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Rituals of Three

Course: Six Classical Indian Philosophies


Author: Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Tutor: Kenneth Valpey Bhaktivedanta College (2012-13) Date 25-02-2013 Essay Question: What are the varying ideas on ritual and religious action in relation to Vedic ritualism, Purvamimamsa and Chaitanya Vaishnavism, particularly in relation to the third chapter of the Bhagavad Gita?

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 2 Scriptural Development .......................................................................................................................... 2 Proper Action .......................................................................................................................................... 4 Purpose of Action ................................................................................................................................... 6 Religious Punishment ......................................................................................................................... 6 God/s of Ritualism .............................................................................................................................. 6 Perfection of the Practitioner .............................................................................................................. 7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................. 8 Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 10

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

Introduction
In Indian philosophy many ideas are shared and borrowed from one tradition to another. Early scriptures and practices soon find themselves in new traditions, with new purposes. This essay is going to focus on the traditions of Vedic ritualism, Purvamimamsa, and Chaitanya Vaishnavism, examining their concepts of ritualism through the evolution of scripture. The primary scriptural basis of comparison for this essay is the third chapter of the Bhagavad Gita. To better express the philosophical stance of Chaitanya Vaishnavism I include the commentary of Baladeva Vidyabhusana [eighteenth century CE1] (Okita, 2008). The traditions of Vedic ritualism and Purvamimamsa are mostly sourced from secondary resources. The first agenda in this paper is to deal with the major line of scriptural development for the traditions. Then the second investigation is on religious action and ritual. Finally, I look at the practitioners purposes of ritual, including aversion from religious punishments, attainment of religious rewards, and theistic ideologies.

Scriptural Development
There is a steady development of scripture and ideas between the three schools under investigation. The origins of this scriptural heritage can be traced as far back as the Rg Veda, the oldest literature known to the Indo-European cultures. The dates are not known for sure but there is a scholarly guess that these texts can be traced back as early as fifteen hundred BCE2. These are the texts of Vedic ritualism, but are incorporated in every Indo-Aryan tradition to follow, including Purvamimamsa and Vedanta schools (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989). Vedic ritualism adopts three other bodies of texts that are also considered Vedas. The Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas, considered to be developed later. Attached to the Rg Veda, and each of

The earliest historical reference of Baladeva Vidyabhusanas life is in 1741CE, r elating to the raja Jai Singh (Okita, 2008). 2 Many scholars will say twelve hundred BCE as the originating date for the Rg Veda, and the traditions themselves may prefer to date them even earlier, or otherwise have them as an eternally existing entity. These texts were originally orally retained (Lipner, 2002).

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

these other Vedas are an abundance of additional works, including the Brahmanas, Aranyakas3, and Upanisads, which are also commonly ascribed the title of Vedas. These scriptures are believed to develop between twelve hundred BCE and five hundred CE (Lipner, 2002). The Upanisads are considered to be the conclusion of the Vedas for many schools of thought, and are thus called Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas)4. Naturally the Vedanta schools of the same name take these texts more as philosophical basis for their theology, and spend less focus on the ritual Vedas (Radhakrishnan, Volume 1, 1999). To emphasize the weight of this textual body, Klostemaier (2007) suggests that most Hindus consider themselves connected to the Vedas and their teachings, although he notes that perhaps the later epics are more relevant in the social mainstream. Additionally, the traditions dealt with in this paper all consider these texts to be beyond human origin (Vidyabhusana, 2005; Sarma, 2011; Johnson, 2009). This means that they believe these texts are either self-existing or spoken by godly beings. Purvamimamsa develop a system of scripture known as the Mimamsa Sutras, said to be authored in twenty-five CE. These texts aim mostly at elaborating on ritualism in the Vedas. The system of language and hermeneutics in these texts continues on in many traditions following. Vedanta is sometimes called Uttaramimamsa due to its different philosophical roots it borrows from the Purvamimamsa tradition. The Purvamimamsa tradition draw more of their theology from the ritual texts of the Vedas (Brahmanas, etc.), but the Uttaramimamsa schools (Vedanta) take more of their teachings from the speculative texts (Upanisads). These texts are not the only important texts for Vedanta and Vaishnava traditions however, as they also draw a lot from the epics [as mentioned previously] (Sarma, 2011). The Vedanta tradition puts most of its philosophical basis on a group of scripture called the prasthana traya; the Upanisads (as previously discussed), the Brahma Sutras (often called the

