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By : Aries Riad
G16
The Outline :
1-Introduction
2-Phonology:
-What is phonology?
-Basic Concepts.
-Complementary Distribution.
-Phonemes And Allophones.
-Syllables.
3-Morphology:
-What is morphology?
-closed & open class Items.
-compounding.
-Phrasal verbs.
5-Conclusion.
What is Morphology?
Morphology is the field of linguistics that studies the internal structure of
words. (Words as units in the lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology.) While
words are generally accepted as being the
smallest units of syntax, it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words
can be related to other words by rules.
For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog, dogs, and dog catcher
are closely related. English speakers recognize these relations from their tacit
knowledge of the rules of word formation in English.
They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats;
similarly, dog is to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher. The rules understood by
the speaker reflect specific patterns (or regularities) in the way words are
formed from smaller units and how those
smaller units interact in speech.
In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies
patterns of word formation within and across languages, and attempts to formulate
rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.
A Morpheme: is the smallest meaningful unit. In a word, the morpheme that carries
the core meaning of the word itself is called lexical morpheme or lexeme.
CLOSED CLASS ITEMS & OPEN CLASS ITEMS:
Words come in two varieties: functional words, and lexical words. The difference
has to do with their meaning (purely grammatical , lexical and referential), and
with what you cam do out of them:
you can invent a new lexical word, but you have no power on functional words.
Functional words usually evolve from lexical words through a process called
grammaticalization.
Ex: Will.
COMPOUNDING:
The simplest way to form new words out of old elements is by compounding.
Compounding in English normally has the following properties:
1- Compounds have a head, which gives them their main semantic and syntactic
properties.
Example:
-syntactically, the expression blackboard is a noun, as is its head board
-semantically, the expression blackboard refers to things that are kinds of
boards, as the noun board.
2- The head comes last
3- The stress comes first
4- The meaning of the whole is not entirely predictable on the basis of the
meaning of the parts.
In the following examples, the syllable with the main stress is indicated in bold.
In each pair, a. is not a compound because (a) it has its main stress on the final
element, and (b) the meaning of the whole is entirely predictable from the meaning
of the parts (e.g. a black board is simply a board that is black).
By contrast, b. is a compound: the main stress is on the first element, and the
meaning of the whole is not entirely predictable from the meaning of the parts (a
blackboard may not be black, but for instance green, as is the case in many
classrooms).
a. a black board:
a board that is black
b. a blackboard:
a board for writing on with chalk in front of a class. It may or may not be black.
a. a dark room: a room that is dark
b. a darkroom: a room from which daylight is excluded so that photographs can be
processed.
There are sometimes instances of structural ambiguity in morphology. Thus a
California history teacher may be someone that teaches California history, or it
may be a history teacher from
California.
The first meaning is obtained by making California history a morphological
constituent.
The second meaning is obtained by the morphological tree found on the right.
Phrasal verbs:
English syntax distinguishes between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs.
Consider the following:
I held up my hand.
I held up a bank.
I held my hand up.
*I held a bank up.
The first three sentences are possible in English; the last one is unlikely. When
to hold up means to raise, it is a prepositional verb; the preposition up can be
detached from the verb and has its own
individual meaning "from lower to a higher position".
As a prepositional verb, it has a literal meaning. However, when to hold up means
to rob, it is a phrasal verb.
A phrasal verb is used in an idiomatic, figurative or even metaphorical context.
The preposition is inextricably linked to the verb; the meaning of each word
cannot be determined independently but is in fact part of the idiom.
The Oxford English Grammar distinguishes seven types of prepositional or phrasal
verbs in English:
1. intransitive phrasal verbs (e.g. give in)
2. transitive phrasal verbs (e.g. find out [discover])
3. monotransitive prepositional verbs (e.g. look after [care for])
4. doubly transitive prepositional verbs (e.g. blame [something] on [someone])
5. copular prepositional verbs. (e.g. serve as)
6. monotransitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. look up to [respect])
7. doubly transitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. put [something] down to
[someone] [attribute to])
The difference between Morphology and Phonology:
The interface between phonology and morphology lies in the area covered by the
terms morphophonemics, morphophonology or morphonology, and lexical rules.
These terms have been used in a variety of ways. The uses all recognize a level of
language or analysis of language that differs from pure phonology in that it
involves lexical and grammatical information mixed with phonological information.
Of modern schools of phonology, only two reject or ignore the significance of the
distinction between pure phonology and morphophonology. The generative pho- nology
represented by Chomsky and Halle rejected the distinction.
It is this mixture of lexical and grammatical condition- ing that justifies the
“morpho-” in “morphophonology.” The “-phonology’ is also justified, even for the
rules mentioned above: the velar palatalization - ically to velars, and umlaut
applies specifically to back applies specif vowels.
Kiparsky showed that in German dialects, when new back vowels are created, there
is a tendency to umlaut them, and to adjust the output of umlaut so that there is
a simple back/front relationship between the vowels.(Kiparsky171).
Anttila claims that all rules subject to morphological conditioning are
Morphological.(Antilla).
A more nuanced version of this approach is advanced by Anderson, who asserts that
genuine phonological rules (as opposed to ‘word-formation’, i.e. morphological,
rules) can be circumscribed to a morphologically defined domain, but cannot refer
to specific morphemes or morphological/syntactic features.(Anderson 22).
Conclusion:
Close analysis of the relationship between phonology, morphology, and the lexicon
in present-day English continues to yield new insights into the nature and
organization of grammars. Theories based on stratification and cyclicity dominated
the field during the 1980s. Today, the stratal approach faces tough competition,
but is still fostering new advances in our understanding of the morphology-
phonology interface.
List of Bibliography