Sharing Information

ISSN 2232-1608 Vol. 19 No.
2, December 2012
Knnw!cdgc 5tIckIncss, Knnw!cdgc
Managcmcnt, and ThcIr Impact nn FIrm
Lcvc! CnmpctItIvc Advantagc
-RKQ/LSLQVNL 113
An EmpIrIca! 5tudy nI Knnw!cdgc-
Managcmcnt Cnnt cxt ua! Fact nr
In thc Emcrgcncc nI InInrmatInn
CnmmunIcatInn Tcchnn!ngy In 5chnn!s
5DPOHH,VPDLO0DULQDK$ZDQJ 1529
OrganIzatInna! CnmmItmcnt and
IntcntInn tn Lcavc Amnng Nurscs: Thc
McdIatIng Rn!c nI Mnra! Ob!IgatInn
.KDWLMDK2PDU0DUKDQD
0RKDPHG$QXDU$EGXO+DOLP
$EGXO0DMLG+XVQD-RKDUL
3146
Pattcrns and Factnrs AIIcctIng WIvcs'
,QXHQFH LQ )DPLO\ 3XUFKDVH 'HFLVLRQ
MakIng In Urban Ma!aysIa
6DPVLQDU0G6LGLQ'DKOLD
=DZDZL&DURO7HR%RRQ+XL
4773
Ana!ysIs nI Zakat Managcmcnt In BruncI
'DUXVVDODP
0RKDPHG6KDULI%DVKLU1XUXO
1DELODK+DML$OL
751O2
Pcngurusan Pcmbangunan Harta WakaI:
Pcnga!aman Maj!Is Agama Is!am NcgcrI
Pu!au PInang (MAINPP) Tcrhadap WakaI
5cctcc AIshah
Hq!zu||ii Hcsnim c Asmc| A|.
5DKPDQ
1O3122
Pcrbc!anjaan Awam dan Pcrtumbuhan
EknnnmI: BuktI EmpIrIk darIpada
Kcrajaan NcgcrI dI 5cmcnanjung
Ma!aysIa
Ncrcin Mc! Asri, Zu||cq A|!u|
.DULP0G=\DGL0G7DKLU
:RRN(QGXW
123148
+XEXQJDQ 'LQDPLN DQWDUD 3DVDUDQ
5aham dcngan Kadar Pcrtukaran: BuktI
EmpIrIka! dI A5EAN-3
$EX+DVVDQ6KDDUL0RKG1RU
0RUL.RJLG7DPDW6DUPLGL
149169
ISSN 2232-1608
Publisher
UUM Press
Universiti Utara Malaysia
06010 UUM Sintok, Kedah
Malaysia
Phone: +604-9284141 Fax: +604-9284142
URL: htp//uumpress@uum.edu.my
2012 UUM Press. All rights reserved.
The publisher of In ternational Journal of Management Studies will not be
responsible for the statements made by the authors in any articles published
in the journal. Under no circumstances will the publisher of this publication
be liable for any loss or damage caused by your reliance on the advice, opinion
or information obtained either explicitly or implied through the contents of
this publication.
All rights of reproduction are reserved in respect of all papers, articles,
illustrations, etc., published in International Journal of Management Studies. All
materials published in this journal is protected by copyright, which covers
exclusive rights to reproduce and distribute the material. No part of this
publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior
permission from UUM Press.
Subscription
The local subscription rate per issue is RM20.00. The subscription rate
includes postage, packaging and delivery by surface mail.
Inquiries related to subscription or permission to reprint materials should be
sent to:
Director
UUM Press
06010 UUM Sintok
Kedah, Malaysia
Cover printed by
2K Label Printing Sdn. Bhd.
Kawasan Perindustrian Mergong
05150 Alor Setar
Kedah, Malaysia
Printed by
UUM Press
06010 UUM Sintok
Kedah, Malaysia
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS/SENARAI PENYUMBANG
1. John Lipinski
P. O. Box 75
Middle Tennessee State University
Murfreeboro, TN 37132
E-mail: John.Lipinski@mtsu.edu
2. Ramlee Ismail
Faculty of Management and Economics
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris
35900 Tanjong Malim
Perak Darul Ridzuan
E-mail: ramlee@fpe.upsi.edu.my
3 . Marinah Awang
35900 Tanjong Malim
Perak Darul Ridzuan
E-mail: marinah@fpe.upsi.edu.my
4. Khatijah Omar
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
21030 Kuala Terengganu
Terengganu
E-mail: khatijah@umt.edu.my
5. Marhana Mohamed Anuar
21030 Kuala Terengganu
Terengganu
E-mail: marhana@umt.edu.my
6. Abdul Halim Abdul Majid
School of Business Management
UUM College of Business
06010 UUM Sintok
Kedah Darul Aman
E-mail: ahalim@uum.edu.my
7. Husna Johari
School of Business Management
06010 UUM Sintok
Kedah Darul Aman
E-mail: husna@uum.edu.my
8. Samsinar Md Sidin
Faculty of Economics and Management
Universiti Putra Malaysia
43400 UPM, Serdang
Selangor Darul Ehsan
E-mail: sms@putra.upm.edu.my
9. Dahlia Zawawi
43400 UPM, Serdang
E-mail: dahlia@econ.upm.edu.my

10. Carol Teo Boon Hui
Faculty of Business Management
Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM)
40450 Shah Alam
E-mail: carol215@uitm.edu.my
11. Mohamed Sharif Bashir
Faculty of Business and Management Sciences
Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University
Brunei Darussalam
E-mail: msharief@hotmail.com