The Aranyakas are considered forest texts, to do with rituals done in the forests. They do not have a primary place in our venture of research, but are worth noting (Lipner, 2002). 4 It would be folly that Vedic ritualism, and Purvamimamsa would consider the Upanisads to be the conclusion of the Vedas. These texts hardly deal with ritual at all, and therefore it is worth noting here in case it was not obvious (Radhakrishnan, Volume 1, 1999).

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

Vedanta Sutras5), and the Bhagavad Gita. It is commentaries on these sources that divide each Vedantic tradition from one another (Johnson, 2009). Vaishnavism, like many Hindu traditions, draws much of its narrative history, and supporting philosophical concepts from books known as Itihasas and Puranas (books of religious histories). To put these scriptures into context of those previously mentioned, the Chaitanya Vaishnavas use the Bhagavata Purana as a main theological text, considering it a natural commentary on the Brahma Sutras, and the epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata) contain the Bhagavavad Gita [specifically the Mahabharata] (Klostermaier, 2007). Additionally the Vaishnavas use some ritual books called Pancaratra6, but here I keep focus on the Bhagavad Gita. Baladeva Vidyabhusana plays an interesting role in the scriptural development of the Chaitanya Vaishnava tradition, as he wrote its first major commentary on the Brahma Sutras. Although it was satisfactory within the tradition to use the Bhagavata Purana for this purpose, outside religious politics were forcing the Chaitanya Vaishnavas to produce something more (Okita, 2008). Therefore I thought it appropriate that his commentary on the Bhagavad Gita was used to enrich the scriptural perspective of the Chaitanya Vaishnavas in the investigation. This basic scriptural investigation is an aid to properly look into the different views on ritualism and action that is now to be discussed.

Proper Action
The third chapter of the Bhagavad Gita follows a whole chapter of instructions, delineated by Krishna to the Aryan king Arjuna. The previous chapter emphasized a speculative philosophical religious process, but not an active practice. In the current chapter Krishna is telling Arjuna that he should perform religion in action. Arjuna is confused with these seemingly contrary points of view,

The Brahma Sutras are rightly called Vedanta Sutras because they are a codified commentary on Vedanta (Johnson, 2009). 6 It is important to note the ritual texts known as Pancaratra, significant for Vaishnava ritualism. These texts would have a major place in a larger investigation of Vaishnava ritualism, but our main line of investigation here is the ritual societies in relation to the Bhagavad Gita, not the whole context of Vaishnava scripture (Johnson, 2009). Other scriptures have only been mentioned to show the evolution behind the Bhagavad Gita, in context to the previous schools, and the greater Hindu social structure.

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

thus he expresses his doubt to Krishna to be clarified. It does seem that Krishna ultimately wants Arjuna to fight a war, as a religious duty, thus the significance of action must now be established (Zaehner, 1973). Study of the Vedic society is a matter distanced by time and obscurity. The exact origins and development of the Vedics is a large academic debate. Thankfully, for this current discussion, it is largely appreciated that they emphasized yajna (religious sacrifice, usually denoting ritual fire sacrifices) within their societies. Right action is that which is done in accordance to the Vedas, particularly the ritual aspects (Klostermaier, 2007). For the sacrifices to remain pure, and society to endure, there are many moral considerations in the Vedas for a community based around Vedic ritualism (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989). In the Laugaksi Bhaskara, a Purvamimamsa text, this statement is found: Sacrifice and so on alone are dharma.7 (Sarma, 2011, p. 195) This indicates that only ritual sacrifice and associated duties are considered religious for the Purvamimamsas. This ideal then becomes the rule of interpretation of scripture for the Purvamimamsas; all of the descriptions in the extended Vedas (the original four Vedas and the other texts associated with them) that agree with the lifestyle of yajna are considered to be correct, and anything that seems contrary cannot be taken literally. This is shown well in their limited depth of appreciation for concepts in the Upanisads, gathering only a few notions from these scriptures to assist in the theology behind their ritual (Radhakrishnan S. , Volume 2, 1999). It is no surprise then that the Mimamsa Sutras are composed to shed more light on Vedic rituals (Sarma, 2011). At this part of the investigation, the Purvamimamsas do not show much contrast from other cultures of Vedic ritualism. In the context of the Bhagavad Gita, it should already be apparent that Krishna is not instructing Arjuna for the direct purpose of ritualism. The main focus is for Arjuna to partake in a religious war, thus the main purpose of the overall text is not simply ritualism. Despite this, in the

