FUNDAMENTAL LOADINGS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The fundamental loadings on machine elements are axial loading, direct shear loading, torsion, and bending. Each of these loadings produces stresses in the machine element, as well as deformations, meaning a change in shape. There are only two types of stresses: normal and shear. Axial loading produces a normal stress, direct shear and torsion produce shear stresses, and bending produces both a normal and a shear stress. Figure 1.1 shows a straight prismatic bar loaded in tension by opposing forces (P) at each end. (A prismatic bar has a uniform cross section along its length.) These forces produce a tensile load along the axis of the bar, which is why it is called axial loading, resulting in a tensile normal stress in the bar. There is also a corresponding lengthening of the bar. If these forces were in the opposite direction, then the bar would be loaded in compression, producing a compressive normal stress and a shortening of the bar.

PP
Prismatic bar
FIGURE 1.1 Axial loading.

Figure 1.2 shows a riveted joint, where a simple rivet holds two overlapping bars together. The shaft of the rivet at the interface of the bars is in direct shear, meaning that a shear stress is produced in the rivet. As the forces (P) increase, the joint will rotate until either the rivet shears off, or the material around the hole of either bar pulls out. P P
Riveted joint
FIGURE 1.2 Direct shear loading.

Figure 1.3 shows a circular shaft acted upon by opposing torques (T ), causing the shaft to be in torsion. This type of loading produces a shear stress in the shaft, thereby causing one end of the shaft to rotate about the axis of the shaft relative to the other end.
3 Copyright 2005 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use. 4 STRENGTH OF MACHINES

TT
FIGURE 1.3 Torsion.

Figure 1.4 shows a simply supported beam with a concentrated force (F) located at its midpoint. This force produces both a bending moment distribution and a shear force distribution in the beam. At any location along the length (L) of the beam, the bending moment produces a normal stress, and the shear force produces a shear stress.
B L F A L/2
FIGURE 1.4 Bending.

The beam shown in Fig. 1.4 will deflect downward along its length; however, unlike axial loading, direct shear loading, and torsion that have a single equation associated with their deformation, there is not a single equation for the deformation or deflection of any beam under any loading. Each beam configuration and loading is different. A detailed discussion of 15 different beam configurations is presented in Chap. 2, complete with reactions, shear force and bending moment distributions, and deflection equations.

1.2 AXIAL LOADING

The prismatic bar shown in Fig. 1.5 is loaded in tension along its axis by the opposing forces (P) at each end. Again, a prismatic bar has a uniform cross section, and therefore a constant area (A) along its length.
PP Prismatic bar
FIGURE 1.5 Axial loading.

Stress. These two forces produce a tensile load along the axis of the bar, resulting in a tensile normal stress ( ) given by Eq. (1.1). = P A (1.1) As stress is expressed by force over area, the unit is given in pound per square inch (psi) in the U.S. Customary System, and in newton per square meter, or pascal (Pa), in the metric

system.
FUNDAMENTAL LOADINGS 5

U.S. Customary SI/Metric Example 1. Determine the normal stress in a square bar with side (a) loaded in tension with forces (P), where P = 12 kip = 12,000 lb a = 2 in Example 1. Determine the normal stress in a square bar with side (a) loaded in tension with forces (P), where P = 55 kN = 55,000 N a = 5 cm= 0.05 m solution solution Step 1. Calculate the cross-sectional area (A) of the bar. Step 1. Calculate the cross-sectional area A of the bar. A = a2 = (2 in)2 = 4 in2 A = a2 = (0.05m)2 = 0.0025m2 Step 2. From Eq. (1.1), calculate the normal stress () in the bar. Step 2. From Eq. (1.1), calculate the normal stress ( ) in the bar. = P A = 12,000 lb 4 in2 = 3,000 lb/in2 = 3.0 kpsi = P A = 55,000 N 0.0025 m2 = 22,000,000 N/m2 = 22MPa Example 2. Calculate the minimum crosssectional area (Amin) needed for a bar axially loaded in tension by forces (P) so as not to exceed a maximum normal stress (max), where P = 10 kip = 10,000 lb max = 36,000 psi Example 2. Calculate the minimum crosssectional area (Amin) needed for a bar axially loaded in tension by forces (P) so as not to exceed a maximum normal stress (max), where P = 45 kN = 45,000 N max = 250 MPa solution solution Step 1. Start with Eq. (1.1) where the normal stress ( ) is maximum and the area (A) is minimum to give Step 1. Start with Eq. (1.1) where the normal stress ( ) is maximum and the area (A) is minimum to give max = P Amin max = P Amin Step 2. Solve for the minimum area (Amin). Step 2. Solve for the minimum area (Amin). Amin = P max Amin = P max Step 3. Substitute for the force (P) and the maximum normal stress. Step 3. Substitute for the force (P) and the maximum normal stress. Amin = 10,000 lb 36,000 lb/in2

= 0.28 in2 Amin = 45,000 N 250 106 N/m2 = 0.00018m2

Strain. The axial loading shown in Fig. 1.6 also produces an axial strain (), given by Eq. (1.2). = L (1.2) where () is change in length of the bar and (L) is length of the bar.
6 STRENGTH OF MACHINES

PP
Prismatic bar
FIGURE 1.6 Axial loading.

