hear frequencies ten times [22] or more above the upper limit of adult human hearing. Though they have a small ear opening on each side of their head, it is believed hearing underwater is also, if not exclusively, done with the lower jaw, which conducts sound to the middle ear via a fat-filled cavity in the lower jaw bone. Hearing is also used for echolocation, which all dolphins have. Dolphin teeth are believed to function as antennae to receive [23] incoming sound and to pinpoint the exact location of an object. Beyond locating an object, echolocation also provides the animal with an idea on the object's shape and size, though how exactly this works is not [24] yet understood. The Indus Dolphin is effectively blind. This may be because not much light penetrates [25] the waters of the Indus river (due to suspended sediments), making eyes futile. The dolphin's sense of touch is also well-developed, with free nerve endings densely packed in the skin, especially around the snout, pectoral fins and genital area. However, dolphins lack anolfactory nerve and [26] lobes, and thus are believed to have no sense of smell. They do have a sense of taste and show preferences for certain kinds of fish. Since dolphins spend most of their time below the surface, tasting the water could function like smelling, in that substances in the water can signal the presence of objects that are not in the dolphins mouth. Though most dolphins do not have hair, they do have hair follicles that may perform some sensory [27] function. The small hairs on the rostrum of the Boto river dolphin are believed to function as atactile [28] sense possibly to compensate for the Boto's poor eyesight.

Behavior

A pod of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins in the Red Sea.

See also: Whale surfacing behaviour Dolphins are often regarded as one of Earth's most intelligent animals, though it is hard to say just how intelligent. Comparing species' relative intelligence is complicated by differences in sensory apparatus, response modes, and nature of cognition. Furthermore, the difficulty and expense of experimental work with large aquatic animals has so far prevented some tests and limited sample size and rigor in others. Compared to many other species, however, dolphin behavior has been studied extensively, both in captivity and in the wild. See cetacean intelligence for more details.

Social behavior

Dolphins surfing at Snapper Rocks,Queensland, Australia

Dolphins are social, living in pods of up to a dozen individuals. In places with a high abundance of food, pods can merge temporarily, forming asuperpod; such groupings may exceed 1,000 dolphins. Individuals communicate using a variety of clicks, whistle-like sounds and other vocalizations. Membership in pods is not rigid; interchange is common. However, dolphins can establish strong social bonds; they will stay with injured or ill individuals, even helping them to breathe by bringing them to the surface if [29] needed. This altruism does not appear to be limited to their own species however. The dolphin Moko in New Zealand has been observed guiding a female Pygmy Sperm Whale together with [30] her calf out of shallow water where they had stranded several times. They have also been seen [31][32] protecting swimmers from sharks by swimming circles around the swimmers or charging the sharks to make them go away. Dolphins also display culture, something long believed to be unique to humans (and possibly other primate species). In May 2005, a discovery in Australia found Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) teaching their young to use tools. They cover their snouts with sponges to

protect them while foraging. This knowledge is mostly transferred by mothers to daughters, unlike simian primates, where knowledge is generally passed on to both sexes. Using sponges as mouth [33] protection is a learned behavior. Another learned behavior was discovered among river dolphins in [34] Brazil, where some male dolphins use weeds and sticks as part of a sexual display. Dolphins engage in acts of aggression towards each other. The older a male dolphin is, the more likely his body is to be covered with bite scars. Male dolphins engage in such acts of aggression apparently for the same reasons as humans: disputes between companions and competition for females. Acts of aggression can become so intense that targeted dolphins sometimes go into exile as a result of losing a fight. Male bottlenose dolphins have been known to engage in infanticide. Dolphins have also been known to kill porpoises for reasons which are not fully understood, as porpoises generally do not share the same [35] diet as dolphins, and are therefore not competitors for food supplies.