12. Nurul Nabilah Haji Ali
Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University
Brunei Darussalam
E-mail:
13. Hyzulkii Haji Hashim
Islamic Business School
06010 UUM Sintok
Kedah Darul Aman
E-mail: hydzulkii@uum.edu.my
14. Asmak Ab. Rahman
Department of Syariah and Economics
Universiti Malaya
50603 Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia
E-mail: asmak@um.edu.my
15. Norain Mod Asri
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
43600 UKM, Bangi
E-mail: norain@ukm.my
16. Zulkey Abd Karim
43600 UKM, Bangi
E-mail: mz@ukm.my
17. Md Zyadi Md Tahir
43600 UKM, Bangi
E-mail: mzyat@pkrisc.cc.ukm.my
18. Wook Endut
43600 UKM, Bangi
E-mail: wook@ukm.my
19. Abu Hassan Shaari Mohd Nor
43600 UKM, Bangi
E-mail: ahassan@ukm.my
20. Mori Kogid
School of Business and Economics
Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Jalan UMS
88400 Kota Kinabalu
Sabah
E-mail: edy@ums.edu.my
21. Tamat Sarmidi
Institute of West Asian Studies
43600 UKM, Bangi
E-mail: tamat@ukm.my
1
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
KNOWLEDGE STICKINESS, KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT, AND THEIR IMPACT ON
FIRM LEVEL COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
JOHN LIPINSKI
Department of Management and Marketing
Middle Tennessee State University
Abstract
This paper explores the areas of Knowledge Stickiness and Knowledge
Management. In doing so, it develops a set of propositions for considering the
Stickiness of Knowledge as a construct to be used to understand the impact
of knowledge management strategies and rm-level performance within a
given industry. The result of this work builds on previous work in knowledge
management and business strategy thus providing a research stream that
looks at the relationship between a rms knowledge management strategy
and how the rm views its boundaries with other rms in the industry.
Keywords: Knowledge management, sticky knowledge, competitive advantage,
tacit knowledge, explicit knowledge.
Introduction
Management scholars strive to answer the questions of why rms exist
and why certain rms out-perform others. In the process, multiple
theories have been developed. Many of the leading theories suggest
that rms exist to facilitate the development, sharing, and dispersion
of knowledge; and the organizations that excel have developed
superior competencies in managing this process (Li & Hsieh, 2009).
This paper adds new dimensions to the theory that discrepancies
in rm performance within an industry can be answered, at least in
part, by knowledge asymmetries among the rms within the industry
(Earl, 2001) and how rms manage the ow, or stickiness of this
knowledge. The interpretation and transfer of knowledge requires
multiple stakeholders (Busch, 2008, 1). Due to its importance, the
topic has been widely explored, but researchers nd that knowledge
management and stickiness remain a fruitful area for exploration
as many key questions remain open for debate and new ideas are
formulated (Venkitachalam & Busch, 2012; Collins, 2010).
2
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
Von Hippel (1994,1998) worked to dene knowledge stickiness. The
more di cult it is to obtain, transmit, and employ information at a
new location, the stickier it is. Management scholars have argued
that knowledge is the most valuable resource for rms (Lee, 2000;
Drucker, 1994). As such, organizations have embarked on numerous
programmes to increase the availability of knowledge via training
programmes and networks to their employees. Unfortunately,
successful knowledge networks represent the occasional island
doting a sea of failures. While many organizations are eager adopters
of knowledge networks stems, individual users frequently abandon
them, leaving a trail of million-dollar paperweights. To be self-
sustaining, knowledge networks must be sticky, though stickiness is
an elusive design objective (Bush & Tiwana, 2005). Knowledge must
ow within an organization, but not right out the door. One approach
to address rm advantages is to consider knowledge asymmetries.
As such, in seeking a competitive advantage management scholars
argue that rms exist to coordinate the knowledge eorts of diverse
individuals within the marketplace (Conner & Prahalad, 1996).
Knowledge management which targets explicit knowledge being able
to identify and codify knowledge makes knowledge transfers more
successful (Mooradian, 2005) Under this coordination of knowledge-
eorts view, rms exist to facilitate the transfer of knowledge where
appropriate, and combine knowledge types where needed to produce
a higher order good. The rm as knowledge facilitator view assumes
that the rm is a more e cient means to transfer or to bring together
diverse units of knowledge than one can achieve in a market dynamic;
the transaction costs are less in a rm than in market dynamics
(Conner & Prahalad, 1996).
This paper draws from and adds to the stream of literature arguing
that rms exist to facilitate knowledge (Grant, 1996; Kogut & Zander,
1992). The coordination of the knowledge eorts of diverse individuals
and eective knowledge management is paramount for long-term
success in organizations. Therefore, developing an eective strategy
with respect to both dispersing and protecting their knowledge assets
and processes, given the industry and market position occupied, is
necessary for rms to achieve a long-term competitive advantage.
Given these assumptions, this paper develops a set of propositions
to addres the stickieness of knowledge and the rms knowledge-
management strategies as a way to understand rm performance
within a given industry. The result of this work will build upon
previous work in knowledge management and business strategy and
3
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
provide a pathway to a research stream focusing on the relationship
between a rms knowledge-management strategy and how the rm
views its boundaries with other rms in the industry. In order to
accomplish this task, section 2 of this paper consists of a brief literature
review of knowledge-management and the stickiness of knowledge,
key terms, and denitions; section 3 is devoted to the development
of the propositions suggested by this research; section 4 summarizes
the work presented here, and section 5 suggests future eorts and
directions in relation to the propositions developed.
Literature Review
The eld of organizational knowledge research stems from Ryles
(1949) distinction between knowing-that and knowing-how Polanyi
(1967) later rened this concept into tacit and explicit knowledge.
Since the publication of these two works, knowledge issues have
polarized the distinctions made by Ryle and Polanyi and continue to
this day.
Von Hippel (1994) was the rst to suggest the term sticky in
relation to business applications. His research concerns technical
development areas and in particular, he is concerned with the impact
that sticky information has on innovation and problem-solving within
organizations. He denes sticky information as knowledge that is
costly to move from one location to another. The problem for Von
Hippel is in the recognition that (a) any monopoly may be broken
since the information, once out, may be reproduced by anyone; and
(b) in order to solve a problem, the information necessary to answer
the question must be brought to a single location--either physically
or virtually (p. 429).
For instance, considering the generalized labourer possessing a
high degree of gestalt, one is left questioning what type of stickiness
this might be since this type of classication carries litle meaning.
However, one can easily conceptualize a specialized expert with
a high degree of gestalt; for instance, an expert carpenter whose
knowledge is not easy to replicate and therefore, the most cost-
eective way to transfer the knowledge (or information for Von
Hippel) is to co-locate the source and the recipient. The problem with
knowledge is that it is costly to acquire, transfer, and use in a new
location. For instance, in the case of the carpenter, not only does one
have to bring in the expert from outside, but the rm also has to pay
4
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
for the non-productive training time. Additionally, there may exist
a need to later bring the expert back to the location as unanticipated
problems are encountered. Thus, for Von Hippel, any information
that is costly because of acquisition or transfer expenses is considered
sticky; moreover, the greater the degree of stickiness, the higher the
associative costs. Knowledge requires a high degree of gestalt such
as Polanyis knowing by doing where there is a long apprenticeship
period or a great deal of education required for individual training.
Von Hippel (1994) makes four claims regarding sticky information
and the locus of problem solving:
1. If sticky information is held at one location and the problem
may be addressed at that location, then the problem-solving
activity will be carried out at this location.
2. If multiple locations of sticky information are called upon in
order to address a problem (i.e., if the resolution to the problem
is dependent on multiple sites), then the problem resolution
will occur through an iterative process passing from location to
location until the problem is resolved.
3. If the iterative process is cost prohibitive, then the problem will
be partitioned into subproblems so that each location will
handle a specic portion of the problem.
4. Finally, where possible, eorts will be made to reduce the cost
of stickiness of the information. Von Hippel operationalizes a
unit of stickiness as the additional incremental costs necessary
to transfer one unit of information from one location to another
in a format that is usable by the second location in a given
instance. This paper adopts Von Hippels operationalization of
a unit of stickiness.
For Szulanski (2003, 1996), information is relatively costless and
easy to transfer; it is simply data. However, knowledge containing
a set of expert heuristics, making it more di cult to codify
knowledge gets closer to this papers denition of knowledge as an
actionable heuristic and exemplies Polanyis knowing in action. He
conceptualizes a theory of sticky knowledge as a dyadic exchange
of information between a source and a recipient where the source
atempts to transfer a rm best-practice to the recipient in a process
that involves four stages: initiation, implementation, ramp-up, and
integration. Szulanski uses the term transfer rather than diusion
for his theory of sticky knowledge to emphasize that the act of the
knowledge transference is discrete and deliberate.
5
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
Although Szulanski and others use the word tacit to speak about
the stickiness of knowledge, they do so only to indicate the internal
nature of the knowledge. As the literature evolved, scholars have
come to see stickiness as a continuum rather than see knowledge as
dichotomously tacit or explicit; there is friction (understood in the
literature as stickiness) in all knowledge transfer. (Chon, 2011; Li
& Hsieh, 2009). Tacit knowledge is seen as vague and ambiguous.
This ambiguity creates confusion that in turn makes developing and
implementing knowledge strategies more di cult (Mooradian, 2005).
Collins (2010: 67) goes so far as to suggest that there is a problem
understanding what explicit knowledge means. He states that
explicit knowledge is rooted in tacit knowledge and also proclaims
that tacit knowledge depends on the explicit. He further states that
the debate goes back, at least, as far as the Greeks.
For Szulanski, tacit is used in the Rylian sense of knowledge held
internally and not externally veriable by another human; the
knowledge of one individual may only be approximated by another.
Recall that Polanyis knowledge is a gestalt knowledge developed
over time and therefore, knowledge transferred in a discrete act fails
to earn the level of Polanyis gestalt. Knowledge falls on a continuum
from tacit to explicit or from gestalt to information.
With the preceding foundation established and some of the dierences
in the interpretation of information and various types of knowledge,
it is now possible to talk about how one might conceptualize an
integrated theory of sticky knowledge and rm strategy in order to
further explain competitive advantages and knowledge asymmetries
in an industry. The remainder of this paper focuses on the development
of propositions that suggest how to capture some of the variances in
rm performance.
Proposition Development
Much of the research on knowledge management assumes that
knowledge is a dichotomous variable where it is either explicit or
tacit. Although this makes the coding of research easy, it does not
accurately reect the true nature of what knowledge is or how it
might reside in organizations. Rather than the either-or assumption
stemming from Ryle and Polanyi, it is far more likely that knowledge
resides on a continuum between explicit and tacit that reects various
degrees of knowing (Albino, Garavelli & Schiuma, 2001). The fact
6
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
that knowledge cannot be labelled dichotomously is reective of the
imperfect nature of the transfer of knowledge between individuals.
Hence, a rm exists to manage and coordinate the knowledge
eorts of individuals to produce higher order goods and industry
heterogeneity exists because of dierences in the abilities of rms
to manage those assets. Therefore, a rm is able to maintain long-
term competitive advantages under conditions where the rm either
inherently reduces the di culty in the transfer and duplication
of knowledge or when the di culty is purposively created so that
outside rms experience di culty in the capture or duplication of
knowledge. This leads to the following propositions:
P1: A rms long-term competitive advantage is positively correlated
with the rms ability to maintain or induce knowledge stickiness
across rm boundaries relative to competitors in an industry.
P2: There is a direct relationship between a rms atempt to decrease the
permeability of its boundaries and the increase in internal stickiness.
It is important to note that a rm may have an overall strategy for its
knowledge management but in certain circumstances it may opt
to alter its procedures to achieve specic goals. When managerial
knowledge which is di cult to transfer from one rm to another owing
to its sticky characteristics is considered, the possession of absorptive
capacity becomes more important (Park, 2010). This is premised on
the theory of information processing (Galbraith, 1977; Subramaniam,
Rosenthal et al., 1998) that views the rm as an information processor.
The purpose of the rm under the theory of information processing
is to reduce rm uncertainty and lack of knowledge by processing
information. Given this view of the rm, if information gets stuck
at any location--whether that locus is temporal, spatial, or human
(Orlikowski, 2002)--then the rm fails to reduce uncertainty and
may even increase it. Firm orientation may be seen as an additional
atempt to mitigate those places where knowledge may get stuck or
to stick knowledge where the rm does not want to allow diusion.
Hence, the rm may have two knowledge strategies: strategy one
is for knowledge that must be kept immobile; strategy two is for
knowledge that must be mobile. Given that a rm may have several
knowledge strategies, knowledge management then becomes an
issue of controlling knowledge practices relative to context.
Firm orientation is dened as the way that the rm views its boundaries
with other organizations especially within the same or similar
industry. Furthermore, the rms orientation may be selected based
7
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
on a continuum between porous and compartmentalized boundaries
with respect to other rms in the industry. For instance, in the case
of a rm with an extremely porous orientation (PO), the organization
is willing to allow any individual to walk into the organization
and openly inspect all aspects of the operation. A rm that is said
to be absolutely porous might be represented by an organization
that openly and honestly allows the public and competing rms to
inspect every aspect of its operations to include contracts as well as
prot and loss statements. At the other end of the continuum is the
organization that selects a compartmentalized orientation (CO). The
CO is represented by an organization that places each aspect of its
operations into various relatively autonomous departments so that
should information leak from one unit, it would be useless without
information leaks in other units. In this case, one can make a claim
that what leaks is not knowledge as it has been dened here but
information; the knowledge comes from the limited number of agents
who possess the ability to synthesize the information. A rm that is
absolutely compartmentalized may be represented by an organization
where no individual within the rm has knowledge of what any other
individual in the rm has knowledge of. In fact, one would only
expect to rarely, if ever, see a rm that represents or aspires to be at
either end of the orientation spectrum.
P3: There is a direct positive relationship between a rm with a porous-
boundary orientation and the amount of public transparency.
P4: There is a direct negative relationship between a rm with a
compartment-boundary orientation and the amount of public
transparency.
Firm Orientation
Knowledge strategy is dened as the course of action that the rm
may elect to take with respect to how it deals with the assets of its
knowledge production. Since the rm is interested in the maintenance
or the development of competitive advantages, the rm must develop
action sets that allow it to capture beter than average rents from the
production of organizational knowledge. This view assumes that
knowledge can, at least to some degree, be objectied. The object
of knowledge does not necessarily have to exist as a codied text
that is saleable, but it can exist in the minds of individuals within
the organization who may be outsourced as either employees or
consultants to other rms.
8
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
A pure diused or open-sourced strategy may exist where absence
of stickiness is desired in order to secure long-term rents. One may
expect to see this type of strategy employed in industries such as
high tech or emergent areas where a certain critical mass needs to
be achieved for technology acceptance; LINUX system is the prime
example of a near pure diused strategy employed by a rm (Lee &
Cole, 2003). The developers post their code for applications so that
other developers can inspect, critique, and alter.
One might expect that a rm employing a pure patent or licensing
strategy to be represented best by research rms. In this type of
organization, the rm employs researchers to develop new compounds
or formulae that need litle or no expertise to use, but the knowledge
is easily transferable through the knowledge of the compound itself.
The rm then sells the use of its discovery to other rms who may
have specialized knowledge in the production processes necessary to
capitalize on the new compound. The rm that developed the new
compound may not possess the skills necessary to capitalize on the
discoveries themselves and therefore licenses the production of all
intellectual capital. The production of the intellectual capital in this
type of pure strategy must be easily codied for packaging.
The pure protectionist strategy is best represented by the government-
intelligence community. Within the government-intelligence
community the production of the intellectual capital is highly guarded
since the release of the information may represent serious threats to
security. Additionally, this type of information is extremely tacit and
specic. Often the production of the knowledge is not easily codied
since the knowledge must be translated by particular specialists.
There is a direct relationship between the rms orientation and
the strategy that it employs with respect to knowledge. Therefore,
if on average, as a rm engages in a protectionist strategy with
respect to internal knowledge, the rm will be represented by a
more compartmentalized structure. One would expect to nd such
strategies in industries that are R&D intensive and produce the
products of their own research. This is not to say that all rms will
be found on the central regression line since some rms may nd
it cost prohibitive to develop a compartmentalized organizational
structure while others may nd that it is more cost benecial to have
a more porous border. However, one would expect that under no
circumstance will it be benecial to have both a protectionist strategy
and a completely porous orientation. This suggests that as rm
9
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
strategy increases toward complete protectionism and as the rm
trends toward complete compartmentalized orientation, the costs
associated with stickiness increase.
The above discussion leads to the following propositions:
P5: The greater the degree of protectionist strategy, the greater the degree
of compartmentalized orientation with respect to organizational
boundaries.
P6: The greater the degree of diused strategy that the rm adopts, the
greater the degree of permeability in the organizational boundaries.
An industry of type X will compartmentalize information to a
measurable degree represented by a knowledge function that will
limit the diusion of proprietary knowledge in order for the rm
to capitalize on rents. On the same continuum, a rm of type Y will
spend resources to develop a porous internal boundary in order
to facilitate the transfer of best practices despite the diusion
of knowledge outside of the organization in order to minimize
internal costs and hence maximize revenues from the transfer of
knowledge. In each case, the researcher may develop a sticky
function that allows him or her to predict both the orientation of the
organization for various types of organizational activities and the
rms expenditures during various parts of the industrys life-cycle.
However, in order to accomplish this task, the researcher must have a
thorough conceptualization of a theory of knowledge stickiness. This
theory must clearly outline the boundary conditions, units of analysis
and system states (Dubin,1978).
In reality, one should not expect that there will be any rms or
industries that employ pure strategies for several reasons. Albino et
al. (2001) have demonstrated that in reality there are ner distinctions
for knowledge metrics than just tacit or implicit knowledge.
Additionally, other authors have demonstrated that knowledge does
not exist as a dichotomous polarization between explicit and implicit
but that in reality knowledge more likely exists as a continuum
between the polar classications. Moreover, it is unlikely that a rm
will be able to control all aspects of its boundary. Thus one would
expect them not to nd a rm with either completely porous or
purely compartmentalized boundaries. The question remains: how
does sticky knowledge relate to the above theory of rm strategy with
respect to rm orientation?
10
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
P7: The more a rm employs a porous orientation and a diused strategy,
the more the rm will make eorts to reduce the stickiness of
knowledge.
P8: The more a rm employs a compartmentalized orientation and
a protectionist strategy, the more the rm will atempt to make
knowledge sticky or ensure knowledge remains sticky.
The theory of sticky knowledge presented here is premised on the
ability of a rm to leverage its knowledge to collect rents where
rents are dened as the incremental increase in revenues that the
rm may receive from the application of practices derived from the
knowledge obtained or sold. However, also included in this denition,
is that savings in operations may be realized from the application of
the knowledge being leveraged. However, abnormal rents gained
from knowledge asymmetries may only be collected if the knowledge
remains tacit to outside organizations (Hayward, 2002; McEvily &
Chakravarthy, 2002). In the resource-based view (RBV), knowledge is
perceived as an asset that dierentiates the rms abilities from other
rms in an industry and gives it a strategic advantage over other rms
in the market (Kearns, 2003; Spender, 1996; Barney, 1991; Wernerfelt,
1984). For RBV, rents gained from knowledge advantages are short-
lived since knowledge is quickly diused within an industry through
employee contact with other individuals outside of their rms,
backward engineering, employee turnover, and so forth and hence is
too limited a conceptualization of rm knowledge since some rms
are able to leverage their knowledge base despite the widespread
diusion of information. Hence, this paper builds on the premise that
some organizations are beter able to leverage their knowledge base
than others despite the widespread availability of existing knowledge.
Summary
There remains a great debate in the knowledge management literature
on how best to codify and share or conversely protect knowledge and
in each instance use it to enable organizations to achieve a sustainable
competitive advantage. The propositions in this paper posit that rms
will atempt to induce sticky knowledge under certain circumstances
and reduce sticky knowledge under other circumstances. This is a
function of how the rm atempts to actualize its boundaries with
other organizations in the industry. Additionally, this paper suggests
that rm orientation and knowledge strategy are functions of the
nature of the industry in which the organization exists.
11
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
Future Eorts
This paper has suggested several propositions with a potential set of
test metrics for both laboratory testing and data collection. Testing
these propositions will enable organizations to make beter informed
decisions on optimal knowledge-management strategies based on
the organizations individual circumstances. Many propositions in
this paper can be tested in the laboratory with a series of experiments
conducted with MBA-level professionals. Others will require
collecting data from a diverse sample of organizations and the most
practical method would be a series of questionnaires and subsequent
analysis of the data to test the propositions. This testing will provide
a venue for rapid development of the ideas presented here as well as
a renement of the key concepts. The results of the laboratory-test
environment will also help to clarify the boundary conditions and
system states for actual data collection. The result will be a more
fully-developed theory on the relationship between the stickiness of
knowledge and rm orientation that will help focus time and eort in
the collection and analysis of actual rm data. A research study that
focuses on the actual collection of rm data will help to elaborate on
the strategic question of why rms exist. In addition, a study of the
type suggested here will help provide insights into rm orientation
and strategy that will help the knowledge-management practitioner
focus his or her eorts.
References
Albino, V., Garavelli, A . C., & Schiuma, G. (2001). A metric for
measuring knowledge codication in organizational learning.
Technovation, 21(7), 413422.
Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage.
Journal of Management, 17(1),99121.
Busch, P. (2008). Tacit knowledge in organizational learning. New
York: IGI Publishing.
Bush, A. A., & Tiwana, A. (2005). Designing sticky knowledge
networks. Communications of the ACM, 48(5), 6671.
Chon, M. (2011). S ticky knowledge and copyright. Wisconsin Law
Review, Volume 2011, 177217.
Collins, H. (2010). Tacit and explicit knowledge. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Conner, K. R., & Prahalad, C. K. (1996). A resource-based theory of
the rm: Knowledge versus opportunism. Organization Science:
A Journal of the Institute of Management Sciences, 7(5), 477.
12
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
Drucker, P. F. (1994). Post-capitalist society. New York: Harper Collins.
Durand, R. (2002). Competitive advantage exists: A critique of powell.
Strategic Management Journal, 23(9), 867872.
Earl, M. (2001). Knowledge management strategies: Toward a
taxonomy. Journal of Management Information Systems, 18(1), 215.
Grant, R. M. (1996). Toward a knowledge-based theory of the rm.
Strategic Management Journal, 17, 109122
Hayward, M. L. A. (2002). When do rms learn from their acquisition
experience? Evidence from 1990 1995. Strategic Management
Journal, 23, 2139.
Jacobson, R. (1988). The persistence of abnormal returns. Strategic
Management Journal, 9(5), 415430.
Kakabadse, N. K., Kouzmin, A., & Kakabadse, A. (2001). From tacit
knowledge to knowledge management: Leveraging invisible
assets. Knowledge and Process Management, 8(3), 137154.
Kearns, G. S., & Lederer, A. L. (2003). A resource-based view of
strategic IT alignment: How knowledge sharing creates
competitive advantage. Decision Sciences, 34(1), 129.
King, A. W., & Zeithaml, C. P. (2003). Measuring organizational
knowledge: A conceptual and methodological framework.
Strategic Management Journal, 24, 763772.
Kogut, B., & Zander, U. (1992). Knowledge of rm, combinative
capabilities, and the replication of technology. Organization
Science, 3(3) 383397.
Lee, C. C. (2000). Knowledge value chain. Journal of Management
Development, 19(9), 783794.
Li, C., & Hsieh, C. (2009). The impact of knowledge stickiness on
knowledge transfer, internationalization, and satisfaction for
multinational corporations. International Journal of Information
Management, 29(6), 425435.
Liebeskind, J. P. (1996, Winter). Knowledge, strategy, and the theory
of the rm. Strategic Management Journal, 17(Special Issue), 93107.
McEvily, S. K., & Chakravarthy, B. (2002). The persistence of
knowledge-based advantage: An empirical test for product
performance and technological knowledge. Strategic
Management Journal, 23, 285305.
McGahan, A. M., & Porter, M. E. (1997, Summer). How much does
industry mater, really? Strategic Management Journal, 18(Special
Issue), 1530.
Mooradian, N. (2005). Tacit knowledge: Philosophic roots and role
in knowledge management. Journal of Knowledge Management,
9(6) 104113.
13
IJMS 19 (2), 113 (2012)
Park, B. I. (2010). What maters to managerial knowledge acquisition
in international joint ventures, high knowledge acquirers versus
low knowledge acquirers. Asia Pacic Journal of Management,
27, 5579.
Pemberton, J. D., Stonehouse, G. H., & Yarrow, D. J. (2001).
Benchmarking and the role of organizational learning in
developing competitive advantage. Knowledge and Process
Management, 8(2), 123135.
Polanyi, M. (1967). The tacit dimension. New York: Doubleday.
Rumelt, R. P. (1991). How much does industry mater? Strategic
Management Journal, 12(3),167185.
Ryle, G. (1949). The concept of mind. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press.
Sabherwal, R., & Becerra-Fernandez, I. (2003). An empirical study of
the eect of knowledge management processes at individual,
group, and organizational levels. Decision Sciences, 34(2), 225260.
Schmalensee, R. (1985). Do markets dier much? The American
Economic Review, 75(3), 341351.
Schumpeter, J. A. (1934). The theory of economic development: An
inquiry into prots, capital, credit, interest, and the business cycle.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Szulanski, G. (1996, Winter). Exploring internal stickiness: Impediments
to the transfer of best practice within the rm. Strategic
Management Journal, 17(Special Issue), 2743.
Szulanski, G. (2003). Sticky knowledge: Barriers to knowing in the rm.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Venkitachalam, K., & Busch, P. (2012). Tacit knowledge: Review and
possible research directions. Journal of Knowledge Management,
16(2), 357372.
Von Hippel, E. (1994). Sticky information and the locus of problem
solving: Implications for innovation. Management Science, 40(4),
429439.
Von Hippel, E. (1998). Economics of product development by user
the impact of sticky local information. Management Science,
44(5), 629644.
Wernerfelt, B. (1984). A resource-based view of the rm. Strategic
Management Journal, 5(2), 171180.
Wiklund, J., & Shepherd, D. (2003). Knowledge-based resources,
entrepreneurial orientation, and the performance of small and
medium-sized businesses. Strategic Management Journal, 24,
13071314.
15
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE-
MANAGEMENT C ONTEXTUAL FACTOR
IN THE EMERGENCE OF INFORMATION
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
IN SCHOOLS
RAMLEE ISMAIL
MARINAH AWANG
Abstract
Information technology in schools aggressively emerged in the late 1990s
to reinvent the teaching and learning process in Malaysia. Schools no
longer existed merely for the purposes of traditional teaching and learning
but were needed to enhance their knowledge activities so as to be able to
cope with the rapid changes that were taking place. The objectives of this
study are to determine the contribution of knowledge contextual factors
to the knowledge activities, with particular reference to the emergence of
information technologies in schools, and to evaluate progress with respect to
knowledge activities in school education. The research is designed around
questionnaires based on a knowledge-management conceptual framework
administered to random samples of teachers in information technology-
facilitated schools and regular schools so as to be able to make comparisons.
Interestingly the ndings show that the information technology under
the ICT Facilitated school is not a key factor contributing to knowledge
sharing among the teachers. The ndings also provide evidence that culture
is the most important factor relating to a knowledge activity. Knowledge
friendly, motivating sta, commited leadership, openness and mutual trust
are some examples of positive school culture, whereas management factor
remains crucial in facilitating learning and sharing among teachers.
Keywords: Knowledge management, school, culture, management, technology.
Introduction
The last decade of the 20
th
century saw unprecedented and
accelerating changes in the global market accompanied by advances
in ICT (information communication technology). As part of the global
16
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
player, Malaysia has initiated a mega project called Multimedia Super
Corridor (MSC) which consists of seven agships; E-Government,
Telehealth, Multipurpose Card, Smart School , R&D Cluster,
E-Business and Technopeneur Development. It is the intention of
MSC to propel the transfer of technology and become the test bed for
research and development in high-tech industries.
Information communication technology (ICT) in schools aggressively
emerged in the late 1990s when the Smart School project was launched
in July 1997. As part of the MSC, the Smart School Project is to
engage and reinvent the process of teaching and learning. The major
dierence between the ICT- facilitated schools and the regular schools
was in the technological facilities provided. The ICT infrastructure
in the respective schools enabled an integrated management and
learning system, so that administrative and supervisory tasks could
be streamlined and automated. These new technological challenges
led to an explosion of data, information and knowledge; schools no
longer existed merely for the purposes of traditional teaching and
learning but were needed to enhance their knowledge activities so as
to be able to cope with the rapid changes that were taking place.
The ICT-facilitated schools and the regular schools
The ICT-facilitated schools in this study refer to the 90 selected
schools which participated in the Smart School Integrated Solution
(SSIS) project. The schools were selected from the three school types,
namely the regular schools, the fully-residential schools and the
religious schools. The 90 schools were chosen based on the schools
overall performance and their strategic locations to be able to function
as an education hub to the surrounding area. The regular schools
refer to those other than the 90 selected schools that come from the
same school type. The decision of having ICT-facilitated schools was
to cater for knowledge-driven workers as well as to fulll the national
aspiration for Vision 2020.
The major dierence between the ICT facilitated schools and the
regular schools lies in the facilities supplied to the schools. For
example, a level A ICT-facilitated school is equipped with 520
computers, 5 notebooks and 6 servers per school. A level B, on the
other hand, received 81 computers, 2 notebooks and 3 servers. On top
of that, they were also supplied with Local and Wide Area Network
(LAN & WAN), broadband and wireless facilities at the speed of
17
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
512/256 kilobyte per second (kbps) for a level A school and 128/64
kbps for a level B school. Conversely, the regular schools received
far fewer computers based on the number of students. For example,
schools with 400 or less students received 10 computers, 1 computer
lab and a server. Schools with more than 800 students were given a
slightly greater number of computers; i.e. 40 computers, 2 computer
labs, 2 servers and 1 LCD projector. Schools with between 400800
students enrolments received 20 computers, 1 computer lab, 1 server
and 1 LCD projector. In terms of networking, the regular schools were
only provided with Local Area Network (LAN) and dial-up internet
connection. The dierence does not stop here as they are also operated
with nine Smart School Integrated Solution components which are
comparable with Smart School models elsewhere such as in Ireland,
New Zealand and the USA (Ministry of Education, 2000 & 2004).
Due to the number of computers and the complexity of the ICT
infrastructure, the Ministry of Education set up a centralized help-
desk that addresses the maintenance issues relating to the ICT
infrastructure. Generally the help-desk centre will handle queries
relating to a wide range of hardware, software and communications
equipment. ICT-facilitated schools are also given priority by receiving
an ICT technician and an Information Technology Coordinator to
ensure the facilities are running smoothly. The IT coordinators are
appointed from among the schools teachers who have an interest in
and knowledge of computers. Those who are appointed are trained
in using and handling the equipment. The school IT coordinator has
a very important role as he/she is responsible for supporting all the
issues related to the ICT equipment and networking, and conducting
periodic training for teachers and students. In order to be always
updated with the ICT facilities, the school IT coordinators have their
own nationwide Support Group to form a peer-to-peer network for
sharing ideas, and experiences and source support. As for the regular
schools, the coordinator could be anybody that the schools principal
thought to be a computer-savvy person, who had the best interest,
commitment, knowledge and skill in computers. The teacher will
have to use his/her own initiative to learn about computers and run
the system. However, sometimes they were also invited for computer
courses tailored for the regular schools. In terms of teaching and
learning materials, the regular schools were also using the same
software and courseware as their counterparts because the existence
of ICT-facilitated schools does not defeat the purpose of having a
centralized curriculum. Therefore, the development of these materials
was not for the ICT-facilitated schools alone but to be used by all
18
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
schools nationwide. Courseware for four subjects (Malay Language,
English Language, Science and Mathematics) was developed by
experts in the National Curriculum and classroom setings. However,
there seems to be less emphasis on the usage of this courseware in the
regular schools as they need to have a more compatible and stable
system to support the software. To start with, schools need to have
enough computers for each individual student in order to use the
courseware interactively.
Secondly, schools also need to have computers which can support
the courseware system, for example, computers using 64MB with
the XP2000 operating system. Unfortunately some regular schools
cannot take advantage of having this courseware either due to the
lack of appropriate facilities or less enforcement by the authorities.
Apart from having developed courseware, teaching and learning
is also integrated and interactive with online activities in order to
make learning more interesting. Several websites were developed
and teachers and students could access these online, downloading
information and sharing knowledge, problem solutions, exam papers,
curriculum content, forums and discussions. Again, when it comes
to internet connection, ICT-facilitated schools have more advantages
than the regular schools. As mentioned earlier all 90 ICT-facilitated
schools were connected with LAN, WAN and Wireless broadband.
Unlike them, the regular schools were not so fortunate as they
were only connected with low speed and dial-up internet connection
facilities.
Another aspect of the ICT-facilitated schools is the deployment of a
single integrated school and learning management system also known
as the Smart School Management System (SSMS). SSMS encompasses
32 modules with a whole range of school functions including school
governance, student aairs management, educational resources
management, nancial and technology management. Technically,
SSMS should integrate with other departments such as human
resources, accounting and e-commerce, so that administrative and
supervisory tasks could be streamlined and automated. This situation
diers from the regular schools due to the minimal ICT infrastructure
which does not support the SSMS. As an alternative they use a
number of individual software suites supplied by the Ministry of
Education to cater for dierent purposes, for example, sta records
(Employment Management System), students database, discipline
records and examination records none of which are integrated.
Regardless of whether it is SSMS from ICT-facilitated schools or the
19
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
individual software for the regular schools, each responsible teacher
has to familiarize himself/herself with each of the programmes to be
able to enter their data.
Literature Review
The use of technology and computer networks in education
indubitably has grown tremendously. Evidence has shown that
ICT is no longer about data mining and warehousing, it is also
about expanding networks to other schools and gaining access to
advice from the schools communities of practice (CoP), locally
and internationally. Studies also show how schools are becoming
networks and how computers had impacted upon their work in terms
of distributed leadership, knowledge sharing and professionalization
(Bushweller, 2000; Haughey, 2006). The role of ICT in facilitating
knowledge sharing is imperative for a number of reasons. In principle,
ICTs would appear to oer individuals and organisations faster,
cheaper, broader sources of data and enable information exchange
and the capturing, generating, sharing and storage of knowledge
(Walsham, 2001; Huysman & Wulf, 2006). The availability of a range
of new technologies and tools has been a major catalyst to knowledge
management initiatives (Davenport & Prusak, 2000; Alavi & Leidner,
2001; Barret, Cappleman, Shoib & Walsham, 2004; Alavi & Tiwana,
2005) and some, such as e-mail, video-conferencing and virtual
teaching and learning forum, provide valuable learning support to
the schools CoPs. In addition, individuals also believe that the usage
of ICT and electronic media contributes to valuable information
(Jarvenpaa & Staples, 2000).
However, the importance of face-to-face contact cannot be overlooked,
particularly in the dissemination of tacit knowledge (McKinlay,
2002), both in terms of one-to-one and one-to-many interactions.
Furthermore, one must consider the issue of cost eectiveness on
which ICTs depend (Barret, Cappleman, Shoib & Walsham, 2004) and
the balancing of benets, such as superior technical performance and
quality, with decits, such as poor infrastructure, outdated systems
and high maintenance budgets. For some, the decision to implement
tools is based on the assumption that technology can be the panacea
for knowledge problems, however, most organisations which have
engaged with ICT soon nd the leveraging of knowledge through the
use of technology di cult to achieve (McDermot, 1999).
20
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
Studies have claimed that, in fact, technology contributes only 20 per
cent of the entire success of knowledge management, compared to
people and culture (Davenport & Grover, 2001). Whilst technology
is by no means unnecessary, it must be employed in a culture that
promotes knowledge sharing. No mater how strong the commitment
and approach to knowledge management, the organisational culture
has a much stronger impact (Fahey & Prusak, 1998). Several studies
have examined the relationship of having ICT in initiating knowledge
management in organisations. For example, Basu and Sengupta
(2007) and Edvardsson (2008) noted that in the case of an exploitative
strategy against an explorative Human Resources Management
(HRM) strategy, the distinction is merely clear. The exploitative HRM
strategy which has a greater emphasis on explicit knowledge depends
heavily on IT solution. On the other hand, the explorative HRM
strategy which has emphasis on tacit knowledge tends to increase
the transfer of knowledge, innovation and organizational learning.
In another study involving knowledge management approaches
using IT solution Haesli and Boxall (2005) suggested that the two
approaches (with and without IT) should not be treated as mutually
exclusive but rather as complementing.
Every school has the potential to enhance overall performance by
using a knowledge-based approach to support learning and sharing
(Zhao, 2010). In an era of economic and political globalization, in
which the world is dependent on primary resource industries and
bureaucratic industrialization, schools are seen as fundamental to the
process of transforming old industrialized systems into knowledge-
based societies. As such, schools have become a part of broader policy
agendas and need to respond to changes in the economy and to parental
and governmental demands for change (Istance & Kobayashi, 2003;
Haughey, 2006). By and large, knowledge management can always
be used to support changes in educational administration. Through
knowledge-management initiatives schools should be able to evolve
from traditional bureaucracies to a more educational-knowledge
environment that is appropriate in an information-technology and
knowledge-economy driven society (Petrides & Guiney, 2002). This
agenda is trying to address the quality of teaching, restructure the
school management system, and strengthen the teaching profession
in order to cater for the changes in educational setings.