Strain is a dimensionless quantity and does not have a unit if the change in length and the length (L) are in the same units. However, if the change in length () is in inches or millimeters, and the length (L) is in feet or meters, then the strain () will have a unit.
U.S. Customary SI/Metric Example 3. Calculate the strain () for a change in length () and a length (L), where = 0.015 in L = 5 ft Example 3. Calculate the strain () for a change in length () and a length (L), where = 0.038 cm L = 1.9 m solution solution Step 1. Calculate the strain () from Eq. (1.2). Step 1. Calculate the strain () from Eq. (1.2). = L = 0.015 in 5 ft = 0.003 in /ft 1 ft /12 in = 0.00025 in /in = 0.00025 = L = 0.038 cm 1.9m = 0.02 cm /m 1m/100 cm = 0.0002m/m = 0.0002

Stress-Strain Diagrams. If the stress ( ) is plotted against the strain () for an axially loaded bar, the stress-strain diagram for a ductile material in Fig. 1.7 results, where A is proportional limit, B elastic limit, C yield point, D ultimate strength, and F fracture point.
s A B, C D F e E
FIGURE 1.7 Stress-strain diagram (ductile material).

The stress-strain diagram is linear up to the proportional limit, and has a slope (E) called the modulus of elasticity. In this region the equation of the straight line up to the proportional limit is called Hookes law, and is given by Eq. (1.3). = E (1.3) The numerical value for the modulus of elasticity (E) is very large, so the stress-strain diagram is almost vertical to point A, the proportional limit. However, for clarity the horizontal placement of point A has been exaggerated on both Figs. 1.7 and 1.8.
FUNDAMENTAL LOADINGS 7

A, B, C, D, F s e E
FIGURE 1.8 Stress-strain diagram (brittle material).

The stress-strain diagram for a brittle material is shown in Fig. 1.8, where points A, B, C, D, and F are all at the same point. This is because failure of a brittle material is virtually

instantaneous, giving very little if any warning. Poissons Ratio. The law of conservation of mass requires that when an axially loaded bar lengthens as a result of a tensile load, the cross-sectional area of the bar must reduce accordingly. Conversely, if the bar shortens as a result of a compressive load, then the crosssectional area of the bar must increase accordingly. The amount by which the cross-sectional area reduces or increases is given by a material property called Poissons ratio (), and is defined by Eq. (1.4). = lateral strain axial strain (1.4) where the lateral strain is the change in any lateral dimension divided by that lateral dimension. For example, if the lateral dimension chosen is the diameter (D) of a circular rod, then the lateral strain could be calculated using Eq. (1.5). lateral strain = D D (1.5) The minus sign in the definition of Poissons ratio in Eq. (1.4) is needed because the lateral and axial strains will always have opposite signs, meaning that a positive axial strain produces a negative lateral strain, and a negative axial strain produces a positive lateral strain. Strangely enough, Poissons ratio is bounded between a value of zero and a half. 0 1 2 (1.6) Again, this is a consequence of the law of conservation of mass that must not be violated during deformation, meaning a change in shape.Values of both the modulus of elasticity (E) and Poissons ratio () are determined by experiment and can be found in Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers.
8 STRENGTH OF MACHINES U.S. Customary SI/Metric Example 4. Calculate the change in diameter (D) of a circular steel rod axially loaded in compression, where D = 2 in = 0.00025 = 0.28 (steel) Example 4. Calculate the change in diameter (D) of a circular steel rod axially loaded in compression, where D = 5 cm = 0.00025 = 0.28 (steel) solution solution Step 1. Solve for the lateral strain from Eq. (1.4). Step 1. Solve for the lateral strain from Eq. (1.4). lateral strain = (axial strain) lateral strain = (axial strain) Step 2. Substitute Poissons ratio and the axial strain () that is negative because the rod is in compression. Step 2. Substitute Poissons ratio and the axial strain that is negative because the rod is in compression. lateral strain = (0.28)(0.00025) = 0.0007 lateral strain = (0.28)(0.00025) = 0.0007 Step 3. Calculate the change in diameter (D) from Eq. (1.5) using this value for the lateral strain. Step 3. Calculate the change in diameter (D) from Eq. (1.5) using this value for the lateral strain. D = D (lateral strain)