Reproduction and sexuality

See also: Bottlenose dolphin#Reproduction Dolphin copulation happens belly to belly; though many species engage in lengthy foreplay, the actual act is usually brief, but may be repeated several times within a short timespan. The gestation period varies with species; for the small Tucuxi dolphin, this period is around 11 to 12 months, while for the orca, the gestation period is around 17 months. Typically dolphins give birth to a single calf, which is, unlike most [36] other mammals, born tail first in most cases. They usually become sexually active at a young age, even before reaching sexual maturity. The age of sexual maturity varies by species and gender. Dolphins are known to have sex for reasons other than reproduction, sometimes also engaging in homosexual behavior. Various species sometimes engage in sexual behavior including copulation with other dolphin species. Sexual encounters may be violent, with male dolphins sometimes showing [37] aggressive behavior towards both females and other males. Occasionally, dolphins behave sexually [38] towards other animals, including humans.
[citation needed]

Feeding
Various methods of feeding exist among and within species, some apparently exclusive to a single population. Fish and squid are the main food, but the false killer whale and the orca also feed on other marine mammals. One common feeding method is herding, where a pod squeezes a school of fish into a small volume, known as a bait ball. Individual members then take turns plowing through the ball, feeding on the stunned fish. Coralling is a method where dolphins chase fish into shallow water to catch them more easily. In South Carolina, the Atlantic bottlenose dolphin takes this further with "strand feeding", driving prey onto [39] mud banks for easy access. In some places, orcas come to the beach to capture sea lions. Some species also whack fish with their flukes, stunning them and sometimes knocking them out of the water. Reports of cooperative human-dolphin fishing date back to the ancient Roman author and natural [40] philosopher Pliny the Elder. A modern human-dolphin partnership currently operates in Laguna,Santa Catarina, Brazil. Here, dolphins drive fish towards fishermen waiting along the shore and signal the men [41][42] to cast their nets. The dolphins reward is the fish that escape the nets.

Vocalizations

Dolphins are capable of making a broad range of sounds using nasal airsacs located just below the blowhole. Roughly three categories of sounds can be identified: frequency modulated whistles, burstpulsed sounds and clicks. Dolphins communicate with whistle-like sounds produced by vibrating [43] connective tissue, similar to the way human vocal cords function, and through burst-pulsed sounds, though the nature and extent of that ability is not known. The clicks are directional and are for echolocation, often occurring in a short series called a click train. The click rate increases when approaching an object of interest. Dolphin echolocation clicks are amongst the loudest sounds made by [44] marine animals.

Jumping and playing

Pacific white-sided dolphins porpoising

Dolphins occasionally leap above the water surface, and sometimes perform acrobatic figures (for example, the spinner dolphin). Scientists are not certain about the purpose(s) of the acrobatics. Possibilities include locating schools of fish by looking at above-water signs like feeding birds, communicating with other dolphins, dislodging parasites or simple amusement. Play is an important part of dolphin culture. Dolphins play with seaweed and play-fight with other dolphins. At times they harass other local creatures, like seabirds and turtles. Dolphins enjoy riding waves and frequently surf coastal swells and the bow waves of boats, at times leaping between the dual bow waves of a moving catamaran. Occasionally, they playfully interact with swimmers. Captive dolphins have been observed in aquariums engaging in complex play behavior which involves the creation and [45][46][47][48] manipulation of bubble rings.

Sleeping
Further information: Sleep (non-human)

Sleeping dolphin in captivity: a tail kick reflex keeps the dolphin's blowhole above the water

Generally, dolphins sleep with only one brain hemisphere in slow-wave sleep at a time, thus maintaining enough consciousness to breathe and to watch for possible predators and other threats. Earlier sleep [49][50][51] stages can occur simultaneously in both hemispheres. In captivity, dolphins seemingly enter a fully asleep state where both eyes are closed and there is no response to mild external stimuli. In this case, respiration is automatic; a tail kickreflex keeps the blowhole above the water if [52] necessary. Anesthetized dolphins initially show a tail kick reflex. Though a similar state has been [53] observed with wild sperm whales, it is not known if dolphins in the wild reach this state. The Indus river dolphin has a sleep method that is different from that of other dolphin species. Living in water with strong currents and potentially dangerous floating debris, it must swim continuously to avoid injury. As a result, [54] this species sleeps in very short bursts which last between 4 and 60 seconds.