Hence, this study is aimed at determining the contribution of
knowledge-contextual factors to the knowledge activities in schools
with comparisons between ICT-facilitated schools and the regular
21
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
schools. Three main contextual factors were chosen in this study,
which are management, culture, and technology. The type of school
is included as an independent variable to justify the comparison
between schools in knowledge activities ( capturing, creating, sharing,
storing and applying).
The Methods
A conceptual model formed the research framework and essentially
encompassed the inuences of management, culture and technology
on the creation, capture, storage, application and sharing of
knowledge, upon which the survey instrument was based. Stratied
sampling was used to select 40 ICT-facilitated and regular schools
across the four main geographical areas of Peninsular Malaysia.
A total of 50 teachers from each school were randomly selected
irrespective of their background proles to participate in the self-
administered surveys.
The questionnaire was divided into two sections. The rst section was
mainly on the respondents background prole whereas the second
section was divided into 5 sub-sections corresponding to the variables
in the research model: the importance of managing knowledge;
facilities and methods of managing knowledge; knowledge-sharing
barriers and knowledge activities. The nal section of the questionnaire
focused on the contributing factors to managing knowledge,
namely management, culture and technology, which are the focus of
this paper.
A ve-point Likert scale was used for each item, ranging from
strongly disagree to strongly agree. The questionnaire was piloted
among two groups of 30 participants each from ICT-facilitated and
regular schools. Finally, the items were tested using the Cronbach
alpha and those with low coe cient values were dropped, thereby
increasing the overall alpha value from 0.908 for 101 items to 0.913
after the removal of ve items. The nal questionnaire consisted of
96 items.

The data was analysed using the independent sample t-test for
comparison of knowledge-management contextual factors between
ICT-facilitated schools and regular schools. The regression model
was employed to determine the contributing factors to knowledge
activities. The model was,
22
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
where, Knowledge Activities capturing, creating, sharing, storing and
applying were the dependent variables; ICT-facilitated school (ICTFS)
was a dummy for the type of school. Five (5) model regressions were
used to represent each knowledge activity.
Results
A total of 2000 questionnaires were distributed among the 20 ICT-
facilitated schools and 20 regular schools in Peninsular Malaysia. 900
respondents in total participated in the survey, where 474 (52.7%)
were from the ICT-facilitated schools and 426 (47.3%) were from the
regular schools. The result shows that there were more respondents
from the rural than the urban areas, which was 494 (54.9%) and 406
(45.1%) respectively. 656 (72.9%) respondents were females and 244
(27.1%) were males. This was unavoidable due to the fact that the
teaching profession in Malaysia is dominated more by women than
men in which out of the 412,720 teachers nationwide, 285,299 are
women and 127,421 are men (MOE, 2012). Respondents spanned the
range of age categories from below 30 to 50 years or over. This sample
comprised less than 30% of the respondents aged 30 years or below,
and roughly 45% from the middle group aged 31 to 40 years old.
Meanwhile 21% were from the age group of 41 to 50 years old and
only 4% were above 51 years old. Most of the teachers held degrees
in several elds. The sample indicated that 81.8% of the respondents
were degree holders, whereas 10.5% held masters degrees with
the balance of 7.7% being diploma holders. As far as the length of
experience was concerned, 47.1% of the respondents had 10 years or
less teaching experience while 39.0% had between 11 to 20 years of
teaching experience. Only a handful of respondents (13.9%) had more
than 30 years of teaching experience.
Knowledge Activities
The mean scores for these variables were quite high, demonstrating
their importance in managing knowledge in schools. As for
knowledge capture, both respondent groups stressed the importance of
collaborative relations, with the majority believing the basic source
of new knowledge to be external, such as the Ministry of Education,
Department of Education or other schools. Knowledge creation tended

23
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
to be eected through social discussions, teamwork or work projects,
additionally, through individual activities such as reading and
self-reection. Knowledge sharing through informal discussions was
agreeable, with respondents perceiving that their friends were always
ready to share and contribute new ideas. Mentoring was also a way
of sharing knowledge. Knowledge application in context could increase
individual experience. Knowledge could also be applied through
problem solving when people ask for advice, during work tasks set
by the management and through rules, procedures and organisational
routines.
Finally, in terms of knowledge storage, it was regarded as easier to
access explicit than tacit knowledge. Respondents perceived that they
could access information easily, including important information.
However, perceptions were not so clear as to whether it was beter
to store knowledge in paper form or electronically. The overall mean
scores demonstrated that knowledge management initiatives are
gathering pace, albeit at a relatively slow r
Dierentiating between ICT-Facilitated Schools and Regular
Schools
Table 1 shows the t-test output for dierences in knowledge activities
and contextual factors contributing to managing knowledge reported
by respondents from both types of schools, with a signicance test
of 0.05 level. The results revealed no statistical signicance between
ICT-facilitated schools and regular schools in knowledge activities,
except for storage context. As expected, the facilities of technology
used for storage of information showed a signicant dierence.
The t-value was 3.384, p < 0.05, demonstrating the understandable
dierence between the facilities provided to ICT-facilitated schools as
opposed to regular schools.
In terms of contextual factors, the technology variables was
signicant. This result is consistent with ICT-facilitated schools
having beter equipment and facilities and therefore being able to
take greater advantage of technology as an enabler of knowledge
management. Nonetheless, technology does not explain all of the
variance in knowledge-related behaviour; the human factor no
doubt was a mediating factor in technological dierences between
the two types of schools. Unexpectedly, the mean for knowledge
creation among regular school teachers was higher than those in
ICT-facilitated schools; the former believing they created more
knowledge. However, the 95% interval for the dierence in mean is
24
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
not signicant. Time might be a factor here, with teachers workload
a perennial issue in schools (Lortie, 2002; McDermot & ODell, 2000;
Rosenholt, 1989; Louis, 1994). Findings from those studies agreed
that lack of time remains the major barrier in managing knowledge,
teachers being increasingly required to teach and perform many
tedious administrative duties. The culture factor did not show any
signicant mean dierence between the ICT-facilitated schools and
the regular schools, possibly because the sample was relatively
homogeneous from the same environmental seting. Moreover,
school culture across Malaysia tends to be homogeneous under the
government and the control of the Ministry of Education with the
resulting top-down style of management.
Table 1
Independent Samples Test (T-Test for Equality of Mean)
Variables t df Sig.
(2-tailed)
Mean
dierence
95% condence interval of
dierence
Lower Upper
Capture 0.900 898 0.369 .135 0.431 0.160
Creation 1.814 898 0.070 .261 0.544 0.021
Sharing 0.624 898 0.533 0.113 0.241 0.467
Application 0.175 898 0.861 0.029 0.296 0.354
Storage 3.384 898 0.001 0.624 0.262 0.986
Management 1.870 898 0.062 0.434 0.022 0.889
Technology 3.994 898 0.000 1.062 0.540 1.585
Culture 0.814 898 0.416 0.208 0.293 0.709
Regression Results
Knowledge activities constituted the dependent variables for
the regression models, with the predictors, being management,
technology, culture, school type, gender and experience. The results
are shown in Table 2.
The overall result showed that among the three contextual factors,
management and culture were seemingly signicant for all the
knowledge activities; capturing, creating, sharing, applying and
storing. Whereas for the technology factor, only sharing, applying
and storing show evidence of signicance. In terms of school types,
the coe cient for school type (ICT-facilitated school as a dummy
variable) is signicant for knowledge creation, showing that teachers
at regular schools experience more knowledge-creation activity as
25
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
compared to teachers from ICT-facilitated schools. Apparently,
teachers from ICT-facilitated schools are statistically signicant for
knowledge-storing activity than their counterparts in regular schools.
The result also revealed that there were no signicant dierences
between male and female and, experienced and inexperienced
teachers in all knowledge activities.
Table 2
Regression Results
Independent
variables
Knowledge activities (n=900)
Dependent variables
(1)
Capture
(2)
Create
(3)
Share
(4)
Apply
(5)
Store
Constants 10.51* 13.10* 14.31* 14.76* 10.26*
Management 0.129* 0.080* 0.219* 0.155* 0.077*
Technology 0.034 0.230 0.670* 0.062* 0.103*
Culture 0.114* 0.100* 0.075* 0.103* 0.199*
School type 0.255 0.337* 0.053 0.124 0.439*
Gender 0.105 0.151 0.476 0.050 0.001
Experience 0.017 0.011 0.017 0.005 0.004
F 26.051 15.098 32.288 27.336 37.085
R
2
0.149 0.100 0.178 0.155 0.199
Note. *signicant at 5 per cent and below.

The beta value for knowledge capture was signicantly related to
management and culture, with the former being suggested as the
most important predictor of the three. The coe cient for school
type is not signicant, showing that there is no dierence in the
activity of knowledge capture for both school types. For knowledge
creation two factors were statistically signicant, with culture being
the most important predictor of knowledge creation followed by
management. As for knowledge sharing all factors were statistically
signicant, except for school type, gender and experience suggesting
that knowledge-sharing activity occurs beyond time and space.
Knowledge application activity has shown that all three contributing
factors were statistically signicant with evidence of management as
the most important predictor followed by culture and technology. For
knowledge storage all factors were also statistically signicant, with
school culture being the best predictor followed by technology and
management.
26
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
In summary, culture was very important in contributing to sharing,
applying, creating, capturing and storing knowledge, while
technology was less important for knowledge capture and creation.
Knowledge storage was perceived to be beter in ICT-facilitated
schools with beter ICT facilities and equipment but technology did
not support knowledge capture and creation. Similarly a study by
Chu, Wang and Yuan (2011) also shows that people and culture were
critical for promoting knowledge management in schools. Meanwhile,
the knowledge capture, sharing and application activities were not
signicantly dierent between these school types. On the other hand,
gender and experience were found to be not statistically signicant
with all ve knowledge activities possibly suggesting that knowledge
activities are boundary less.
Discussion and Conclusion