In this essay I have been avoiding using terms like karma (action) and dharma (religious duty), as they have vast linguistic connotations. It seems convenient here to use as much English equivalency of Sanskrit terms, as not to stray into confusing etymological conclusions. One of the only exceptions to this has been the use of the word yajna.

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

third chapter Krishna instructs Arjuna about the significance of yajna. Krishna here is mostly in agreement with the previous traditions. He expresses that the general society should all do the rituals in conjunction with scripture. Krishna does give exception to a certain mature religious practitioner, but this discussion comes up in the next section (Vidyabhusana, 2005).

Purpose of Action
In the investigation of purpose behind religious action religious punishment is mentioned, followed by theistic mythological considerations, and finally the practitioners personal objectives.

Religious Punishment
It seems that all agree that performance of bad action, or otherwise being inactive, are purposeless and sinful. If not for the same final purpose than at least for the sake of upholding the universal order that comes from yajna (Zaehner, 1973; Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989). Vedic ritualism attributes the god Yama to punish those who are sinful (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989; Sarma, 2011). Baladeva Vidyabhusana (2005) also quotes something to suggest that the same system of punishment by the god Yama is part of the Chaitanya Vaishnava theology. The Purvamimamsas suggest that such neglect of duty gives mystical weight of demerit, and perhaps follow along the Vedic ideal of Yama, although its perception of such a deity may differ (Sarma, 2011).

God/s of Ritualism
It is the deities of the Vedas that punish the wicked in all these traditions, but also have a lot to do with the positive implications of their action and ritualism. It seems to be a basic presumption that Vedic ritualism is a polytheistic tradition, though often worshiping a selected god as superior to the rest in relation to each specific ritual. Thus, interchangeable supremacy of gods seems to be its

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

doctrine8, hoping to praise such a god for the purpose of reaping the results of the ritual the god governs (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989). It is hard to say what the theological nature of Purvamimamsa is; there are theistic versions, polytheistic versions, and non-theistic9 versions. It seems that the ritual itself plays more importance for the Purvamimamsas than the agent who delivers it (Radhakrishnan, Volume 2, 1999). Krishna tells Arjuna that it is for the satisfaction of the gods that yajna should be performed (Zaehner, 1973). Baladeva Vidyabhusana (2005) explains that the god Yajna (god of yajna) is Vishnu, denoting monotheism. He explains that these gods that are worshiped are like the limbs of Vishnu. Many Vaishnava traditions see Vishnu as God, and Krishna to be an incarnation, but some traditions (like the Chaitanya Vaishnavas) see Krishna as the supreme deity, and Vishnu as the incarnation (Johnson, 2009). Regardless, these traditions are monotheistic (although far more technical and elaborate than the typical western equivalent). Having examined the religious stance of each school it is important to see what the practitioners hope to gain from their performance of good action.