Threats
Natural threats
Except for humans (discussed below), dolphins have few natural enemies. Some species or specific populations have none, making them apex predators. For most of the smaller species of dolphins, only a few of the larger sharks, such as the bull shark, dusky shark, tiger shark and great white shark, are a potential risk, especially for calves. Some of the larger dolphinic species, especially orcas (killer whales), may also prey on smaller dolphins, but this seems rare. Dolphins also suffer from a wide variety [citation needed] of diseases and parasites.

Human threats
See also: Dolphin drive hunting and Cetacean bycatch

Dead Atlantic white-sided dolphins inHvalba on the Faroe Islands, killed in a drive hunt

Some dolphin species face an uncertain future, especially some river dolphin species such as the Amazon river dolphin, and the Ganges and Yangtze river dolphin, which are critically or seriously endangered. A 2006 survey found no individuals of the Yangtze river dolphin, which now appears to [55] befunctionally extinct. Pesticides, heavy metals, plastics, and other industrial and agricultural pollutants that do not disintegrate [56] rapidly in the environment concentrate in predators such as dolphins. Injuries or deaths due to collisions with boats, especially their propellers, are also common. Various fishing methods, most notably purse seine fishing for tuna and the use of drift and gill nets, [57] unintentionally kill many dolphins. Accidental by-catch in gill nets and incidental captures in antipredator nets that protect marine fish farms are common and pose a risk for mainly local dolphin [58][59] populations. In some parts of the world, such as Taiji in Japan and the Faroe Islands, dolphins are [60] traditionally considered as food, and are killed in harpoon or drive hunts. Dolphin meat is high in [61] mercury, and may thus pose a health danger to humans when consumed. Dolphin safe labels attempt to reassure consumers fish and other marine products have been caught in a dolphin-friendly way. The earliest campaigns with "Dolphin safe" labels were initiated in the 1980s with collusion between marine activists and the major tuna companies, and involved decreasing incidental dolphin kills by up to 50% by changing the type of nets used to catch tuna. The dolphins are netted only while fishermen are in pursuit of smaller tuna. Albacore are not netted this way, making albacore the only [citation needed] truly dolphin-safe tuna. Loud underwater noises, such as those resulting from naval sonar use, live firing exercises, or certain offshore construction projects, such as wind farms, may be harmful to dolphins, increasing stress, damaging hearing, and causing decompression sickness by forcing them to surface too quickly to escape [62][63] the noise.

Relationships with humans

Mythology

Fresco of Dolphins, ca. 1600 BC, fromKnossos, Crete.

See also: Dolphins in mythology

Dolphins have long played a role in human culture. Dolphins are common in Greek mythology and there are many coins from ancient Greece which feature a man or boy or deity riding on the back of a [64] dolphin. The Ancient Greeks welcomed dolphins; spotting dolphins riding in a ships wake was [65] considered a good omen. In Hindu mythology, the Ganges River Dolphin is associated with Ganga, the deity of the Ganges river.

Popular culture

Luke Halpin with one of the dolphin performers in the 1963 film, Flipper.

In more recent times, the 1963 film Flipper and the subsequent 1964 television series popularized dolphins in Western society. The series, created byIvan Tors, portrayed a dolphin as a kind of seagoing version of Lassie, the collie made popular in the 1950s TV series. Flipper was a bottlenose dolphin who understood commands and always behaved heroically. Flipper was remade as a film in 1996. The 1973 movie The Day of the Dolphin portrays kidnapped dolphins performing a naval military assassination using explosives. This was also explored in the similarly named The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror episode, "Night of the Dolphin", where Lisa frees a dolphin at an aquarium exhibit and unwittingly initiates their plan to overthrow the land-dwellers and live in their place. The 1990s science fiction television series seaQuest DSV featured a bottlenose dolphin named Darwin who could communicate using a vocoder, a fictional invention which translated clicks and whistles to English and back. The 1995 movie Johnny Mnemonic portrays an ex-military dolphin named Jones who tries to find a password for Johnny by decrypting data in the latter's head. Killer whales have also been portrayed in film, though to a lesser extent than bottlenose dolphins. The 1977 horror movie Orca portrayed killer whales as intelligent and capable of pair-bonding and aggressive behavior. In the movie, a male killer whale takes revenge on fishermen after they kill his mate. The 1993 movie Free Willy made a star of the Orca playing Willy, Keiko.