Knowledge management contextual factors are vital in school
setings. Culture appears to be a signicant factor in generating
knowledge activities. Schools need to embrace a positive culture to
foster learning and sharing. Teachers and school leaders need to play
a prominent role to ensure that knowledge management initiatives
can be accomplished. This study suggested that school cultures were
identied as knowledge-friendly, motivating sta to share knowledge
with a commited leadership, showing openness to change, mutual
trust and learning, appearing along with technology and management
as the important factors in generating knowledge-activities in school.
Management is inevitably essential in supporting the success of
knowledge-management initiatives in schools. The management
factor denes the chain of command governing communication
and decision-making, as well as encouraging knowledge-sharing
and facilitating continuous transformation of ideas. This study
pointed out that management encouraged sta-learning, organised
appropriate training and promoted knowledge acquisition both
internally and externally.
There was also evidence for technology as a factor in knowledge-
management initiative in schools. As expected schools with more
facilities were able to share, apply and store knowledge but did not
necessarily have an advantage in knowledge capture and creation.
Considering the relative dierence between ICT-facilitated schools
and regular schools in terms of funding allocation, facilities and
27
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
bureaucracy, school type is not a determinant factor in knowledge
activities. ICT-facilitated schools are expected to act as the educational
hub for their surrounding areas and have superior resources in terms
of infrastructure, manpower and funding. They could take on the
responsibilities for networking, dissemination and activity generation
amongst the group of schools to work with other schools and share
best practices. Meanwhile, ICT facilities seemed to be widely used
and were functioning well in schools nationwide, with information
and records stored in electronic databases and being accessible to all
members of sta in those schools.
As far as the contribution of the contextual factors to knowledge
activities, culture was an important instrument in all the knowledge
activities, but it was certainly not the only or the most prominent one.
References
Alavi, M. K., & Leidner. D. E. (2001). Review: Knowledge management
and knowledge management systems: Conceptual foundations
and research issues. MIS Quarterly, 5(1), 107138.
Alavi, M. K., & Tiwana, A. (2005). Knowledge management: The
information technology dimension. In M. Easterby-Smith & M.
A. Lyles (Eds.), Handbook of organisational learning and knowledge
management. Oxford: Blackwell.
Barret, M., Cappleman, S., Shoib, G., & Walsham, G. (2004). Learning
in knowledge communities: Managing technology and context.
European Management Journal, 22(1), 111.
Basu, B., & Sengupta, K. (2007). Assessing success factors of knowledge
management initiatives of academic institutions A case of
an Indian business school. The Electronic Journal of Knowledge
Management, 5(3), 273282.
Bushweller, K. (2000). The smarter o ce. Electronic School, 187(3), 26
28, Retrieved from www.electronic-school.com.
Chu, K. W., Wang, M., & Yuen, A. H. K. (2011). Implementing
knowledge management in school environment: Teachers
perception. Knowledge Management & E-Learning: An
International Journal, 3(2), 139152.
Davenport, T. H., & Prusak, L. (2000). Working knowledge. Boston:
Harvard Business School Press.
Davenport, T. H., & Grover, V. (2001). Knowledge management
[Special issue]. Journal of Management Information Systems,
18(1), 34.
28
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
Economic Planning Unit. (2006). The 9
th
Malaysian Plan 20062010.
Putrajaya: Economic Planning Unit.
Edvardsson, I. R. (2008). HRM and knowledge. Employee Relations,
30, 553561.
Haesli, A., & Boxall, P. (2005). When knowledge management meets
HR strategy: An exploration of personalization-retention and
codication-recruitment congurations. International Journal of
Human Resource Management, 16, 19551975.
Haughey, M. (2006). The impact of computers on the work of
the principal: Changing discourses on talk, leadership and
professionalism. School Leadership and Management, 26(1), 2336.
Huysman, M., & Wulf, V. (2006). IT to support knowledge sharing
in communities, towards a social capital analysis. Journal of
Information Technology, 21, 4051.
Istance, D., & Kobayashi, M. (Eds.). (2003). Networks of innovation:
Towards new models for managing schools and systems. Paris:
OECD.
Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Staples, D. S. (2000). The use of collaborative
electronic media for information sharing: An exploratory
study of determinants. Journal of Strategic Information Systems,
9, 129154.
Lortie, D. C. (2002). Schoolteacher (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
Louis, K. S. (1994). Beyond managed change: Rethinking how schools
change. School Eectiveness and School Improvement, 5(1), 224.
McDermot, R. (1999). Why information technology inspired but
cannot deliver knowledge management. California Management
Review, 41(4), 103117.
McDermot, R., & ODell, C. (2000). Overcoming the cultural barriers
to sharing knowledge. Retrieved from htp;//www.apqc.org.
McKinlay, A. (2002). The limit of knowledge management. New
Technology, Work and Employment, 17(2), 7688.
Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2004). Benchmarking the smart school
integrated solution. Kuala Lumpur: Multimedia Development
Corporation Malaysia, Frost and Sullivan.
Ministry of Education. (2012). Main statistics. Retrieved from htp:
www.moe.gov.my
Petrides, L. A., & Guiney, S. Z. (2002). Knowledge management for
school leaders: An ecological framework for thinking schools.
Teachers College Records, 104(8), 17021717.
Rosenholt, S. J. (1989). Teachers workplace: The social organization of
schools. New York: Longman.
29
IJMS 19 (2), 1529 (2012)
Walsham, G. (2001). Knowledge management: The benets and
limitations of computer systems. European Management Journal,
19(6), 599608.
Zhao, J. (2010). School knowledge management framework and
strategies: The new perspective on teacher professional
development. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(2), 168175.
31
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND
INTENTION TO LEAVE AMONG NURSES: THE
MEDIATING ROLE OF MORAL OBLIGATION
KHATIJAH OMAR
MARHANA MOHAMED ANUAR
ABDUL HALIM ABDUL MAJID
HUSNA JOHARI
Abstract
In todays fast-paced economic competition, commited and loyal employees
are important for the prot-oriented organizations to gain and sustain their
competitiveness. Even for non-prot-oriented organizations like hospitals
and universities, these commited and loyal employees will lead to beter
quality service and improved organizational performance. Thus, it is vital
for the organizations to sustain employees commitment because once the
employees commitments decrease, it would be di cult for organizations
to retain their employees. This study investigated the relationship between
organizational commitment and intention to leave among nurses in
Malaysian public hospitals, and determined the role of moral obligation
as a mediator on the relationship between organizational commitment and
intention to leave. The study focused on permanent nurses working in public
hospitals in Peninsular Malaysia. The results supported that organizational
commitment was signicantly and negatively related to intention to leave.
The macro results also showed that moral obligation was a mediator in the
relationships between organizational commitment and the intention to leave.
The results were crucial to be looked into so that management and employers
could have ample understanding and guidelines if they were to draft
retention strategies. Even though many studies had been conducted on the
intention to leave, most of them were conducted in developed countries and
this study is believed to enhance the literature gap since it has an emphasis
in the Malaysian context.
Keywords: Intention to leave, organizational commitment, moral obligation.
32
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
Introduction
There have been abundant studies on intention to leave. However,
at a time when nursing shortage has become a global issue (Buchan
& Calman, 2004) and a serious problem in the vast majority of post-
industrialized countries (Galleta, Portoghese & Batistelli, 2011), the
issue seems to be relevant and still needs special atention. In many
developing countries, the situation is worsening as many trained
nurses hop over to the private sector or leave their own countries
to serve in developed countries due to beter salaries and benets.
The issue of nursing shortage in most parts of the world, having high
turnover rate and losing a number of nurses to the private sector and
foreign countries also suggests that, instead of looking at the workers
turnover itself, it is beter for the organization to detect the feeling
of intent to leave among their employees so that retention strategies
could be drafted and implemented. The turnover rate itself could
thus possibly be minimized.
The shortage of nurses has become a critical issue all over the world
(Elsevier Foundation, 2010; Khaliq, Broyle & Mwacho, 2009; Brush,
2008; Yearwood, 2007). The situation is worsening, especially in poor-
resource countries (Elsevier Foundation, 2010; Pillay, 2007; Yearwood,
2007) where by many trained nurses hop over to the private sector or
leave their own countries to serve in foreign countries due to beter oers
and benets. To mitigate the problem of employees turnover in the
nursing eld, some researchers suggested that it was beter for
employers to examine nurses intention to leave instead of studying
turnover itself.
As revealed by literature, there are many reasons that contributed to
workers intention to leave. However, this paper would only focus
on one of the most prominent variables - organizational commitment
and its relationship with intention to leave (Kumar & Koh, 2011;
Tatcher, Stepina & Boyle, 2003; Yamada, 2002). This study would also
investigate the role of moral obligation as a mediating variable in
the relationship between organizational commitment and intention
to leave. Even though there have been many researches that relate
organizational commitment and intention to leave, this paper
oers a new perspective for it discusses the relationship between
organizational commitment and intention to leave specically among
nurses in public hospitals in the Malaysian context.
33
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
Overview
In studying turnover and shortage in certain professions, recent
decades have witnessed an increasing interest in understanding
why employees leave (Van der Heijden, Van Dam & Hasselhorn,
2007). However, knowing the reasons for leaving is too late to stop
the actual leaving and detecting the presence of intention to leave
feeling is said to be beter in supporting the eort to prevent or
minimize employees leaving. In fact, voluntary turnover is said to
be best predicted by the employees intention to leave (Price, 2001).
Thus, further understanding and investigation of the existence of the
intention to leave feeling is crucial. In other words, it is much more
important to scrutinize the factors that make them intend to leave
their organization.
It is important to know the signals to turnover by studying the
employees intention to leave so that necessary preparations and
preventive actions can be taken. Consequently, this study proceeds
with the aim to examine the relationship between organizational
commitment and the intention to leave among Malaysian public
hospital nurses and at the same time, this study will also investigate
the role played by moral obligation as a mediating variable.
Intention to Leave
Turnover and intention to leave are two dierent concepts. Intention
to leave involves an individuals perception towards leaving while
turnover involves the act of an individual actually leaving the
organization or profession (Hinshaw & Atwood, 1984). An employee
is said to have the intention to leave when he or she has serious
consideration to leave his or her current job (Castle, 2007).
Many studies on intention to leave have been conducted to examine
the intention to leave and the factors relating to intention to leave
in various elds. Many researchers have atempted to answer the
questions of what really determines the employees intention to leave
by investigating possible antecedents of the employees intention to
leave. However, there is no standard reason why employees leave
an organization or profession (Ongori, 2007) and there has been litle
consistency in the ndings to the question of what really determines
the employees intention to leave.
34
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
Organizational Commitment and Intention to Leave
Organizational commitment is said to be an important variable in the
discussion of intention to leave since it is a popular belief that the
more commited the employee is, the more likely he or she will stay
loyal to the organization. In other words, it is less likely that he or she
will leave for another job or organization. The statement is supported
by the study of Slatery and Selvarajan (2005). In their study, they
found that organizational commitment is negatively associated with
turnover intention.
Results of some other studies also showed that more commited
employees would be less likely to leave an organization (Nogueras,
2006; Simmons, 2005; Larkey et al., 1995). This is also supported
by some local researchers (Ishak Ismail, 2006; Zulkii Kassim,
1997; Mohd Fikri , 1997) who found that the higher the degree of
commitment among employees, the less likely they would express
the intention to leave. In fact, organizational commitment is found
to be critical (Khatri et al., 2001) and has a negative correlation with
turnover intention (Rahman, Naqvi & Ramay, 2008).
The literature review shows that studies on organizational
commitment have increased and are continuously gaining importance
among researchers all over the world. This is because more and more
organizations realize that human resources are their most valuable
assets and having loyal and commited employees can ensure
that they stay competitive and survive. In fact, some researchers
(Colakoglu, Culha & Atay, 2010; Meyer & Allen, 2004) claimed that
employees who have higher emotional atachment which is one of the
measures for aective commitment to their organization, show beter
performance and contribute more meaningfully than those with
lower emotional atachment. This kind of employees will also enhance
the organizational competitiveness and guarantee the survival of
the organizations (Ongori, 2007). In short, it is a valuable bonus for
the company to have employees with a high level of organizational
commitment. These highly-commited employees would feel that
they owe so much to the organization and in return, they would give
full support, eort and cooperation to the organization and would be
less likely to leave.
Moral Obligation
There are limited references or past research that really discussed
or focused on moral obligation as one of the variables in the study
35
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
of intention to leave. Prestholdt et al. (1987), Sharkey (1994) and
Lane, Mathews and Prestholdt (1990) have contributed to the
understanding of the role that moral obligation plays in examining
the intention to leave. However, the relevance of moral obligation in
predicting intention depends very much on the type of behaviour,
profession and the sample being studied (Sharkey, 1994). In nursing,
moral obligation and work responsibilities are assumed to be the
two dimensions that complement each other (Cronqvist et al, 2004).
Yearwood (2007) also seemed to agree that moral obligation could
provide a basis to tackle the problem of internal as well as external
nurse migration.
Problem Statement
Proper sta ng and a stable nursing workforce will ensure the quality
of nursing care received by patients and the quality of the healthcare
system. Thus, having a su cient number of nurses is important.
However, many articles and journals have discussed the nursing
shortage, which has become a global issue. The existing and predicted
national and global shortage of nurses would surely bring negative
impact on societys health-care needs. The shortage at the national
and international levels is exacerbated when nurses, especially from
the public sector, are lured by oers from private hospitals or even
foreign hospitals (Ministry of Health, 2008; Missourri State Nursing
Board, 2008).
Research Objectives
The objectives of this study are:
1. To investigate the relationship between organizational
commitment and intention to leave among nurses in Malaysian
public hospitals.
2. To determine the role of moral obligation as a mediator on
the relationship between organizational commitment and
intention to leave.
Hypotheses
Based on literature research, this study hypothesizes that:
H1: Organizational commitment is negatively related to intention
to leave.
36
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
H1a: Aective commitment is negatively related to intention to
leave.
H1b: Normative commitment is negatively related to intention to
leave.
H1c: Continuance commitment is negatively related to intention to
leave.
H2: Moral Obligation mediates the relationship between
Organizational Commitment and Intention to Leave among
Malaysian public hospital nurses.
H2a: Moral Obligation mediates the relationship between aective
commitment and intention to leave among Malaysian public
hospital nurses.
H2b: Moral Obligation mediates the relationship between normative
commitment and intention to leave among Malaysian public
hospital nurses.
H2c: Moral Obligation mediates the relationship between
continuance commitment and intention to leave among
Malaysian public hospital nurses.
Methodology
This quantitative research involves the use of a questionnaire in
collecting the primary data. Most of the questions used in the survey
were based on established existing instruments with some alterations
and modications to the original questions made to suit the study
due to cultural factors and practice. The questions used in this
study applied the multi-item approach where a few questions were
asked under one particular variable. The questions were grouped
under four major sections. Section A measured respondents level of
organizational commitment, section B measured moral obligation,
section C measured the respondents intention to leave and Section D
required the respondents to provide their demographic data.
The survey used was a self-administered survey and 700 sets of these
self-administered questionnaires were sent to selected major hospitals
in Peninsular Malaysia. Prior to that, the ethical approval for the study
and its method was rst obtained. Since this study involved nurses
working at public hospitals as respondents, permission and approval
were obtained from the Malaysian Ministry of Health and a few other
important related institutions such as the Malaysian Research Ethical
Commitee (MREC), the National Institute of Health (NIH) and the
respective hospitals.
37
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
Population, Sample and Sample Size
Nurses who were working permanently in public hospitals were the
population sample of this study. They were chosen as the sample
since this group of workers was said to be more likely to opt for oers
from private health institutions (News Straits Times, 2007) or even
accept oers to serve overseas (Ministry of Health, 2004, Missouri
State Nursing Board, 2008).
This study made use of the systematic proportionate stratied
random sampling, which involves dividing the population into
homogeneous subgroups and then taking a simple random sample
in each subgroup. The use of this stratied random sampling was
decided upon in order to reduce the potential bias as well as to
ensure that the sample would reect the general population. Since
in Malaysia nurses are categorized into ve main groups - matrons,
sisters, sta nurses, community nurses and assistant nurses, using the
proportionate stratied random sampling was preferred so that the
sample would be able to represent not only the overall population,
but also the subgroups of the population.
As of March 2008, there were about 75,000 active nurses in Malaysia
(Ministry of Health, 2008). According to Sekaran (2003) if the size of
the population is 75,000, the sample size (S), should be 382. However,
700 sets of questionnaires were delivered to the selected hospitals,
considering that the response rate would not be 100 per cent.
Measurements
The existing instruments with established reliability and validity
were used to measure the variables involved in this study. To
measure organizational commitment of the respondents, the revised
scale of TCM (Three-Component Model Employee Commitment
Survey) developed by Meyer, Allen and Smith (1993) was used.
These scales measure the three types of organizational commitment
of the respondents: aective commitment, continuance commitment
and normative commitment. There were six statements for each
scale (18 questions altogether) and employees indicated the strength
of their agreement by selecting a number ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Aective commitment was measured
by Questions 1 to 6. Under this aective commitment scale, three
(3) questions were positively worded and three (3) questions were
38
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
negatively worded. Continuance commitment was measured by
Questions 7 to 12 and under this continuance commitment scale,
all questions were positively worded. Normative commitment was
measured by Questions 13 to 18. Under this normative commitment
scale, ve (5) questions were positively worded and only one (1) was
negatively worded.
To indicate whether an employee was commited or not towards their
organization, the mean was used as the benchmark. Scores that are
lower than the mean indicate low or no commitment and scores that
are higher than the mean indicate good or higher commitment.
To measure moral obligation, two questions were adopted from
Prestholdt et al. (1987) with two additional questions added. Two
questions were added to this instrument because the original
instrument only contained two items and its Cronbachs Alpha was
only 0.45 which was below the minimum acceptable value. Thus,
atempts were made to increase the number of items and at the
same time increase the value of Cronbachs Alpha of the instrument.
Those two additional items went through the proper process of
item development and both of them fullled both the construct and
the content validity. The addition of the two questions increased
Cronbachs Alpha to 0.51. Nunally (1967) and Smith and Glass (1987)
claimed that 0.50 is still an acceptable value for a reliability test. All
the questions used were rated on a seven-point scale (Likert Scale)
ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Scores that
are lower than the mean indicate low or no moral obligation feeling
among the respondents and scores that are higher than the mean
indicate good or higher feeling of moral obligation.
The Anticipated Turnover Scale (ATS) which was developed by
Hinshaw and Atwood (1984) was used to measure the respondents
intention to leave. This self-report Anticipated Turnover Scales (ATS)
instrument contained twelve items relating to the respondents
anticipated length of time to leave and their certainty of leaving their
jobs. However, the word position in the questions was changed to
organization since this study intended to measure nurses intention
to leave the organization, not their profession.
The internal consistency reliability was 0.84 for the scale. Furthermore,
this ATS instrument has been used repeatedly and successfully
(Miller, 2007) in the study of intention to leave. All the questions
39
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
used were rated on a seven-point scale (Likert Scale) ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The score is the simple sum
of all the items in the scale divided by the number of items in the total
scale. To indicate whether an employee is experiencing the feeling
of leaving his/her organization, the mean was used to determine the
existence of the intention to leave of the employee. Respondents with
scores above the mean would be considered as having the intention
to leave while those whose scores fall below the mean would not be
considered as having the intention to leave.
Data Analysis
For data analysis, the responses were keyed into SPSS and analyzed
using descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, mean and
standard deviation to show trends in the data. Correlation analysis
and hypothesis testing were then conducted by applying SPSS
Pearson Correlation and SPSS macro which was provided by Preacher
and Hayes (2004).
Validity and Reliability
Principal Components Analysis (PCA) factor loadings show whether
items are actually measuring what they should measure. Items with
larger factor loadings provide beter measures of the underlying
property than do items with smaller factor loadings. As suggested
by Hair (1998), loadings are considered signicant if they are +0.50
or greater (Manning & Munro, 2004). The questions used in this
study were considered valid since all the questions fell under their
respective dimensions. As for reliability, if the variable has an internal
consistency reliability (Cronbachs Alpha) of at least 0.60 (Nunally,
1978) or 0.50 (Smith & Glass, 1987) the measurement is su cient
and reliable for research purposes. The Cronbachs Alpha for all
dimensions in this study were all well above 0.50.
Findings and Discussion
436 questionnaires returned, out of the 700 distributed, which gave a
62.3% overall response rate. However, only 398 questionnaires were
usable. The respondents demographic characteristics are shown in
Table 1 below.
40
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
Table 1

Respondents Proles
Demographic Characteristics Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 3 0.8
Female 395 99.2
Age
Below 25 years 32 8
26 30 years 87 21.90
31 35 years 68 17.10
36 40 years 66 16.60
41 45 years 29 7.30
46 50 years 39 9.80
More than 50 years 77 19.30
Race
Malay 360 90.50
Chinese 18 4.50
Indian 18 4.50
Others 2 0.50
Marital Status
Married 349 87.70
Unmarried 38 9.50
Divorced, Separated, Widowed 11 2.80
Level of Education
MCE/HSC 89 22.40
Certicate 38 9.50
Diploma 258 63.60
Degree 16 4
Masters 2 0.50
Level of Income
Less than RM 1500 18 4.50
RM1501 RM 2500 167 42
RM2501 RM 3500 161 40.5
RM3501 RM 4500 43 10.80
Above RM 4500 9 2.30
Organizational
Tenure
Less than 1 year 78 19.60
1 3 years 86 21.60
4 6 years 70 17.60
7 9 years 37 9.30
10 12 years 40 10.10
13 15 years 42 10.60
More than 15 years 45 11.30
n=398
41
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
Table 2
Results of Estimating the Direct Eect of Organizational Commitment on
Intention to Leave
Independent Variable Coe cient se p
Total/Overall organizational commitment -0.137 0.0666 0.040*
Aective commitment -0.208 0.0530 0.000*
Continuance commitment 0.068 0.0436 0.120
Normative commitment -0.012 0.0487 0.804
* Signicant at 0.05 signicance level
Table 2 depicts that the direct eect coe cient for organizational
commitment on intention to leave which is about 0.137 (negative)
and p value is 0.040. The gures (coe cient value was negative and
p value < 0.05) clearly show that organizational commitment has a
signicantly negative relationship with intention to leave. Thus,
the results supported Hypothesis 1 (organizational commitment is
negatively related to intention to leave). The result is also consistent
with many previous results (eg: Rahman, Naqvi & Ramay, 2008;
Labatmediene et al., 2007; Slatery & Selvarajan, 2005; Nogueras,
2006; Angle & Pery, 1981). Bline et al. (1991) also found a signicant
relationship between organizational commitment and intention to
leave. With those arguments and statistical ndings, it is conrmed
that organizational commitment has a signicant negative relationship
with the intention to leave feeling among nurses who are working in
public hospitals in this country.
The results for estimating the direct eect for all the three dimensions
of organizational commitment (aective commitment, continuance
commitment and normative commitment) found that only one
dimension of organizational commitment has a signicantly negative
relationship with intention to leave which is aective commitment.
Normative commitment also shows a negative relationship with
intention to leave but is not signicant (coe cient = -0.0121, t = -0.249,
p = 0.804). The continuance dimension shows a positive relationship
with intention to leave, even though it is not signicant (t = 1.557, p
> 0.05). The results supported hypothesis H1b; however they did not
support H1a and H1c.
Table 3 depicts the results of estimating the indirect eect of organizational
commitment (total/overall and dimensions of organizational commitment)
on intention to leave through moral obligation as a mediator. The
42
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
table shows that the indirect eect coe cient for total/overall
organizational commitment on intention to leave through moral
obligation is 0.192 (negative). Testing the signicance indicates that the
true indirect eect was estimated to lie between -0.289 and -0.124 with
95% condence interval. Because zero is not in the 95% condence
intervals, it then is concluded that the indirect eect is signicant
at p < 0.05. Thus, moral obligation is a mediator for the relationship
between organizational commitment and intention to leave.
Table 3
Results of Estimating the Indirect Eect and Bootstrapping 95% Condence
Interval (CI) of Organizational Commitment
Independent Variables Coe cient
95% CI
LL UL
Total/Overall organizational commitment -0.192* -0.289 -0.124
Aective commitment -0.076* -0.13 -0.03
Continuance commitment 0.024 -0.011 0.072
Normative commitment -0.131* -0.187 -0.091
Note. CI=condence interval; LL= lower limit; UL=upper limit. *Signicant at 0.05
signicance level.
The results of estimating the indirect eect of the three dimensions
of organizational commitment, found that the relationship of two
dimensions of organizational commitment - aective commitment
and normative commitment - with intention to leave was mediated by
moral obligation. Meanwhile, continuance commitment was found to
be not mediated by moral obligation. Thus, the results supported H2a
and H2c but did not support H2b.
Conclusion
The results of the analysis show that organizational commitment
is signicantly and inversely related to intention to leave while the
macro results show that moral obligation is only a partial mediator in
the relationship between organizational commitment and intention
to leave. The results of the study have not only fullled the objectives
but have also lled the research gap, especially with respect to
moral obligation as a mediating variable in the study. In fact, the
43
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
inclusion of moral obligation as a mediating variable in examining
the relationship between organizational commitment and turnover
intention is considered a contribution of this study.
The ndings of the study regarding organizational commitment
mirrored the previous ndings in that it revealed a negative
relationship with intention to leave. The ndings also suggest
that the eects of moral obligation as a mediating variable in the
relationship between organizational commitment and intention to
leave among nurses who work in Malaysian public hospitals is a
crucial consideration enabling management and employers atain
ample understanding and guidelines to draft the retention strategies.
References
Angle, H. L., & Perry, J. L. (1981). Organizational commitment
and organizational eectiveness: An empirical assessment.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 26, 113.
Banu Nagaindran. (2006). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment
as determinants of intention to leave (Unpublished doctoral
dissertations). University Utara Malaysia.
Blaum, P. (2002). Worldwide nursing shortage has reached crisis
proportions. Public Release, Penn State.
Bline, D. M., Duchon, D., & Meixner, W. (1991). The measurement of
organizational commitment and professional commitment: An
examination of the psychometric properties of two commonly
used instruments. Behavior Research in Accounting, 3, 112.
Brush, B. L. (2008). Global nurse migration today. Journal of Nursing
Scholarship, 40(1), 2025.
Buchan, J., & Calman, L. (2004). The global shortage of registered
nurses: An overview of issues and actions. International Council
of Nurses (ICN), 3.
Castle, N. G., Engberg, J., Anderson, R., & Aiju Men, (2007). Job
satisfaction of nurse aides in nursing homes: Intent to leave
and turnover. The Gerontologist, 47(2), 193204.
Colakoglu, U., Culha, O., & Atay, H. (2010). The eects of perceived
organizational support. Tourism and Hospitality Management,
16(2), 125150.
Cronqvist, A., Theorell, T., Burns,T., & Luten, K. (2004). Caring
aboutcaring for: Moral obligations and work responsibilities
in intensive care nursing. Nursing Ethics, 11(1), 6376.
44
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
Elsevier Foundation. (2010). International summit seeks solutions to global
shortage of nursing faculty. International Council of Nurses and
the Honor Society of Nursing, Sigma Theta Tau International.
Galleta, M. P., & Batistelli, A. (2011). Intrinsic motivation, job
autonomy and turnover intention in the Italian healthcare: The
mediating role of aective commitment. Journal of Management
Research, 3(2), E3.
Harman, W. S., Blum, M., Stefani, J., & Taho, A. (2009). Albanian
turnover: Is the job embeddedness construct predictive?
Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management, 192205.
Hair, J. F. Jr., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998).
Multivariate data analysis (5th ed.). NJ: Prentice Hall
International.
Hinshaw, A. S., & Atwood, J. R. (1984). Anticipated Turnover Scales.
Retrieved from htp://www.j.atwood@ worldnet.at.net
Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation
analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs,
76(4), 408420.
Ishak Ismail, (2006). Hubungan antara kepuasan kerja dan komitmen
organisasi dan niat berhenti kerja (Unpublished doctoral
dissertations). Universiti Utara Malaysia
Khaliq, A. A., Broyles, R. W., & Mwacho, A. K. (2009). Global nurse
migration: Its impact on developing countries and prospects
for the future. Canadian Journal of Nursing Leadership, 22(1), 2450.
Khatri, N., & Fern, C. T. (2001). Explaining employee turnover in an
Asian context. Human Resource Management Journal, 11(1), 5474.
Kumar, R., & Koh, G. E. (2011). Perceived organizational commitment
and its impacts to the turnover intention: A correlation analysis.
Proceedings of international conference on management (ICM2011).
Retrevied from htp://www.international conference.com.my
Labatmediene, L., Endriuaitiene, A., & Gustainiene, L. (2007).
Individual correlates of organizational commitment and
intention to leave the organization. Baltic Journal of Management,
2(2), 196212.
Lane, I. M., Mathews, R. C., & Prestholdt, P. H. (1990). Education
background, marital status, moral obligation, and the nurses:
Decision to resign from her hospital. Journal of Applied Social
Psychology, 20,14321443.
Larkey, L., & Morrill, C. (1995). Organizational commitment as
symbolic process. Western Journal of Communication, 59(3), 193214.
Malaysian Medical Association. (2007). Retrieved from htp://mma.org.
my/mma/background
Malaysian Ministry of Health. (2007). Advertisement for nurse position.
Retrieved from htp://www.moh.gov.my
45
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
Manning, M. L., & Munro, D. (2004). The business survey researchers
SPSS Cookbook (2nd ed.), Sydney: Pearson Education.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (2004). TCM employee commitment survey:
Academic user guide 2004. Department of Psychology University
of Western Ontario.
Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component conceptualization
of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management
Review, 1, 6189.
Miller, P. E. (2007). The relationship between job satisfaction and intention
to leave: A study of hospice nurses in a for-prot corporation
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Capella University.
Mohd Fikry Sutan Tahruddin. (1997). Factors associated with intention
to retire among the graduate teachers in Larut, Matang and
Selama, District of Perak. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
Universiti Utara Malaysia.
Nogueras, D. J. (2006). Occupational commitment, education, and
experience as a predictor of intention to leave the nursing
profession. Nursing Economics, Mar/April 2006, 24(2), 8693.
Nunally, J. C. (1978), Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York:
McGraw Hill.
Ongori, H. (2007). A review of the literature on employee turnover.
African Journal of Business Management, 49 54.
Pool, S., & Pool, B. (2007). A management development model:
Measuring organizational commitment and its impact on
job satisfaction among executives in a learning organization.
Journal of Management Development, 26(4) , 353369.
Pr eacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for
estimating indirect.pdf. Retrieved from htp://www.4shared.com
Prestholdt, P. H., Lane, I. M., & Mathews, R. C. (1987). Nurse turnover
as reasoned action: Development of a process model. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 72, 221227.
Price, J. L. (2001). Reections on the determinants of voluntary
turnover. International Journal of Manpower. 22(7), 600624.
Pillay, R. (2007). A conceptual framework for the strategic analysis
and management of the brain drain of African health care
professionals. African Journal of Business Management, 2633.
Rahman, A., Raqvi, S. M. M. R., & Ramay, M. I. (2008). Measuring
turnover intention: A study of IT professionals in Pakistan.
International Review of Business Research Papers, 4(3), 4555.
Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods for business: A skill building
approach (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Sharkey, C. J. (1994). Understanding turnover of nurses employed in
long-term care: A test of two models (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation). Case Western Reserve University.
46
IJMS 19 (2), 3146 (2012)
Simmons, E. S. (2005). Predictors of organizational commitment
among sta in assisted living. The Gerontologist, Apr 2005, 45(2),
196205.
Slatery, J. P., & Rajan Selvarajan, T. T. (2005). Antecedents to
temporary employees turnover intention. Journal of Leadership
& Organizational Studies, 12(1), 66.
Smith, M. L., & Glass, G. U. (1987). Research and evaluation in education
and the social sciences. Eaglewood Clis: Prentice Hall.
Thatcher, J. B., Stepina, L. P., & Boyle, R. J. (2003). Turnover of
information technology workers: Examining empirically the
inuence of atitudes, job characteristics and external markets.
Journal of Management Information Systems, 19(3), 231261.
Van der Heijden, B. I. J. M., Van Dam, K., Hasselhorn, H. M., & the
NEXT study group. (2007). Paper presented at the 22nd annual
conference of the society of industrial and organizational psychology.
New York, USA.
Yamada, Y., (2002). Factors contributing to job satisfaction and
organizational commitment of direct care workers in home
care. The Gerontologist, 42(1), 2324.
Yearwood, E. L. (2007). The crisis of nurse migration in developing
countries. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing,
August 2007, 20(3), 191192.
Zulkii Kassim, (1997). Correlates of intention to leave among non-
commisioned o cers of Malaysian army in the north region.
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Universiti Utara Malaysia,
Malaysia.
Zurn, P., Dolea, C., & Stiwell, B. (2005). Nurse retention and recruitment:
Developing a motivated workforce. Issue Paper 4, World Health
Organization, Dept of Human Resource Health.