= (2 in)(0.0007) = 0.0014 in D = D (lateral strain) = (5 cm)(0.0007) = 0.0035 cm

Notice that Poissons ratio, the axial strain (), and the calculated lateral strain are the same for both the U.S. Customary and metric systems. Deformation. As a consequence of the axial loading shown in Fig. 1.9, there is a corresponding lengthening of the bar (), given by Eq. (1.7). = PL AE (1.7) where = change in length of bar (positive for tension, negative for compression) P = axial force (positive for tension, negative for compression) L = length of bar A = cross-sectional area of bar E = modulus of elasticity of bar material PP
Prismatic bar
FIGURE 1.9 Axial loading.
FUNDAMENTAL LOADINGS 9

Note that Eq. (1.7) is valid only in the region up to the proportional limit as it derives from Eq. (1.3) (Hookes law), where the axial stress ( ) is substituted from Eq. (1.1) and the axial strain () is substituted from Eq. (1.2), then rearranged to give the elongation () given in Eq. (1.7). This algebraic process is shown in Eq. (1.8). = E P A = E L = PL AE (1.8) As stated earlier, if the forces acting on the bar were in opposite direction, then the bar would be loaded in compression, producing a compressive normal stress and a shortening of the bar.
U.S. Customary SI/Metric Example 5. Calculate the change in length of a circular steel rod of radius (r ) and length (L) loaded axially in tension by forces (P), where P = 15 kip = 15,000 lb r = 1.5 in L = 6 ft E = 30 106 lb/in2 (steel) Example 5. Calculate the change in length of a circular steel rod of radius (r ) and length (L) loaded axially in tension by forces (P), where F = 67.5 kN = 67,500 N r = 4 cm= 0.04 m L= 2m E = 207 109 N/m2 (steel) solution solution Step 1. Calculate the cross-sectional area (A) of the rod. Step 1. Calculate the cross-sectional area (A) of the rod. A = r 2 = (1.5 in)2 = 7 in2 A = r 2 = (0.04m)2 = 0.005m2 Step 2. Substitute the force (P), the length (L), the area (A), and the modulus of elasticity (E) in Eq. (1.7) to give the elongation () as Step 2. Substitute the force (P), the length (L), the area (A), and the modulus of elasticity (E) into Eq. (1.7) to give the elongation () as

 = PL AE = (15,000 lb) (6 ft) (7 in2) (30 106 lb/in2) = 90,000 lb ft 210 106 lb = 4.3 104 ft 12 in/ft = 0.005 in = PL AE = (67,500N) (2m) (0.005m2) (207 109 N/m2) = 135,000N m 1.035 109 N = 1.3 104 m 1,000 mm/m = 0.13mm Example 6. Calculate the compressive axial forces (P) required to shorten an aluminum square bar with sides (a) and length (L) by an amount (), where = 0.03 in = 0.0025 ft a = 3 in L = 3 ft E = 11 106 lb/in2 (aluminum) Example 6. Calculate the compressive axial forces (P) required to shorten an aluminum square bar with sides (a) and length (L) by an amount (), where = 0.7 mm = 0.0007 m a = 8 cm= 0.08 m L= 1m E = 71 109 N/m2 (aluminum) solution solution Step 1. Calculate the cross-sectional area (A) of the bar. Step 1. Calculate the cross-sectional area (A) of the rod. A = a2 = (3 in)2 = 9 in2 A = a2 = (0.08m)2 = 0.0064m2 10 STRENGTH OF MACHINES U.S. Customary SI/Metric Step 2. Solve for the force (P) in Eq. (1.7) to give Step 2. Solve for the force (P) in Eq. (1.7) to give P = AE L = (0.0025 ft) (9 in2)(11 106 lb/in2) (3 ft) = 247,500 ft lb 3 ft = 82,500 lb = 82.5 kips P = AE L = (0.0007m)(0.0064m2)(71 109 N/m2) (1m) = 318,000N m 1m = 318,000N = 318 kN Prismatic bar
FIGURE 1.10 Thermal strain.

Thermal Strain. If the temperature of the prismatic bar shown in Fig. 1.10 increases, then an axial strain (T ) will be developed and given by Eq. (1.9), T = (T ) (1.9)

and the bar will lengthen by an amount (T ) given by Eq. (1.10). T = T L = (T )L (1.10) where = coefficient of thermal expansion T = change in temperature L = length of bar For a temperature decrease, the thermal strain (T ) will be negative as given by Eq. (1.9), and consequently the bar will shorten by an amount (T ) as given by Eq. (1.10). Thermal Stress. If during a temperature change the bar is not constrained, no thermal stress will develop. However, if the bar is constrained from lengthening or shortening, a thermal stress (T ) will develop as given by Eq. (1.11). T = ET = E(T ) (1.11) Notice that Eq. (1.11) represents Hookes law, Eq. (1.3), where the thermal strain (T ) given by Eq. (1.9) has been substituted for the axial strain (). Also notice that the crosssectional area (