Dolphinaria
See also: Dolphinarium The renewed popularity of dolphins in the 1960s resulted in the appearance of many dolphinaria around the world, making dolphins accessible to the public. Criticism and animal welfare laws forced many to close, although hundreds still exist around the world. In the United States, the best known are the SeaWorld marine mammal parks. In the middle east the best known are dolphin bay at Atlantis, The Palm and the Dubai Dolphinarium.

Welfare
Organizations such as the Mote Marine Laboratory rescue and rehabilitate sick, wounded, stranded or orphaned dolphins, while others, such as theWhale and Dolphin Conservation Society and Hong Kong Dolphin Conservation Society, work on dolphin conservation and welfare. India has declared the Dolphin as its national aquatic animal in an attempt to protect the endangered Ganges River Dolphin. The Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary has been created in the Ganges river for the protection of the animals. Various scientists who have researched Dolphin behaviour have proposed that their unusually high intelligence compared to other animals means that dolphins should be seen as non-human persons that should have their own specific rights, and that it is morally unacceptable to keep them captive for [66] [67] entertainment purposes, or to kill them; either intentionally for consumption or as by-catch.

Attack on humans

Tilikum at SeaWorld. In 2010 he attacked and killed his trainer Dawn Brancheau, in his third fatal incident.

Although dolphins generally interact well with humans, some attacks have occurred, most of them [68] resulting in small injuries. The attacks can occur both in the wild and captivity. Orcas, the largest species of dolphin, have been involved in fatal attacks on humans in captivity. The record-holder of documented orca fatal attacks is a male named Tilikum, that belongs to SeaWorld and [69] has played a role in the death of three people in three different incidents (1991, 1999 and 2010). There [70] are documented incidents in the wild too, but none of them fatal. Fatal attacks from other species are less common, but there is a registered occurrence off the coast of Brazil in 1994, when a man died after being attacked by a bottlenose [71][72] dolphin named Tio. Tio had suffered harassment by human visitors, including attempts to stick ice [73] cream sticks down his blowhole. Non-fatal incidents occur more frequently, both in wild and captivity.

While dolphin attacks occur far less frequently than attacks by other sea animals, such as sharks, some scientists are worried about the careless programs of human-dolphin interaction. Dr. Andrew J. Read, a biologist at the Duke University Marine Laboratory who studies dolphin attacks, points out that dolphins [68] are large and wild predators, so people should be more careful when they interact with them.

Therapy
Dolphins are an increasingly popular choice of animal-assisted therapy for psychological problems and developmental disabilities. For example, a 2005 study found dolphins an effective treatment for mild to [74] moderate depression. However, this study was criticized on several grounds. For example, it is not [75] known whether dolphins are more effective than common pets. Reviews of this and other published dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) studies have found important methodological flaws and have concluded that there is no compelling scientific evidence that DAT is a legitimate therapy or that it affords more than [76] fleeting mood improvement.

Military

A military dolphin

A number of militaries have employed dolphins for various purposes from finding mines to rescuing lost or trapped humans. The military use of dolphins, however, drew scrutiny during the Vietnam War when rumors circulated that the United States Navy was training dolphins to kill Vietnamese divers.
[77]

The

United States Navy denies that at any point dolphins were trained for combat. Dolphins are still being trained by the United States Navy for other tasks as part of the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program. The Russian military is believed to have closed its marine mammal program in the early 1990s. In 2000 the press reported that dolphins trained to kill by the Soviet Navy had been sold to Iran.
[78]