47
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
PATTERNS AND FACTORS AFFECTING
WIVES INFLUENCE IN FAMILY PURCHASE
DECISION-MAKING IN URBAN MALAYSIA
SAMSINAR MD SIDIN
DAHLIA ZAWAWI
CAROL TEO BOON HUI
Faculty of Business Management
Universiti Teknologi MARA
Abstract
Family purchase decision-making is the process by which decisions regarding
purchases for the families are made. The roles played by family members
dier with regard to the products being purchased, the stage in the decision-
making process, and the characteristics of families and spouses. This study
aims to investigate the family purchase decision-making process in urban
Malaysia and the factors aecting this process. Taking into consideration
past research, four hypotheses were developed. These hypothese were based
on products / services, stage of the decision-making process, and selected
demographic variables (income, occupation, education). A survey using a
structured questionnaire was used to collect data (N=1,000) in four dierent
regions in Malaysia (Klang Valley, Penang, Kuantan, Johor Bahru). The
ndings of this study revealed that the majority of the products/services
purchased for the family was a joint decision. The wives inuence generally
decreased in the outcome stage, i.e., when products were actually purchased.
The analyses of the eects of the selected demographic variables revealed that
generally, there were signicant eects of these variables on the majority of
the purchases.

Keywords: Decision-making, demographic variables, family purchases, role
structure, wives inuence.
Introduction
Family is dened as a group of people who are related by blood,
marriage or adoption and live together. It is an important consumer
unit as most purchases are bought by families or individuals for the
48
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
consumption of the family. Purchase decisions by families are unique
and complex as the decision-making process involves more than one
person. Ones spouse and children will have a strong direct inuence
on the purchase behaviour. The roles of the husbands and the wives
are the focus of research in family decision-making as they are the
most basic unit in the family (Schiman & Kanuk, 2010). Marketing
researchers are interested to study family decision-making as
information regarding the process, and input of the decision-making
process is important in predicting consumer intention and purchase.
This study aims to investigate the family purchase decision-making
process in urban Malaysia and the factors aecting this process. As
the eects of modernization have brought about changes in family
structure in Malaysia, this study would be able to highlight the eects
of these changes on family purchase decision-making.
The institution of family has changed over time. There are many changes
in perceptions and roles within the family due to industrialization-
caused social changes. More education and working opportunities
are available to women, creating a dierent perception of the role of
women and children in the family, and the role of husbands as the
head of the family. It is also apparent that a wifes power in the family
increases when the wife is employed outside of the house, a situation
that is brought about by the societal development of the country.
Social and economic developments have also brought changes in
cultural values which consequently aect the role structure in family
purchase decision-making.

Family Purchase Decision-Making
Family purchase decision-making is the process by which decisions
regarding purchases for the families are made. Most purchases by the
family will aect the family members directly, as both the process and
the outcomes will aect the well-being of family members and the
family as a unit (Hawkins, 2004). Family purchase decision-making
involves dierent stages, depending on the product being purchased.
These stages are the initial information gathering and evaluation
stages and the outcome stages. The roles played by family members
dier with regard to the products being purchased, the stage in the
decision-making process, and the characteristics of families and
spouses (Samsinar & Rao, 2005). These roles may change over time
due to changes in the environment, such as economic development,
which consequently may lead to adjustments in the role structure of
the decision-making process. The framework for the decision-making
process relevant for this study can be seen in Figure 1.
49
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
Figure 1. Framework of family purchase decision-making.
One major determinant of who has the nal decision-making authority
in the family is determining who controls the most resources. In
this respect, resources such as income, education, and occupation
are surrogate currencies used for negotiation in a familys decision-
making. These surrogate currency is used to bargain for the desired
goals in decision-making (Samsinar, Wong, Dahlia, Ruhana & Zalfa
Laili, 2004). This theory, referred to as resource theory, suggests
that power in a family is determined by the ability of each spouse to
provide for the needs of the family. Taking into consideration past
research, four hypotheses were developed to test whether wives
inuence varies with the following variables:
(i) products / services,
(ii) wives income,
(iii) wives occupation and
(iv) wives education.
Method
A survey using a structured questionnaire was used to collect data.
One thousand (1,000) respondents were included in the study. The
sample elements were selected based on race (60% Malays, 30%
Chinese and 10% Indians), occupation (50% working wives, 50%
housewives) and location (25% from each dierent region).
Family is operationalised as a man and a woman married and
living together for at least a year. Family purchase decision-making
is operationalised as the process that a family goes through in the
purchase of products used by the whole family. Fifteen products
and services were used in the study. These products had been
used in previous studies (Xia, Ahmed, Hwa, Tan & Teo, 2006) and
Products/Services
Familypurchase
decisionmaking
Decision
Outcome
Joint
Autonomous
Resources
income
occupation
education
50
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
included furniture, electrical appliances, clothing, vacation, and cars.
A modied measure used by previous researchers (Xia et al., 2006)
to measure wives inuence was used. The means of the inuence
were calculated for each product/service category; accordingly, mean
scores between 11.7 were considered as husband-dominant, mean
scores between 1.712.3 were perceived as joint decisions and mean
scores between 2.313 were considered as wife-dominant. Wives
resources were measured using the wives occupations, incomes and
education. These measures were used previously in similar studies in
Malaysia (Samsinar & Mary, 1996). These measures were tested for
reliability and validity and were found to be both valid and reliable.
Data was analysed using descriptive as well as statistical analysis.
Analysis of variance, Chi-square analysis and t-tests were conducted
accodingly consistent with the objectives of this study.
Prole of Respondents
The prole of the respondents is given in Table 1 and it can be seen
that with respect to age the 3140 years age group made up the largest
group of respondents with 33.3%, followed by the 2130 years group
with 28.5%. Overall, about 86% of the respondents were between the
ages 2150 years. In terms of race, Malays represented 57.3%, Chinese
represented 30.4% and Indians represented 11.8% of the respondents
respectively. Muslims respondents (58.4%) represented twice as
much as Buddhists (23.4%), whilst Christians (8%) and Hindus (8.8%)
represented almost equal percentages of the respondents. Those of
other religions made up 1.4% of the respondents.
In terms of occupation, housewives made up the largest block of
respondents (43.3%), followed by clerical (15.6%), professional
(12.8%), and management (12%). With regards to the duration of
employment, those who had worked 10 years or less made up 72.2%
of the respondents.
As for monthly income, those who made between RM1001RM5000
formed the largest respondent group (41.9%) and they were closely
followed by the no-income group (39%). In addition, those who
earned RM5000 or less made up about 90% of the respondents.
In terms of educational level, 41.7% of the respondents had SPM or its
equivalent and 21% had diploma or equivalent qualications. Masters
or PhD holders represented only 3% of the respondents. About 23%
51
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
of the respondents had been married for 5 years or less and 63% for
15 years or less. Respondents who had been married for between
2125 years made up the least group (9.2%). The dominant language
spoken at home was Malay (55.6%), followed by Chinese (22.2%) and
English (12.8%), whilst Tamil was spoken by 7.8% of the respondents.
Table 1
Prole of Respondents
Frequency Per cent Cumulative
per cent
Age 21-30 years 285 28.5 28.5
31-40 years 333 33.3 61.9
41-50 years 239 23.9 85.8
51-60 years 135 13.5 99.3
More than 60 years 7 0.7 100.0
Race Malay 573 57.3 57.4
Chinese 304 30.4 87.8
Indian 118 11.8 99.6
Others 4 0.4 100.0
Religion Islam 584 58.4 58.4
Buddhism 234 23.4 81.8
Christianity 80 8.0 89.8
Hinduism 88 8.8 98.6
Others 14 1.4 100.0
Occupation Management 120 12.0 12.0
Professional 128 12.8 24.8
Clerical 156 15.6 40.4
Entrepreneur 53 5.3 45.7
Retired 21 2.1 47.8
Housewife 433 43.3 91.2
Student 7 0.7 91.9
Others 81 8.1 100.0
Job
duration
Not working 410 41.0 41.2
Less than 5 years 170 17.0 58.2
6-10 years 139 13.9 72.2
11-15 years 116 11.6 83.8
16-20 years 72 7.2 91.1
21-25 years 48 4.8 95.9
More than 25 years 41 4.1 100.0
(continued)
52
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
Frequency Per cent Cumulative
per cent
Monthly
income
No income 390 39.0 39.0
Less than RM1k 87 8.7 47.7
RM1001-RM5000 419 41.9 89.6
RM5001-RM10000 87 8.7 98.3
RM10001-RM15000 13 1.3 99.6
More than RM20000 4 0.4 100.0
Education SPM or equivalent 417 41.7 41.9
STPM or equivalent 99 9.9 51.9
Diploma or equivalent 210 21.0 73.0
Bachelor degree or equivalent 171 17.1 90.2
Masters or PhD 30 3.0 93.2
Others 68 6.8 100.0
Marriage Less than 5 years 231 23.1 23.1
6-10 years 199 19.9 43.1
11-15 years 199 19.9 63.0
16-20 years 149 14.9 78.0
21-25 years 92 9.2 87.2
More than 25 years 128 12.8 100.0
Language
Spoken
Malay 556 55.6 56.5
Chinese 222 22.2 79.1
Tamil 78 7.8 87.0
English 128 12.8 100.0
Descriptive Statistics
The mean inuence values for the products/services across the
three dierent stages of the decision- making process is shown
in Table 2. From the table it can be seen that for computers (M =
1.63) and cars (M =1.62), the buying decision is the husbands at all
levels of the decision-making process. For homes and insurance it
is the husbands decision at only the outcome stage but a joint-
decision for all the other stages. The table also shows that it is
the wifes decision for her clothes (M =2.54) at all stages of the
decision-making process. Also for groceries (M =2.40) and childrens
clothes (M =2.39) it is the wifes decision even though it is a joint
decision at the outcome stage of the decision-making process for
both products. For all other products/services the buying decision is
basically a joint decision.
53
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
Table 2
Mean Values for Products/Services at Each Decision Stage
Products/Services Initial stage Evaluation
stage
Outcome
stage
Mean
1 Furniture 2.22 2.06 1.84 2.04
2 Electrical appliances 1.95 1.91 1.69 1.85
3 Computers 1.65 1.67 1.58 1.63
4 Groceries 2.56 2.41 2.23 2.40
5 Childrens clothes 2.51 2.40 2.26 2.39
6 Wifes clothes 2.64 2.54 2.43 2.54
7 Husbands clothes 1.83 1.87 1.75 1.82
8 Vacation 1.93 1.91 1.78 1.87
9 Eating out 1.93 1.89 1.75 1.86
10 Education 2.01 1.97 1.88 1.95
11 Entertainment 1.95 1.97 1.83 1.92
12 Bank account 1.91 1.88 1.79 1.86
13 Insurance 1.74 1.74 1.61 1.70
14 Home (buy/rent) 1.75 1.76 1.60 1.70
15 Cars 1.64 1.65 1.56 1.62
Overall mean 2.01 1.98 1.84 1.94
Hypotheses Testing
H1: There is a dierence in wives inuence based on the products/services
purchased.
ANOVA was used to compare the dierences in wives inuence
based on the products/services purchased. The descriptive statistics
for this analysis is given in Table 3, the ANOVA in Table 4 and the
post hoc analysis in Table 5.
The mean values in Table 3 indicate that when purchasing decisions
are based on products alone, most of the products are purchased
through joint decisions with cars (M = 1.62) and computers (M = 1.63)
being the only products for which the decision is the husbands. For
childrens clothes, wifes clothes and groceries, purchasing decision
is made by the wife. Table 4 indicates that there are signicant
54
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
dierences in the wifes inuence based on the products/services
purchased (p < .001). Subsequent post hoc analysis shown in Table
5 shows that there are signicant dierences in the wifes inuence
patern in almost all the products/services.
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics Based on Products/Services
Products/Services Mean Std. deviation
Furniture 2.04 0.45
Electrical 1.85 0.50
Computers 1.63 0.56
Childrens clothes 2.39 0.49
Wifes clothes 2.54 0.49
Husbands clothes 1.82 0.58
Vacation 1.87 0.39
Eating out 1.86 0.43
Education 1.95 0.51
Entertainment 1.92 0.51
Bank accounts 1.86 0.48
Insurance 1.70 0.55
Home 1.70 0.47
Cars 1.62 0.48
Groceries 2.40 0.53
Table 4
ANOVA Result Based on Products/Services
Sum of squares df Mean square F Sig.
Between groups 1127.948 14 80.568 326.004 .000
Within groups 3656.648 14796 .247
Total 4784.596 14810
*the mean dierence is signicant at the 0.05 level.
55
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
Table 5
Post Hoc Analysis Based on Products/Services
(I) Product type (J) Product type Mean
dierence
(I-J)
Std.
error
Sig. 95% Condence
interval
Lower
bound
Upper
bound
Furniture
Electrical .18597
*
.02122 .000 .1119 .2601
Computers .40708
*
.02309 .000 .3264 .4877
Groceries -.36246
*
.02202 .000 -.4394 -.2855
Childrens clothes -.35603
*
.02128 .000 -.4304 -.2817
Wifes clothes -.50120
*
.02118 .000 -.5752 -.4272
Husbands clothes .21952
*
.02324 .000 .1383 .3007
Vacation .16378
*
.01898 .000 .0975 .2301
Eating out .18091
*
.01964 .000 .1123 .2495
Education .08227
*
.02167 .016 .0066 .1580
Entertainment .11974
*
.02171 .000 .0439 .1956
Bank accounts .17486
*
.02099 .000 .1015 .2482
Insurance .33739
*
.02260 .000 .2585 .4163
Home (buy/rent) .33583
*
.02065 .000 .2637 .4080
Cars .41982
*
.02088 .000 .3469 .4928
Electricals
Computers .22111
*
.02399 .000 .1373 .3049
Groceries -.54843
*
.02296 .000 -.6286 -.4682
*
.02225 .000 -.6197 -.4643
*
.02216 .000 -.7646 -.6098
Education -.10369
*
.02262 .001 -.1827 -.0247
Insurance .15142
*
.02351 .000 .0693 .2336
*
.02165 .000 .0743 .2255
Cars .23385
*
.02187 .000 .1575 .3102
Computers
Groceries -.76954
*
.02470 .000 -.8558 -.6833
*
.02405 .000 -.8471 -.6791
*
.02396 .000 -.9920 -.8246
Husbands clothes -.18756
*
.02580 .000 -.2777 -.0975
Vacation -.24330
*
.02203 .000 -.3203 -.1663
Eating Out -.22617
*
.02260 .000 -.3051 -.1472
Education -.32480
*
.02439 .000 -.4100 -.2396
Entertainment -.28733
*
.02443 .000 -.3727 -.2020
Bank accounts -.23221
*
.02379 .000 -.3153 -.1491
(continued)
56
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
dierence
(I-J)
Std.
error
Sig. 95% Condence
interval
Lower
bound
Upper
bound
Groceries
*
.02293 .000 -.2188 -.0586
*
.02484 .000 .4952 .6688
Vacation .52624
*
.02091 .000 .4532 .5993
Eating Out .54338
*
.02151 .000 .4682 .6185
Education .44474
*
.02338 .000 .3631 .5264
*
.02342 .000 .4004 .5640
*
.02275 .000 .4579 .6168
Insurance .69985
*
.02424 .000 .6152 .7845
*
.02244 .000 .6199 .7767
Cars .78228
*
.02265 .000 .7032 .8614
Childrens
clothes
*
.02222 .000 -.2228 -.0676
*
.02419 .000 .4910 .6601
Vacation .51981
*
.02013 .000 .4495 .5901
Eating out .53694
*
.02075 .000 .4645 .6094
Education .43831
*
.02268 .000 .3591 .5175
*
.02273 .000 .3964 .5552
*
.02204 .000 .4539 .6079
Insurance .69342
*
.02357 .000 .6111 .7758
*
.02171 .000 .6160 .7677
Cars .77585
*
.02194 .000 .6992 .8525
Wifes clothes
*
.02411 .000 .6365 .8049
Vacation .66498
*
.02002 .000 .5950 .7349
Eating out .68211
*
.02065 .000 .6100 .7543
Education .58348
*
.02259 .000 .5046 .6624
*
.02263 .000 .5419 .7000
*
.02194 .000 .5994 .7527
Insurance .83859
*
.02348 .000 .7566 .9206
*
.02162 .000 .7615 .9125
Cars .92102
*
.02184 .000 .8447 .9973
Husbands
clothes
Education -.13724
*
.02453 .000 -.2229 -.0516
Entertainment -.09977
*
.02457 .005 -.1856 -.0139
Insurance .11787
*
.02536 .000 .0293 .2064
*
.02364 .000 .0338 .1989
Cars .20030
*
.02384 .000 .1170 .2836
(continued)
57
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
dierence
(I-J)
Std.
error
Sig. 95% Condence
interval
Lower
bound
Upper
bound
Vacation
Education -.08151
*
.02054 .008 -.1532 -.0098
Insurance .17361
*
.02151 .000 .0985 .2488
*
.01946 .000 .1041 .2400
Cars .25604
*
.01970 .000 .1872 .3249
Eating out
Education -.09864
*
.02115 .000 -.1725 -.0248
Insurance .15648
*
.02210 .000 .0793 .2337
*
.02010 .000 .0847 .2251
Cars .23891
*
.02034 .000 .1678 .3100
Education
*
.02241 .004 .0143 .1709
Insurance .25511
*
.02392 .000 .1716 .3387
*
.02209 .000 .1764 .3307
Cars .33754
*
.02231 .000 .2596 .4155
Entertainment
Insurance .21764
*
.02396 .000 .1339 .3013
*
.02213 .000 .1388 .2934
Cars .30007
*
.02235 .000 .2220 .3781
Bank accounts
Insurance .16253
*
.02331 .000 .0811 .2440
*
.02143 .000 .0861 .2358
Cars .24496
*
.02165 .000 .1693 .3206
Insurance Cars .08243
*
.02321 .040 .0013 .1635
Home (buy/rent) Cars .08399
*
.02132 .009 .0095 .1585
*the mean dierence is signicant at the 0.05 level.
H2: Wifes inuence in family purchase decision making varies with her
income.
Table 6 displays the mean values of the inuence patern for each
product/service based on the income level of the wife. ANOVA was
used to test if the means of the products/services were dierent based
on the wifes income level. The ANOVA result is shown in Table 7,
and the post hoc analysis in Table 8.
58
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
Table 6
Mean Values of Inuence Patern for Products/Services Based on Wifes
Income Level
Products/Services Monthly income level (wife)