Perfection of the Practitioner


Vedic ritualism suggests that the righteous can attain a birth in the abode of the gods (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989). This view is for the most followed by the Purvamimamsas (Sarma, 2011). In saying this, there are versions of Purvamimamsa that believe in a negation of pleasure and pain as the ultimate goal of the theology, straying from the previous tradition (Radhakrishnan, Volume 2, 1999). Later in the Bhagavad Gita is a verse that denotes To the gods go the gods devotees and ends in saying but those who worship Me shall come to Me. (Zaehner, 1973, p. 77)

This doctrine of promoting one of the many gods to a supreme position can be called henotheism. The word is not used in the main discussion because it denotes another area of investigation foreign to this paper (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989). 9 I say non-theistic as opposed to atheistic because a denial of God is not the purpose, but God is simply has no need to be mentioned. There is evidence to suggest that certain Purvamimsa teachers either excluded God, or had no logical place for such a concept, placing such schools in the realm of agnosticism (Radhakrishnan, Volume 2, 1999).

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

Therefore the success of Vedic ritualism is included in the scope of Krishnas discussion, but like the process of ritualism it is given a lower hierarchy to Krishnas theism. Krishna does not advise Arjuna to renounce religious duties in the beginning of the third chapter (Zaehner, 1973). This keeps Krishnas teachings in line with the other traditions who, for the most, do not advocate asceticism. Again, the idea of renunciation is dealt with to a vast extent in the Upanisads, putting ritual regulations underneath self-realization (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1989). Krishna is advocating this same idea, but only for the advanced practitioner. Where Krishna was originally advocating performing yajna he has allowed for those of a higher level of religious power to disregard rituals entirely (Zaehner, 1973). Baladeva Vidyabhusana (2005) elaborates that the gods create obstacles for everyone on this earth, but remove obstacles for those who are sincere in their self-realization. Adding the Chaitanya Vaishnava ideal of devotion to God to this Vedantic realization of the self is the conclusion of this schools purpose, which outreaches beyond the scope of action and ritual. The significance of renouncing ritual for devotion is found repeated in the concluding verses of the Bhagavad Gita. Give up all things of law, turn to Me, your only refuge, [for] I will deliver you from all evils; have no care. (Zaehner, 1973, p. 108).

Conclusion
Reflecting on the investigation, it seems that all three traditions have a common harmony. Their vast philosophical differences could only be discovered by scratching beneath the surface of their theologies. Vedic ritualism would disagree with many extensions of Purvamimamsa, but would not object to its rigorous dedication to sacrifice. The two traditions would find fault in Krishnas ideals of abandoning duties for higher self-realization, but would be appreciative of his support for the doctrine of yajna. Thus it seems the first two traditions are exclusive, purely based around religious ritual, accepting only traditions that perform ritual, whereas Krishnas tradition seems to be inclusive, with a differed process of religious perfection altogether. Krishnas main purpose for the Bhagavad Gita does not seem to be to advocate ritualism, although he includes it, but rather to emphasize the

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

greater scope of religious action and purpose. In doing this he does not attempt to disturb other ritual traditions.

Maddy Jean-Claude Durr

Six Classical Indian Philosophies

Rituals of Three

Bibliography
Johnson, W. J. (2009). Oxford Dictionary of Hinduism (1st ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. Klostermaier, K. K. (2007). A Survey of Hinduism (Third ed.). Albany, New York, United States of America: State University of New York Press. Lipner, J. (2002). Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London, United Kingdom: Routledge. Okita, K. (2008). Madhva or Gaudiya? The Philosophy of Baladeva Vidyabhusana's PrameyaRatnavali. (S. J. Rosen, Ed.) Journal of Vaishnava Studies, 16(2), 33-48. Radhakrishnan, S. (1999). Indian Philosophy (Vol. II). New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. Radhakrishnan, S. (1999). Indian Philosophy (Vol. I). New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. Radhakrishnan, S., & Moore, A. M. (Eds.). (1989). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. New Jersey, New York, United States of America: Princeton University Press. Sarma, D. (2011). Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader. Chichester, New York, United States of America: Columbia University Press. Vidyabhusana, S. B. (2005). Gita Bhusana. (H. H. Swami, Trans.) Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India: Sampradaya Publishers. The Bhagavad-Gita. (1973). (R. Zaehner, Trans.) New York City, New York, United States of America: Oxford University Press.

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