No
income
Less than
RM1k
RM1001-
RM5000
RM5001-
RM10000
RM10001-
RM15000
More than
RM20000
Furniture 1.97 2.05 2.07 2.08 2.31 2.25
Electrical 1.80 1.87 1.86 1.98 2.15 2.33
Computers 1.54* 1.71 1.64* 1.84 1.72 2.42**
Groceries 2.35** 2.43** 2.42** 2.45** 2.51** 2.50**
Childrens clothes 2.35** 2.45** 2.41** 2.45** 2.44** 2.42**
Wifes clothes 2.49** 2.54** 2.56** 2.63** 2.56** 2.33
Husbands clothes 1.85 1.85 1.81 1.73 1.72 1.25*
Vacation 1.84 2.01 1.87 1.87 1.97 2.42**
Eating out 1.81 1.88 1.87 1.94 1.92 2.17
Education 1.86 2.03 2.00 2.06 2.15 2.58**
Entertainment 1.89 1.98 1.91 1.98 2.00 2.17
Bank account 1.73 1.93 1.94 1.96 1.97 2.42**
Insurance 1.59* 1.77 1.76 1.77 1.91 2.50**
Home 1.62* 1.76 1.72 1.84 1.95 2.08
Cars 1.56* 1.66* 1.62* 1.74 1.87 2.25
* = husbands decision, ** = wifes decision.
Table 7
ANOVA Result Based on Wifes Income Level
Sum of
squares
df Mean
square
F Sig.
Furniture
Between groups 3.622 5 .724 3.598 .003
Within groups 200.144 994 .201
Total 203.767 999
Electricals
Between groups 4.580 5 .916 3.780 .002
Total 244.977 997
Computers
Between groups 9.931 5 1.986 6.450 .000
Total 304.344 961
(continued)
59
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
Sum of
squares
df Mean
square
F Sig.
Groceries
Between groups 1.880 5 .376 1.343 .244
Total 279.568 997
Childrens
clothes
Between groups 1.293 5 .259 1.063 .379
Total 237.446 976
Wifes clothes
Between groups 2.076 5 .415 1.704 .131
Total 244.095 998
Husbands
clothes
Between groups 2.605 5 .521 1.555 .170
Total 335.266 998
Vacation
Between groups 3.250 5 .650 4.293 .001
Total 151.624 985
Eating out
Between groups 2.028 5 .406 2.255 .047
Total 180.055 995
Education
Between groups 7.929 5 1.586 6.163 .000
Total 262.155 993
Entertainment
Between groups 1.404 5 .281 1.073 .374
Total 256.132 978
Bank account
Between groups 11.950 5 2.390 11.071 .000
Total 217.888 959
Insurance
Between groups 9.922 5 1.984 6.865 .000
Total 288.856 970
Home
Between groups 6.132 5 1.226 5.673 .000
Total 219.949 994
Cars
Between groups 5.373 5 1.075 4.730 .000
Total 230.526 996
* The mean dierence is signicant at the 0.05 level.
60
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
The data in Table 6 indicates that the inuence of the wives tends to
increase with income levels. Also noted are that few products tend to
be wife-dominant at all income levels. Examples of these products are
groceries and wifes clothes.
The ANOVA result in Table 7 shows that in the purchases of 10
products/services, there is a signicant inuence of income in
determining wifes inuence. These products/services are: furniture
(p < 0.003), electrical (p < 0.002), computers (p < 0.001), vacation (p =
0.001), eating out (p < 0.047), education (p < 0.001), bank account (p
< 0.000), insurance (p < 0.001), homes (p < 0.001) and cars (p < 0.001).
Post hoc analysis in Table 8 shows only the products/services for
which there are signicant dierences based on wifes income level.
Table 8
Post Hoc Analysis Based the Income Level of the Wife
Dependent
variable
(I) Monthly
income (wife)
(J) Monthly income
(wife)
Mean
dierence
(I-J)
Std.
error
Sig. 95%
Condence
interval
Lower
bound
Upper
bound
Furniture No income RM1001-RM5000 -.10384
*
.03157 .013 -.1940 -.0137
Electrical No income RM5001-RM10000 -.17787
*
.05837 .029 -.3445 -.0112
Computers
No income
RM5001-RM10000 -.30013
*
.06605 .000 -.4888 -.1115
More than RM20000 -.87389
*
.27895 .022 -1.6704 -.0773
RM1001-RM5000 RM5001-RM10000 -.20580
*
.06556 .022 -.3930 -.0186
Vacation
No income
Less than RM1k -.16679
*
.04687 .005 -.3006 -.0330
*
.19556 .039 -1.1339 -.0171
Less than RM1k RM1001-RM5000 .14079
*
.04656 .031 .0078 .2737
Education No income
*
.06014 .046 -.3451 -.0017
RM1001-RM5000 -.13872
*
.03577 .002 -.2409 -.0366
RM5001-RM10000 -.20156
*
.06072 .012 -.3749 -.0282
Bank
account
No income
*
.05779 .006 -.3681 -.0380
RM1001-RM5000 -.21465
*
.03325 .000 -.3096 -.1197
RM5001-RM10000 -.23223
*
.05579 .000 -.3915 -.0729
*
.23354 .039 -1.3550 -.0212
(continued)
61
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
Dependent
variable
(I) Monthly
income (wife)
(J) Monthly income
(wife)
Mean
dierence
(I-J)
Std.
error
Sig. 95%
Condence
interval
Lower
bound
Upper
bound
Insurance No income
RM1001-RM5000 -.17038
*
.03832 .000 -.2798 -.0610
*
.27022 .010 -1.6817 -.1385
Home No income
RM1001-RM5000 -.10316
*
.03279 .021 -.1968 -.0095
RM5001-RM10000 -.22252
*
.05514 .001 -.3800 -.0651
Cars No income
RM5001-RM10000 -.18603
*
.05652 .013 -.3474 -.0247
*
.23955 .045 -1.3767 -.0088
For the purchase of furniture, even though it is a joint decision at all
income levels of the wives, higher earning wives were relatively more
inuential as is hypothesized. Wives in the RM10,000 to RM15,000
inome bracket are relatively the most inuential in terms of furniture-
purchasing decisions. The post hoc analysis in Table 8 shows that for
furniture, there were signicant dierences between the no income
and the RM1000 to RM5000 income groups.
The ndings also revealed that wives with higher earning power
were relatively more inuential and the purchase decision for
electrical is a joint decision regardless of the income level of the wife.
In the post hoc analysis for electrical appliance, only no income and
RM5,000 to RM10,000 groups had signicant dierences as shown in
Table 8.
For the purchase of computers, it was the husbands decision for the
no income and the RM 1001-RM5,000 groups but the wifes decision
for those earning above RM20,000. It was a joint decision for the rest
of the income groups. The post hoc analysis in Table 8 shows that
there are signicant dierences between the no income group and the
RM1,000-RM5,000 group and between the no income group and the
above RM20,000 group.
With respect to vacation, the nding shows that it was a joint decision
up to the RM15,000 group but was the wifes decision for those earning
above RM20,000. The less than the RM1,000 income group was not
only signicantly dierent from the RM1,000 to RM5,000 group
62
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
according to the post hoc analysis in Table 8 but was also relatively
more inuential. Otherwise higher income wives had relatively more
inuence. The post hoc analysis also shows that there were signicant
dierences between the no income group and the less than RM1,000
and the more than RM20,000 groups.
As for the purchase of education, the nding shows that wives earning
more than RM20,000 had autonomous buying decisions otherwise it
was a joint decision. The inuence patern indicated an upward trend
that followed the income earning levels of the wives, with a slight
deviation for the less than RM1,000 group which seemed to have
more inuence than the RM1,000 to RM5,000 groups even though it
was not signicant according to the post hoc analysis in Table 8. The
post hoc also shows that there were signicant dierences between
the no income group and the less than RM1,000, RM1,000 to RM5,000
and RM5,000 to RM10,000 groups.
The trend in the nding indicates that the inuence of the wife
increases with respect to her earning power. For those earning more
than RM20,000 the purchase decision for bank account was theirs,
otherwise it has a joint decision for all the other income levels. The
post hoc analysis in Table 8 also shows that there were signicant
dierences between the no income group and the less than RM1,000,
the RM1,000 to RM5,000, the RM5,000 to RM10,000, and the more
than RM20,000 groups.
For the purchase of insurance, the nding shows that for the no
income group, it was the husbands decision and for the more than
RM20,000 group, it was the wifes decision; it was a joint decision
for all the other income level groups. The trend also shows that the
wifes inuence increased according to her income earning level. The
post hoc analysis in Table 8 also shows that there were signicant
dierences between the no income group and the RM1,000 to
RM5,000, and the more than RM20,000 groups.
As for the purchase of homes, it was the husbands decision for the no
income group but a joint decision for all the other income groups. The
wifes inuence increased with earning power except for the less than
RM1,000 income level group, which seemed to have relatively more
inuence than the RM1,000 to RM5,000 income group, even though it
was not signicant according to the post hoc analysis in Table 8. The
post hoc analysis also shows that there were signicant dierences
63
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
between the no income group and the RM1,000 to RM5,000 and the
RM5,000, to RM10,000 groups.
With respect to the purchase decisions for cars, the nding shows that
it was the husbands decision up to the RM5,000 income level but
it was a joint decision for the rest of the income levels. Here again,
the nding shows the wifes inuence increased with earning power
except for the less than RM1,000 income level group, which seemed to
have relatively more inuence than the RM1,000 to RM5,000 income
group, even though it was not signicant according to the post hoc
analysis in Table 8. The post hoc analysis also shows that there were
signicant dierences between the no income group and the RM5,000
to RM10,000 and the more than RM20,000 groups.
H2: Wives inuence in family purchase decision-making varies with
wives occupation.
The same procedure used for the income level of the wife was used
to test for dierences based on the occupation of the wife. The mean
values of the infuence paterns of wives for the products/services
based on the wives occupations are shown in Table 9. The ANOVA
result based on the occupation of the wife is shown in Table 10 and
the post hoc analysis in Table 11.
An examination of Table 9 reveals that there was no denite patern
of wives inuence based on the occupation of the wife. The mean
values in Table 9 show that the purchase decision was husband-
dominant in the following scenarios: when the wife was a student
for electrical (M = 1.57), computers (M = 1.56), vacation (M = 1.67),
bank account (M = 1.56), eating out (M = 1.57), insurance (M = 1.33),
homes (M = 1.33) and cars (M = 1.29); when she was a housewife for
computers (M = 1.53), insurance (M = 1.61), homes (M = 1.64) and
cars (M = 1.56); when she is retired for insurance (M = 1.59) and
cars (M = 1.49); when she was in management for computers (M =
1.64), and cars (M = 1.63); when she was clerical (M = 1.66) and in
entrepreneurship (M = 1.67) for cars. In the case of professional,
entrepreneur, housewife and other occupations, it was the wives
decision to buy groceries, childrens and wifes clothes. It was also the
wives decision in the following cases: buying the wifes clothes when
she was in management, clerical or retired; buying childrens clothes
when she was retired or a student; buying groceries when she was in
clerical occupation. In all other cases, it was basically a joint decision
for each product/service.
64
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
T
a
b
l
e

9
M
e
a
n

I
n
f
u
e
n
c
e

P
a
t

e
r
n

B
a
s
e
d

o
n

t
h
e

O
c
c
u
p
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

W
i
f
e
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
s
/
S
e
r
v
i
c
e
s
W
i
f
e
s

o
c
c
u
p
a
t
i
o
n

M
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
P
r
o
f
e
s
s
i
o
n
a
l
C
l
e
r
i
c
a
l
E
n
t
r
e
p
r
e
n
e
u
r
R
e
t
i
r
e
d
H
o
u
s
e

w
i
f
e
S
t
u
d
e
n
t
O
t
h
e
r
s
F
u
r
n
i
t
u
r
e
2
.
0
1
2
.
0
3
2
.
1
2
2
.
1
8
2
.
1
1
1
.
9
8
2
.
0
0
2
.
1
4
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
a
l
1
.
8
3
1
.
9
1
1
.
8
7
1
.
9
1
1
.
9
7
1
.
8
2
1
.
5
7
*
1
.
8
5
C
o
m
p
u
t
e
r
s
1
.
6
4
*
1
.
7
3
1
.
7
1
1
.
7
0
1
.
9
0
1
.
5
3
*
1
.
5
6
*
1
.
7
1
G
r
o
c
e
r
i
e
s
2
.
3
0
2
.
4
2
*
*
2
.
4
0
*
*
2
.
5
2
*
*
2
.
2
7
2
.
3
9
*
*
2
.
3
3
2
.
4
9
*
*
C
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
s

c
l
o
t
h
e
s
2
.
3
1
2
.
4
2
*
*
2
.
3
2
2
.
5
6
*
*
2
.
4
8
*
*
2
.
4
0
*
*
2
.
3
8
*
*
2
.
4
3
*
*
W
i
f
e
s

c
l
o
t
h
e
s
2
.
5
3
*
*
2
.
6
0
*
*
2
.
5
1
*
*
2
.
6
2
*
*
2
.
5
4
*
*
2
.
5
3
*
*
2
.
3
3
2
.
5
3
*
*
H
u
s
b
a
n
d
s

c
l
o
t
h
e
s
1
.
8
4
1
.
7
9
1
.
7
9
1
.
8
1
1
.
8
4
1
.
8
3
2
.
2
4
1
.
7
6
V
a
c
a
t
i
o
n
1
.
8
3
1
.
8
3
1
.
9
5
1
.
9
4
1
.
8
1
1
.
8
6
1
.
6
7
*
1
.
9
4
E
a
t
i
n
g

o
u
t
1
.
8
1
1
.
9
0
1
.
9
2
1
.
9
9
1
.
8
4
1
.
8
2
1
.
5
7
*
1
.
8
4
E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
1
.
9
5
2
.
0
6
1
.
9
7
1
.
9
9
1
.
7
1
1
.
9
1
1
.
8
6
2
.
0
6
E
n
t
e
r
t
a
i
n
m
e
n
t
1
.
8
3
1
.
9
1
1
.
9
1
1
.
9
9
2
.
0
2
1
.
9
3
1
.
7
1
1
.
9
5
B
a
n
k

a
c
c
o
u
n
t
1
.
9
4
1
.
9
4
1
.
9
6
1
.
9
4
1
.
9
5
1
.
7
5
1
.
5
6
*
1
.
9
5
I
n
s
u
r
a
n
c
e
1
.
7
3
1
.
8
0
1
.
7
7
1
.
7
8
1
.
5
9
*
1
.
6
1
*
1
.
3
3
*
1
.
8
3
H
o
m
e
1
.
7
2
1
.
7
7
1
.
7
3
1
.
6
9
1
.
9
2
1
.
6
4
*
1
.
3
3
*
1
.
8
1
C
a
r
s
1
.
6
3
*
1
.
7
0
1
.
6
6
*
1
.
6
7
*
1
.
4
9
*
1
.
5
6
*
1
.
2
9
*
1
.
7
0
*

=

h
u
s
b
a
n
d
s

d
e
c
i
s
i
o
n
,

*

=

w
i
f
e
s

d
e
c
i
s
i
o
n
.
65
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
The ANOVA result in Table 10 shows that there were signicant
dierences for furniture (p < 0.001), computers (p < 0.001), vacation
(p < 0.034), eating out (p < 0.009), education (p < 0.013), bank account
(p < 0.001), insurance (p < 0.000), home (p < 0.002) and cars (p <
0.008). The subsequent post hoc analysis is given in Table 11. The
post hoc result in Table 11 indicates that for furniture, clerical and
entrepreneur wives had signicant dierences with housewives;
for bank account, management, professional and clerical wives had
signicant dierenecs with housewives; for insurance, professional
and clerical wives had signicant dierences with housewives;
and for computers, professional and clerical wives had signicant
dierences with housewives.
Table 10
ANOVA Result Based on Wifes Occupation

Sum of
squares
df Mean
square
F Sig.
Furniture
Between groups 4.864 7 .695 3.463 .001
Total 203.679 998
Electricals
Between groups 1.938 7 .277 1.127 .344
Total 244.954 996
Computers
Between groups 8.921 7 1.274 4.113 .000
Total 304.207 960
Groceries
Between groups 3.089 7 .441 1.581 .137
Total 279.207 996
Childrens clothes
Between groups 3.326 7 .475 1.965 .057
Total 237.371 975
Wifes clothes
Between groups 1.214 7 .173 .707 .666
Total 243.881 997
Husbands clothes
Between groups 1.844 7 .263 .784 .601
Total 334.598 997
(continued)
66
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)

Sum of
squares
df Mean
square
F Sig.
Vacation
Between groups 2.329 7 .333 2.181 .034
Total 151.412 984
Eating out
Between groups 3.379 7 .483 2.697 .009
Total 180.034 994
Education
Between groups 4.682 7 .669 2.564 .013
Total 261.647 992
Entertainment
Between groups 1.812 7 .259 .987 .439
Total 256.125 977
Bank account
Between groups 9.977 7 1.425 6.527 .000
Total 217.666 958
Insurance
Between groups 8.639 7 1.234 4.243 .000
Total 288.454 969
Home
Between groups 4.970 7 .710 3.258 .002
Total 219.860 993
Cars
Between groups 4.379 7 .626 2.734 .008
Total 230.379 995
Table 11
Post Hoc Analysis Based on Wifes Occupation
Dependent
variable
(I)
Occupation
(wife)
(J)
Occupation
(wife)
Mean
dierence
(I-J)
Std.
error
Sig. 95% Condence
Interval
Lower
bound
Upper
bound
Furniture
Clerical Housewife .14643
*
.04183 .011 .0194 .2735
Entrepreneur Housewife .20073
*
.06518 .044 .0028 .3987
Bank
account
Management Housewife .19404
*
.04900 .002 .0452 .3429
Professional Housewife .19017
*
.04762 .002 .0455 .3348
*
.04439 .000 .0811 .3508
(continued)
67
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
Dependent
variable
(I)
Occupation
(wife)
(J)
Occupation
(wife)
Mean
dierence
(I-J)
Std.
error
Sig. 95% Condence
Interval
Lower
bound
Upper
bound
Insurance
Professional Housewife .19578
*
.05481 .009 .0293 .3623
*
.05133 .034 .0067 .3186
Computers Housewife
Professional -.20532
*
.05656 .007 -.3771 -.0335
Clerical -.18110
*
.05277 .014 -.3414 -.0208
H4: Wives inuence in family purchase decision-making varies with
wives education.
The mean values of the inuence patern based on the education level
of the wife are shown in Table 12, ANOVA in Table 13 and the post
hoc analysis in Table 14.
Table 12
Mean Infuence Patern Based on the Wives Education Level
Products/Services Wifes education level
STPM or
equivalent
Diploma or
equivalent
Others SPM or
equivalent
Bachelor
degree or
equivalent
Masters
or PhD
Furniture 2.08 2.05 2.04 2.01 2.04 2.13
Electrical 1.91 1.81 1.86 1.84 1.88 1.96
Computers 1.59* 1.61* 1.66* 1.66* 1.84 1.64*
Groceries 2.31 2.34** 2.37** 2.42** 2.46** 2.48**
Childrens clothes 2.26 2.35** 2.39** 2.40** 2.48** 2.50**
Wifes clothes 2.44** 2.50** 2.44** 2.56** 2.63** 2.64**
Husbands clothes 1.80 1.84 1.66 1.85 1.75 2.00
Vacation 1.85 1.85 1.89 1.91 1.83 1.90
Eating out 1.86 1.86 1.73 1.86 1.86 2.01
Education 1.81 1.89 1.80 1.99 2.06 2.18
Entertainment 1.79 1.87 1.87 1.97 1.93 2.06
Bank account 1.86 1.86 1.79 1.84 1.94 1.93
Insurance 1.61 1.70 1.65 1.69 1.77 1.79
Home 1.76 1.66 1.70 1.68 1.73 1.90
Cars 1.64 1.59 1.52 1.61 1.66 1.81
*= husbands decision, **= wifes decision.
68
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
The mean values in Table 12 show that it was mostly a joint decision
for buying most of the products/services for the dierent education
levels of the wife. Purchase decision for wifes clothes is the wifes
decision for all education levels. Similarly, purchase decisions for
groceries and childrens clothes were the wifes decision for all
education levels except for the STPM or equivalent group where it
became a joint decision. Buying decisions for computers and cars
were the husbands except for wives with PhD or Masters where it
was a joint decision. In addition, it was the husbands decision in the
following scenarios: buying homes in the case of wives with diplomas
or equivalent; buying insurance in the case of wives with STPM or
equivalent and other qualications; buying husbands clothes in the
case of wives with other qualications. The values in Table 12 also
show that wives with PhD or Masters were relatively more inuential
for all the products/services except for computers and bank account
where wives with Bachelor or equivalent degrees were more
inuential. Generally, wives with STPM or equivalent qualications
were relatively the least inuential.
The ANOVA results in Table 13 indicate that there were signicant
dierences in the inuence patern based on the education level of
the wives for the following products/services: childrens clothes
(p < 0.010), wifes clothes (p < 0.007), husbands clothes (p < 0.029),
education (p < 0.001) and entertainment (p < 0.009).
Table 13
ANOVA Analysis Based on the Education Level of the Wives
Furniture
Between groups .843 5 .169 .824 .532
Total 203.093 994
Electricals
Between groups 1.235 5 .247 1.002 .415
Total 244.631 992
Computers
Between groups 2.530 5 .506 1.596 .158
Total 304.065 956
Groceries
Between groups 2.466 5 .493 1.762 .118
Total 278.724 992
(continued)
69
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
Childrens
clothes
Between groups 3.684 5 .737 3.052 .010
Total 236.904 971
Wifes clothes
Between groups 3.865 5 .773 3.192 .007
Total 243.166 993
Husbands
clothes
Between groups 4.178 5 .836 2.500 .029
Total 334.486 993
Vacation
Between groups 1.125 5 .225 1.461 .200
Total 151.268 980
Eating out
Between groups 1.818 5 .364 2.011 .075
Total 179.906 990
Education
Between groups 8.320 5 1.664 6.477 .000
Total 260.850 988
Entertainment
Between groups 4.022 5 .804 3.110 .009
Total 254.370 973
Bank account
Between groups 1.847 5 .369 1.624 .151
Total 217.755 954
Insurance
Between groups 2.118 5 .424 1.420 .214
Total 288.492 965
Home
Between groups 2.175 5 .435 1.969 .081
Total 219.587 989
Cars
Between groups 2.176 5 .435 1.885 .094
Total 229.769 991
The general nding shows that the inuence patern of wives increased
with their education level. Purchasing decision for childrens clothes
was a joint decision for wives with STPM or equivalent qualications
but it was the wifes decision for all the other educational qualications
of the wives. The post hoc analysis in Table 14 indicates that STPM or
equivalent holders had signicant dierences with bachelor degree
or its equivalent holders.
70
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
T
a
b
l
e

1
4
P
o
s
t

H
o
c

A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s

B
a
s
e
d

o
n

t
h
e

E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n

L
e
v
e
l

o
f

t
h
e

W
i
f
e
D
e
p
e
n
d
e
n
t

v
a
r
i
a
b
l
e
(
I
)

E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n

l
e
v
e
l

(
w
i
f
e
)
(
J
)

E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n

l
e
v
e
l

(
w
i
f
e
)
M
e
a
n

d
i

e
r
e
n
c
e

(
I
-
J
)
S
t
d
.

e
r
r
o
r
S
i
g
.
9
5
%

C
o
n

d
e
n
c
e

i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
L
o
w
e
r

b
o
u
n
d
U
p
p
e
r

b
o
u
n
d
C
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
s

c
l
o
t
h
e
s
S
T
P
M

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
B
a
c
h
e
l
o
r

d
e
g
r
e
e

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
-
.
2
2
1
3
3
*
.
0
6
3
5
7
.
0
0
7
-
.
4
0
2
8
-
.
0
3
9
8
W
i
f
e
s

c
l
o
t
h
e
s
S
T
P
M

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
B
a
c
h
e
l
o
r

d
e
g
r
e
e

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
-
.
1
8
4
9
7
*
.
0
6
2
2
2
.
0
3
6
-
.
3
6
2
6
-
.
0
0
7
3
E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
S
T
P
M

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
S
P
M

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
-
.
1
7
7
7
6
*
.
0
5
7
1
6
.
0
2
4
-
.
3
4
1
0
-
.
0
1
4
5
B
a
c
h
e
l
o
r

d
e
g
r
e
e

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
-
.
2
4
9
4
3
*
.
0
6
4
4
3
.
0
0
2
-
.
4
3
3
4
-
.
0
6
5
5
M
a
s
t
e
r
s

o
r

P
h
D
-
.
3
6
6
7
8
*
.
1
0
5
8
9
.
0
0
7
-
.
6
6
9
1
-
.
0
6
4
4
D
i
p
l
o
m
a

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
B
a
c
h
e
l
o
r

d
e
g
r
e
e

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
-
.
1
7
1
0
1
*
.
0
5
2
3
2
.
0
1
4
-
.
3
2
0
4
-
.
0
2
1
6
M
a
s
t
e
r
s

o
r

P
h
D
-
.
2
8
8
3
5
*
.
0
9
8
9
9
.
0
4
2
-
.
5
7
1
0
-
.
0
0
5
7
O
t
h
e
r
s
B
a
c
h
e
l
o
r

d
e
g
r
e
e

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
-
.
2
5
6
5
1
*
.
0
7
2
6
7
.
0
0
6
-
.
4
6
4
0
-
.
0
4
9
0
M
a
s
t
e
r
s

o
r

P
h
D
-
.
3
7
3
8
6
*
.
1
1
1
0
9
.
0
1
0
-
.
6
9
1
1
-
.
0
5
6
7
E
n
t
e
r
t
a
i
n
m
e
n
t
S
P
M

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
S
T
P
M

o
r

e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
.
1
8
3
0
9
*
.
0
5
7
2
4
.
0
1
8
.
0
1
9
7
.
3
4
6
5
*

T
h
e

m
e
a
n

d
i

e
r
e
n
c
e

i
s

s
i
g
n
i

c
a
n
t

a
t

t
h
e

0
.
0
5

l
e
v
e
l
.
71
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
With regards to buying decisions for the wifes clothes, the nding
indicates that it is the wifes decision at all levels of the wifes
educational qualications. Wives with masters or PhDs are relatively
more inuential whilst those with STPM or equivalent and other
qualications were the least inuential. The post hoc analysis in
Table 14 shows that there were signicant dierences between wives
with STPM or equivalent and wives with bachelor degrees or their
equivalent qualications.
As for the purchase of husbands clothes, it was found to be mostly
a joint decision except for wives with other qualications where it
was the husbands decision. Here again wives with PhD or Masters
degrees had the most inuence. The post hoc analysis did not reveal
any signicant dierences among the education levels of the wife.
The purchase decision for education was a joint decision across all
educational qualications of the wife. Masters or PhD holders were
relatively more inuential whilst STPM or its equivalent and other
qualication holders had the least inuence with respect to purchase
decisions for education. The post hoc result in Table 14 shows
that wives with STPM or equivalent qualications had signicant
dierences with SPM or its equivalent, bachelor or its equivalent and
Masters or PhD holders. Similarly wives with diploma or equivalent
qualications had signicant dierences with bachelor or its equivalent
and Masters or PhD holders. Also wives with other qualications had
signicant dierences with bachelor or its equivalent and Masters or
PhD holders.
The nding indicates that for all levels of the wifes education, the
entertainment buying decision was a joint one. Again, wives with
STPM or equivalent qualications were relatively the least inuential
whilst Masters and PhD holders were the most inuential in terms
buying decisions for entertainment. The post analysis shows that
there were dierences between SPM or its equivalent holders and
STPM or its equivalent holders.
Discussions and Conclusions
The study aims to investigate family purchase decision-making in
urban Malaysia and the factors aecting the decision-making process.
Besides analysing the decision-making process, wifes resources
(income, occupation and education) were investigated to determine
their eects on family-purchase decisions.
72
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
The ndings of this study revealed that the majority of products/
services purchased for the family is a joint decision. For those very
specic items such as computers, groceries and clothing, the ndings
indicated that they were bought jointly by the husbands and wives.
It is interesting to note that the wifes inuence generally decreased
in the outcome stage, i.e., when products were actually purchased.
The husbands bigger inuence at this stage may be an actual
manifestation of power in the family. This power is actually nancial
in nature, and would happen in a majority of the households where
husbands earned more income. The ndings revealed that wifes
resources do positively aect her inuence in purchase decision-
making as it was shown that wives with higher income and education
and beter positions in their occupations had more power in their
family purchase decision-making.

These ndings help to shed some light for marketing practitioners in
developing their marketing strategies for products used by the family.
Marketers should take into consideration that many purchases for
family consumption are done jointly. Thus, the target market should
be identied with caution, as both husbands and wives are involved
in the decision-making process. It is also noted from the ndings
that role structure is product specic and varies with the stages of
the decision-making process. Even though the husbands have the
ultimate purchase inuence, the wives contribute in the earlier stage
of the decision-making process.
Marketers should also take into consideration the changes in family
values brought about by economic and social developments. Wives
with more resources are relatively more exposed in the market,
are open-minded, and consequently, take active roles in purchase
decisions, especially those high-involvement products.
The ndings in this study should be interpreted with caution as this
study has several limitations. The sample of wives was taken from
an urban seting, and may not be reective of Malaysia in general.
Also, the responses were taken only from the wifes perceptions. In
the future, studies should also include the husbands perspectives to
be less biased. Other psychographic variables and values can also be
studied to complement the ndings based on demographic variables.
The study should also include more parts of Malaysia, and include the
non-urban setings. Qualitative studies should also be conducted to
examine the issues in family purchase decision-making from dierent
73
IJMS 19 (2), 4773 (2012)
perspectives. In conclusion, this study has found husbands, who hold
the nancial power in the family, to be powerful in the purchases
(outcome) made by the family. The inuence of wives was found to
vary by products and services, as well as their personal resources.
References
Hawkins, D. B., & Coney, K. A. (2004). Consumer behaviour: Building
marketing strategy (9th edn.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Samsinar, M. S., & Mary, A. (1996). Wives involvement and the eects
of sex role orientation in family decision-making. Proceedings of
Multicultural Marketing Conference, Virginia, USA, 102106.
Samsinar, M. S., Wong, F. Y., Dahlia, Z., Ruhana, B., & Zalfa Laili H.
(2004). The eects of spousal resources on family purchase
decision-making in Malaysia: A replication. Malaysian Journal
of Consumer and Family Economics, 7, 131138.
Samsinar M. S., & Rao, C. P. (2005). Family decision-making
processes. Journal of Marketing and Communication, 1, 7687.
Schiman, L. G., & Kanuk, L. L. (2010). Consumer behaviour. Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pearson Education.
Xia, Y., Ahmed, Z. U., Hwa, N. K., Tan, W. L., & Teo, W. (2006).
Spousal inuence in Singaporean family purchase decision-
making process: A cross-cultural comparison. Asia pacic
Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 18, 201222.
75
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
ANALYSIS OF ZAKAT MANAGEMENT IN
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
MOHAMED SHARIF BASHIR
NURUL NABILAH HAJI ALI
Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic
University, Brunei Darussalam
Abstract
The main objective of this paper is to analyze the management of zakat funds
in Brunei Darussalam. More specically, it aims at investigating how zakat
funds recipients perceive the quality of the current zakat management with
special atention to the aspect of zakat funds disbursement. It also aims to
examine how e cient Bruneis zakat administration is, particularly the
distribution aspect. This paper is explanatory and descriptive in nature and
uses both secondary and primary data to examine the trends of zakat collection
and distribution. The ndings in this paper show that zakat management in
Brunei Darussalam is progressing to achieve the main objectives of zakat
system. The paper also provides some useful policy implications to improve
the management of zakat funds and how policy-makers can respond to the
challenges positively as well as to develop and support zakat institutions in
Brunei Darussalam to be more e cient and reliable in the collection and
distribution of zakat funds.
Keyword: Zakat management, Islamic nance, zakat recipients, Brunei
Darussalam.
Introduction
Zakat is one of the ve pillars of Islam, having important socioeconomic
implications, and has to be administered by the state. Zakat is a yearly
premium on all forms of accumulated productive wealth as well as a
variety of agricultural products, calculated at various rates according
to the nature of the wealth or product to be paid to the needy
individuals of the Muslim community for their rehabilitation. The
Islamic renaissance in the present world has led to its institutionalized
administration in some Muslim countries, such as Brunei, Malaysia,
Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait (Kahf, 1997; Sadeq, 1994).
76
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Zakat is an obligatory religious duty on Muslims to achieve divinely
prescribed socioeconomic objectives. It is a self-help measure adopted
with full religious backing to support those poor and destitute who are
unable to help themselves to alleviate misery and poverty in Muslim
society (Chapra, 1992). Muslims in dierent countries, realizing the
pivotal role of the zakat system, embarked on ways to resuscitate
the zakat institution. Two systems of zakat management commonly
exist in the Muslim world: compulsory and voluntary systems.
Compulsory zakat system is mostly managed by governments, while
voluntary zakat system has multiple models. The common models
are the neighborhood or commitee-based model, nongovernmental
organization-based model, semi-government-based model, and
government-based model (Abioye, 2008).
The management of zakat in Brunei Darussalam is governed by the
Islamic Religious Council of Brunei Darussalam (MUIB) under the
Ministry of Religious Aairs (MORA). MUIB is given the authority
by the laws of Brunei to collect and distribute the zakat funds
1
. This
role conforms to Islamic law in obligating the state to exercise zakat
as a vital instrument to fulll basic needs in Muslim society as well
as an instrument of scal policy. MUIB has provided social security
for the poor and the needy in society throughout the last two decades
(Abdullah, 2010a).
Brunei Darussalam is a small and oil-rich country. It is located on
the northern coast of Borneo Island, surrounded by the two eastern
provinces of Malaysia and the South China Sea on the north. Bruneis
population is approaching 400,000. Around 70% of the population is
Muslim. Brunei is a constitutional sultanate, and the sultan wields
broad powers under a state of emergency that has been in eect since
1962. It runs under the political philosophy of the Malay Islamic
Monarchy. Bruneis economy is heavily reliant upon exporting crude
oil and natural gas. Revenues from these sectors account for half
of GDP, around 90% of exports, and 80% of government revenue.
Therefore, Brunei is the fourth-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia,
averaging about 175,000 barrels a day. It also is the ninth-largest
exporter of liqueed natural gas in the world. Much of the countrys
wealth is controlled by the strong central government. The Brunei
Investment Authority General Reserve Fund has an estimated USD30
billion in assets (Oxford Business Group, 2011).
77
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Regulations and the Act of Zakat in Brunei
Several steps have been implemented to improve the management of
zakat in Brunei Darussalam since the establishment of Baitul Mal as a
governmental unit responsible for zakat collection and distribution.
However, after 1
st
November 1999, the name of Baitul Mal was changed
to the Department of Zakat Collection and Distribution (DZCD) with
approval from a monthly ministerial meeting (MBK 9/1999, held on
19
th
October 1999). The department is divided into many sections, one
of them called the Section of Collection and Distribution. This section
is divided into ve units: a unit of administration and distribution of
zakat, unit of collection, unit of application/investigation/observation,
unit of secretariat meeting, and unit of housing.
O ces of the zakat collection and distribution department operate in
all four districts of Brunei. In addition, the department is responsible
for the overall activities of the collection and distribution of zakat
funds and is also accountable not only in the mater of zakat but some
other tasks such as registration for Mualaf and activities of Baitul Mal
and Waqaf (Islamic Religious Council of Brunei, 2010).
The main objectives of the zakat system can be explained as follows:
(1) It is an act of purifying of ones soul, enabling one to come closer
to Allah (SWT). As an act to protect the poor and needy from
any nancial and material problems, it benets not only the
poor but also the rich because their assistance will be rewarded
by Allah (SWT) in the hereafter for their act of obedience to
Allah (SWT).
(2) It plays an important role in the progress of the spiritual aspect,
the economy, and technology in society.
(3) Zakat functions as a means of eradicating poverty in society,
and it also simultaneously motivates individuals in becoming
responsible and caring people. It ensures ideal and sustainable
social security for the poor, needy, old, disabled, and other
unfortunate individuals in society.
(4) The Islamic institution of zakat creates creative individuals who
are non-materialistic, self-su cient, and always grateful for the
bounties of Allah (SWT).
The main objective of this paper is to analyze zakat management in
Brunei Darussalam and how zakat recipients perceive the quality of
the current zakat management, especially in relation to disbursement.
78
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
It also examines zakat disbursements eects on the recipients social
and nancial status. This paper may shed some light on the possible
responses that address the main issues, including the distribution and
investment of zakat funds.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 provides a
brief perspective on fundamentals of zakat in Islam, while section
3 describes the data and method. Section 4 presents results and
discussion. Section 5 oers some policy implications followed by a
conclusion in section 6.
Fundamentals of Zakat in Islam
Main Objective of the Zakat System
In the early Islamic period, the institution of zakat was strong, and
the poor and the needy were helped through this institution. The
Holy Prophet (PBUH) had predicted that there would be such an
abundance of wealth in the Muslim community that the class of
persons who deserve zakat and charity would be entirely eliminated.
This prediction came true. The Muslims had so much wealth that
there was none to deserve zakat. However, this happened at a time
when Muslims had an honest government, a just ruler, and the right
system. Unlike other economic systems, from its inception, Islam had
to nd a reliable solution to all sorts of social problems, including
poverty and social injustice. To achieve this objective, Islams main
emphasis is to guarantee the steady provision of basic human needs
(food, shelter, clothing, and other prerequisites) at levels that seem to
be su cient to preserve human dignity, achieving the objectives of
socioeconomic development on the basis that poverty and hunger are
the key to atheism (al-Hashimi, 2007; Awad, 1998).
Based on need and time factors, Islam dierentiates between two
types of needy groups: the poor, Fakir, and the destitute, Miskin. The
former is dened as any person who, using his own resources, cannot
maintain himself at the su ciency level for a period of one year. The
later refers to those who are unable to secure their needs (in terms of
food) for one day. Such a dierence yields a very wide range of people
who could be classied as poor. Both types are entitled to zakat.
Poverty in Islam is not a mater of the inability to satisfy basic needs
for human survival at a point in time, as some scholars allege; rather, it
79
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
is a mater of the inability to satisfy these needs through a sustainable
process for a long period of time, almost a year. Thus, sustainability
in meeting basic human needs is a key element and point of departure
to distinguish the poor from the non-poor (Abdullah, 2010a). Islam
views poverty as a social problem that must be eradicated. This is
clearly envisioned in almost all of the Quran verses related to poverty
and the poor (Al-Qaradawi, 1997; Sahl, 1997). From the Islamic
perspective, assisting the poor is not considered solely charity;
rather, it is an act of justice. This is because the poor are entitled to a
share of the richs wealth by virtue of being co-owners of the natural
resources from which their wealth is derived. The Quran cited that
severe chastisement will be inicted on those rich who do not help the
poor and worse will be the fate of those rich who acquire money from
the helpless, the poor, and the orphaned through illegal means. Thus,
zakat has been imposed on wealth and income as a legitimate right of
the poor to the wealth of the rich (Chaudry, 1999). In this respect, the
Islamic economic system neither negates the legitimacy of acquiring
wealth as communism does, nor seeks to help the poor through the
organization of mutual support schemes as socialism does. It merely
retrieves for the poor their appropriate share of the wealth acquired
by the rich. Transfers from the rich to the poor could be conceived as
a mechanism by which poverty can be eradicated and a minimum
standard of living can be atained by every member of society. Islam
atributes the prevalence of poverty to mans deviation from divine
religion and to corruption in the economic system. This view contrasts
with that of capitalism, where both poverty and wealth are regarded
as a direct product of human eorts, so the poor are responsible
for the creation of their own poverty (Hassan, 2010; Sadeq, 1994;
Zayas, 2003).
Addressing the Poverty Problem
Furthermore, from the Islamic economic perspective, the consequences
are many, and a few can be cited as follows:
(1) Poverty has a direct consequence on human faith in God where
wealth and resources tend to be concentrated in a few hands
while the many suer from deprivation. Unless wealth and
resources are equally distributed among people, poverty will
lead eventually to atheism. Thus, deviation from divine religion
originates from poverty that results from the misdistribution of
wealth and resources.
80
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
(2) Poverty also has a direct eect on human ethics and behavior,
tending to force those who fall into deprivation and destitution
to engage in unlawful behavior such as robbery. Deprivation
may also lead to suspicion of ethical and religious values.
(3) Poverty may endanger human thought. In other words, the
poor, who are unable to meet their basic needs, cannot think
well.
(4) Poverty may have a direct impact on family structure,
persistence, and cohesion. Within the family structure, poverty
can be regarded as a main obstacle in a marriage. Poverty may
also lead to the destruction of family ties, e.g., through divorce.
(5) Poverty may endanger the social fabric and social security and
stability.
The spread of poverty in Muslim nations will threaten their unity,
integrity, freedom, and sovereignty because the poor and destitute
will have no enthusiasm to defend their country if wealth and
resources are not distributed equally among all the citizens. To correct
this situation and to narrow the growing income gap between the rich
and the poor, zakat has been used as an ideal eradication mechanism.
This objective could be achieved by redistributing income in favor of
the poor as well as by utilizing it in the employment of idle manpower
through either lending or direct investment. The poor and destitute
are the rst two of the eight categories designated in Islam as eligible
for zakat funds (Hassan, 2010).
There are eight categories or groups of beneciaries who qualify to
receive zakat. In other words, zakat can be distributed only to people
in any of the eight eligible categories indicated in the Quran. These
eight types of eligible beneciaries comprise what are known as
Asnaf, which are ranked according to their eligibility as follows: the
poor, the destitute, zakat collectors or those employed to administer
the funds, the appeased (non-Muslim inclined to enter or has already
converted to Islam), slaves (captives), debtors, those in the cause of
God, and the wayfarers or travelers who are stranded in a foreign
land (Surat at-Tawbah: Chapter 9; Verse 60). The rst two categories
are the needy, while the remaining six are not necessarily poor but are
still entitled to zakat. The distribution of zakat funds should be based
on the needs of all the groups. In some cases, the transfer of allocated
zakat funds from one category to another can be allowed according to
priorities and the degree of vulnerability. This reects the exibility
of the zakat system regarding its predetermined Asnaf. Zakat cannot be
regarded as a distribution mechanism alone, as some scholars argue;
81
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
it also has an income-generating and, hence, a development rationale.
This is mainly the economic wisdom behind the zakat: to prohibit
and thus mobilize hoarding, leading in turn to more investment and
further income generation and development. The poor are given not
only what satises their basic needs but also capital to produce and
earn income (Kahf, 1990; Sahl, 1997).
The obligatory nature of annual zakat payments and the
aforementioned denition of the poor are of particular economic
signicance as follows:
(1) It means that the poor are entitled to be given a certain
proportion of aggregate income and wealth every year.
(2) This proportion is assumed to be su cient to meet the poors
requirements for a year.
(3) Under investment opportunities, if the poor are enlightened as
to how to invest their zakat proceeds, they may in the following
year no longer be in poverty.
(4) It follows from the third that, if a poor person invests
successfully, he may turn into a zakat payer rather than a
recipient.
(5) Being a zakat payer means a reduction in the number of the
poor by some proportion, opening opportunity for new poor
people to participate in the process.
The poverty-alleviation eects of zakat are reinforced in an Islamic
economy by a number of poverty-preventing measures. Chief among
these measures is that all natural resources are deemed collectively
owned by all members of the communities that control and utilize
them; the prohibition of monopolies and restrictive practices is
another eective poverty-preventing measure through which poverty
is combated in an Islamic economy. Being the chief instrument
through which the rich exploited the poor, usury was regarded as
a chief economic evil that was prohibited and replaced by a host of
nancial arrangements that benet both the funder and the funded.
These include Musharakah (prot- and loss-sharing); Murabahah
(forward sale) or Ijar-Tamlik, (renting of goods); and Gard Hassan
(forward purchase or free loans) (Billah, 2007).
Islam species the states responsibility and commitment toward its
nationals, including vulnerable groups such as the poor, widows, the
disabled, the aged, etc. Every needy person has the right to ask the
state to provide him with food, shelter, clothing, etc. However, the
82
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
level at which these items are to be provided is su ciency rather than
subsistence, which is emphasized by most prevailing measures of
poverty. The modern approach to the zakat institution is a signicant
economic and social instrument for poverty alleviation and the
stability of the Muslim world (Hassan, 2010; Sahl, 1997).
Methodology and Data Sources
This paper is explanatory and descriptive in nature and uses both
secondary and primary data to examine the trends of zakat collection
and distribution. The research has obtained primary data on zakat
through survey questionnaires distributed to zakat recipients based
on a sample size of 50. With this small sample size, the present paper
can still contribute signicantly to the existing zakat studies, at least at
an exploratory level. Non-probability convenience sampling has been
used to collect data from zakat fund recipients in Bandar Seri Begawan,
the capital city of Brunei Darussalam. The questionnaire forms were
distributed in May 2011. The purpose of the questionnaire is to look
at the perspective of the zakat recipients. The questionnaire consists
of ve sets of questions, including the respondents demographic
characteristics, view on the early stage of applying for zakat, view after
receiving zakat funds, view on the Empowerment Zakat Recipients
Program (EZRP), and view on the objective of zakat distribution. A
ve-point Likert scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly
disagree was used to measure 10 items of the respondents feedback
after receiving zakat funds. A reliability test was performed and
showed that Cronbachs alpha was 0.80, which indicates a su cient
level of reliability. The secondary data was obtained from MUIB
statistics on zakat collection and distribution from 2001 to 2009.
All gures in this paper are in current Brunei Darussalam dollar
(BND$) including data on zakat funds
2
. The sources of zakat funds as
practiced in Brunei are divided into two types: Zakat Fitrah and Zakat
on wealth. The detailed information for each is as follows:
(a) Zakat Fitrah
Zakat Fitrah is also known as zakat on the person, zakat of
Ramadan, or Zakat Fitrah. Zakat Fitrah was obliged in the second
year of the Islamic Calendar (Hijrah), the same year that fasting
in Ramadan was made obligatory. Zakat Fitrah is prescribed as
a means of purication for the person who fasts, redressing
wrong deeds and undesirable words utered during fasting. It
also serves as aid to the needy.
83
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
(b) Zakat on Wealth
There are six types zakat for wealth: zakat for income and salary,
zakat for business, zakat for savings, zakat for stocks, zakat for
gold and silver, which includes currencies and bank-notes, and
zakat for agriculture and poultry (Islamic Religious Council of
Brunei, 2010).
Results and Discussion
Respondents Demographic Characteristics and Views
As shown in Table 1, the highest percentage for gender is female,
accounting for 74% of the respondents, while males accounted for
26%. In regard to age, the highest age group is 40-49 years old,
accounting for 30% of the respondents, followed by those between
the age of 30 and 39 and those who are over 50 years old with a
percentage of 26%, while the age group of 20-29 years accounted
for 18%. The majority of the respondents age is between 30 and 49
years old. Almost all of the respondents are from the Malay ethnic
group, accounting for 92%, followed by Chinese at 6%, and others
(the Iban ethnic group) at 2%. This indicates that the respondents
are dominated by Malay. The highest percentage for education level
have a secondary school education at 54%, followed by those with
no education, including those with an education level at primary 3
and below accounting for 36% and those with a primary education
level at 10%. In regard to employment, the highest percentage, 74%
of the respondents, are unemployed, followed by those who work in
the private sector at 18%. The remaining 8% work in the government
sector. This indicates the highest percentage of respondents is
unemployed. A majority of the respondents are married (54%),
followed by 26% who are divorced, while the remaining 20% are
widowed. Hence, the results show that the highest percentage of the
respondents is married.
In regard to family size, the highest percentage of respondents has
three to ve dependents (50%), followed by those with one to two
dependents (32%). Around 10% of the respondents have six to seven
dependents, and 8% have more than seven dependents. This shows
that the majority of the respondents have between one and ve
children.
84
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Table 1
Respondents Demographic Characteristics
Characteristics Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 13 26
Female 37 74
Age
20-29 9 18
30-39 13 26
40-49 15 30
50 > 13 26
Race
Malay 46 92
Chinese 3 6
Other 1 2
Education
Primary 5 10
Secondary 27 54
No education 18 36
Employment
Government 4 8
Private 9 18
Unemployed 37 74
Marital Status
Married 27 54
Divorced 13 26
Widowed 10 20
Family Size
1-2 16 32
3-5 25 50
6-7 5 10
>7 4 8
In regard to the respondents view on the application process, as
shown in Table 2, in six categories (Asnaf) of those are eligible to
receive zakat, the highest percentage is from Fakir and Miskin (78%),
followed by Gharimin (14%). The remaining are from Muallaf (8%).
These results indicate that the highest frequency occurs for Fakir and
Miskin. A majority of the respondents, 52%, said that it took about
four to 12 months for their application to be answered, followed by
36% who indicated more than a year, and the remaining 12% said it
took about one to three months. This indicated that a majority of the
respondents waited about four months or more for their applications
to be accepted.
85
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Table 2
Respondents View on the Application Process
Frequency Percentage (%)
Zakat categories
Fakir/Miskin 39 78
Muallaf 4 8
Gharimin 7 14
Duration of response
1-3months 6 12
4-12months 26 52
> 1 year 18 36
In regard to the type of assistance received by the respondents,
basic needs accounted for 36% of the recipients, followed by
education at 24%, emergency at 20%, Gharimin at 12%, and the
remaining 8% from Muallaf. This indicates that the highest frequency
occurs for spending on basic needs such as food, clothing, housing
needs, showing the importance of zakat in meeting these needs.
As shown in Table 3, around 46% of the recipients said that
their monthly expenses are between BND$300 and BND$499,
followed by 30% of the respondents who said that their monthly
expenses are from BND$500 to BND$1000. The remaining 24% of
the respondents spend BND$100 to BND$299 for monthly expenses.
These results show that the majority of the respondents are spending
about BND$300 to BND$499 monthly. A majority of the recipients,
66%, responded that the zakat funds they receive are enough to meet
their monthly expenditures. However, 34% of the recipients said
that the zakat funds received are insu cient to cover their expenses.
This illustrates that the highest percentage of respondents agree
that the zakat funds are su cient to cover their monthly expenses.
Around 34% of the respondents conrmed that the zakat funds
are insu cient to cover their monthly expenses. A majority of the
respondents (82%) said that they need around BND$300 to BND$800
to pay their monthly expenses. The remaining 18% of the respondents
need around BND$1000. These results conrm that the amount of
funding needed is not less than BND$500 to cover the recipients
monthly expenses.
86
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Table 3
Respondents View after Receiving Zakat Funds
Types of funds received
Education 12 24
Emergency 10 20
Muallaf 4 8
Gharimin 6 12
Basic needs 18 36
Monthly expenses (BND$)
100-299 12 24
300-499 23 46
500-1000 15 30
Zakat su ciency
Yes 33 66
No 17 34
Needed expenses (BND$)
300 5 10
400 6 12
500 16 32
600 8 16
800 6 12
1000 9 18
Table 4 shows that, due to lack of awareness of the Empowerment
Zakat Recipients Program (EZRP), the absolute majority did not join
this program and obviously had not heard about it. Only around 6%
of the respondents joined EZRP, while the majority of the respondents
joined the program within one year.
Table 4
Respondents View on Empowerment Zakat Recipients Program
Recipients that joined EZRP
Yes 3 6
No 47 94
Period of time
< 1 Year 3 6
Not Joining 47 94
87
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
In regard to the respondents feedback after receiving zakat funds,
as shown in Table 5, 64% of the respondents agreed that the process
of applying for zakat is short and simple, 12% of the 50 respondents
disagreed, 10% strongly agreed, 8% strongly disagreed, and 6% said
that they neither agreed nor disagreed. This shows that the majority
of the respondents agreed that the process of applying for zakat is
short and simple. Table 5 also shows that the highest percentage, 44%,
agreed that zakat funds help to improve their childrens education
level. The second-highest percentage, 30%, strongly agreed, the third-
highest percentage, 16%, disagreed, and 10% neither agreed nor
disagreed. These results show that the majority of the respondents
agreed that zakat helps to improve their childrens education level. 68%
agreed that zakat funds help them to acquire their basic necessities,
22% agreed, 6% neither agreed nor disagreed, and the remaining
4% said that they disagreed that zakat funds help them to meet their
basic needs. They said that nothing has improved since they began
receiving help from zakat funds.
Around 66% of the respondents strongly agreed and 14% of them
agreed that zakat funds assist them in paying their debts, whereas
14% said it does not help them to pay their debts, and 6% said that
they neither agreed nor disagreed. Table 5 shows that the highest
percentage of the respondents agreed that zakat funds help them
to pay their debts. 60% agreed and 24% strongly agreed that their
standard of living improved after they received zakat funds. On the
other hand, 10% disagreed, and 6% neither agreed nor disagreed.
This shows that the highest percentage of respondents agreed that
zakat funds help to improve their standard of living. The results show
that the highest percentage, 36% of the respondents, agreed that zakat
funds contribute money to build their homes. The second-highest
percentage of the respondents, 30%, disagreed, followed by 20% who
neither agreed nor disagreed, and 4% represented those who strongly
disagreed. This proves that the majority of the respondents agreed
that the zakat funds contribute money to build their homes.
Virtually 62% of the respondents agreed and 20% strongly agreed that
zakat funds help to ease their burden. On the other hand, 8% neither
agreed nor disagreed, 6% disagreed, and 4% strongly disagreed. This
indicates that the majority of the respondents agreed that zakat funds
help to ease their burden. Nearly 72% of the respondents agreed
and 16% strongly agreed that their income increased after receiving
zakat funds. However, 10% disagreed, and 2% neither agreed nor
disagreed. This indicates that the majority of the respondents agreed
88
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
that their income increased after receiving zakat funds. Almost
72% of the respondents agreed and 16% strongly agreed that their
income increased after receiving zakat funds. However, 10% of the
respondents disagreed, and 2% neither agreed nor disagreed.
Nearly 76% of the respondents agreed and 18% strongly agreed
that life became easier with the help of zakat. On the other hand, 4%
disagreed, and 6% neither agreed nor disagreed. This indicates that
the majority of the respondents agreed that life became easier with
the help of zakat. About 32% of the respondents disagreed that zakat
funds help to pay for their family members medical expenses, 28%
agreed, 22% neither agreed nor disagreed, and the remaining 18%
said that they strongly agreed that zakat funds help to pay for their
family members medical expenses. This shows that the majority of
the respondents disagreed that zakat funds help to pay for medical
expenses. The reason is that the recipients usually go to government
hospitals or clinics if they do not feel well, and the cost is only one
dollar, so it does not mater whether zakat helps or not because they
still manage to pay for medical expenses.
Table 5
Respondents Feedback after Receiving Zakat Fund (%)
Statements SA A NT DA SDA
Application process for zakat fund is short and simple 10 64 6 12 8
It helps to improve children education 30 44 0 10 16
It helps to meet basic needs 11 34 3 2 0
It helps to pay debts 7 33 3 7 0
It helps to improve standard of living 12 30 3 5 0
It helps to build a house 10 36 20 30 4
It helps to ease burden 5 18 10 15 2
Income increased after receiving zakat 8 36 1 5 0
Life became easier 9 38 1 2 0
It helps to pay medical expenses 9 14 11 16 0
Note. SA=Strongly agree, A=Agree, NT= Not decided, DA=Disagree, and SDA=Strongly
disagree.
Analysis of Zakat Collection and Distribution
As shown in Table 6, the number of zakat payers of wealth increased
drastically in 2002 to 3,454 persons compared to 2001, when only 956
89
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
persons paid. The number decreased gradually in 2003 and 2004.
However, in 2005, there was a drastic increase due to the participation
of the depositors of the Islamic nancial institutions in the country,
Taib Amanah Fund (TAIB) and Bank Islam Brunei Darussalam (BIBD).
The changes in the administrative structure caused the zakat payment
for 2006 and 2007 to be postponed until 2008 both for the banks zakat
and the depositors zakat, resulting in a sharp drop in the number of
payers and the amount collected. The decrease in zakat collection also
has a connection to the economic downturn, which has aected the
prots of businesses. The lower the businesses prot is, the less zakat
will be paid to zakat collectors.
Table 6
Total Amount of Zakat and Number of Payers
Year Total collection
(BND$)
Number of payers Payment per Payer
(BND$)
2001 9,849,351 956 10,302
2002 13,804,900 3,454 3,997
2003 10,869,270 3,454 3,147
2004 11,173,064 4,112 2,717
2005 14,751,913 4,569 3,229
2006 11,096,859 4,667 2,378
2007 11,292,007 5,004 2,257
2008 11,820,873 5,160 2,291
2009 19,918,345 4,122 4,832
Source. Islamic Religious Council of Brunei (2010).
On the other hand, for zakat payers on Zakat Fitrah, there is no problem.
Since people are aware of the importance of paying Zakat Fitrah, a
majority of zakat payers will pay Zakat Fitrah during the fasting month
(Ramadan). As shown in Table 7, the number of zakat Fitrah payers
increased gradually from 2001 to 2009.
Table 7
Total Amount of Zakat Fitrah, 20012009
Year Total collection (BND$) Number of payers
2001 692,011 251,421
2002 789,453 255,855
(continued)
90
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Year Total collection (BND$) Number of payers
2003 1,407,145* 260,205
2004 765,400 276,116
2005 780,790 281,504
2006 805,575 289,929
2007 813,170 292,374
2008 831,531 299,003
2009 843,137 302,981
Note.* The amount doubled due to zakat collection of two fasting months happened in
this year.
Eligible Categories to Receive Zakat Funds in Brunei
There are six Asnaf or categories of people who are eligible to receive
zakat funds in Brunei Darussalam
3
. These categories are as follows:
(1) The poor: The poor are unable to earn a living, their source of
income is from non-Halal activities, they do not have wealth, or
they have some but it is not enough, and they do not have an
income or not enough to support their dependents (Rahman,
2003).
(2) The needy: The needy are those who have only a litle income or
wealth that can cover only half or more but not all of the family
members basic needs. They also include those who are able to
work and their sources of income are not from permissible or
Halal activities, or they have wealth and income, but it is not
enough to support their dependent (Rani, 2008).
(3) Amil: The Amil are those who are appointed to collect zakat on
behalf of MUIB.
(4) Muallaf: The Mualaf are people who have converted to Islam.
MUIB has dened three criteria for those who are eligible to
receive zakat fund under this category as follows: rst, the
receiver should have converted to Islam within the previous
10 years and not performed Hajj. Second, a new applicant
who wants to convert to Islam should be justied rst by a
Shariah lawyer, and the applicant must join an introductory
course on Islam organized by an authorized body. Third, new
converts who want to perform Hajj must have fullled all the
requirements, not performed Hajj, and passed an interview
(Pusat Dawah Islamiah, 1999; Baki, 2007).
(5) Gharimin: The Gharimin group is normally those who have
gone into debt on building projects for the public such as the
construction of mosques or schools, and recently, MUIB has
considered including those who are in debt for basic necessities
such as the purchase of government houses.
91
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
(6) Ibn al-Sabil: These are people who are travelling for purposes
that are not against Shariah and in need of help due to not
having enough money available at a given time.
The Process of Applying for Zakat
First, to apply for zakat, the applicants must rst get a form from the
Section of Zakat Collection and Distribution. Then, after the applicants
ll out the form, they must present the form to the head of the village
to get it stamped. The head of the village will write a statement to
verify whether or not the applicants are eligible for zakat funds. After
that, the recipients will give the forms to the Section of Zakat Collection
and Distribution. Next, an application/investigation/observation
unit will gather and organize the forms into three categories: new,
renewal, and appeal applications. After that, the sta will investigate
the applicants to see whether they are really eligible to receive zakat
funds or not. After the investigation, the sta will write a report about
the applicants they have visited. Next, the sta will type the reports
nicely and present them to the Ahli Jawatankuasa Meneliti (Commitee
of Analyzing). If this commitee conrms that the applicants are
eligible, they will send the forms and the reports to Jawatankuasa
Mengeluarkan Zakat (Commitee of Zakat Distribution) for meetings
and conrmation. According to MUIB practices, one case will take
about 40 days. However, sometimes, due to a lack of evidence and
information in a report, the Ahli Jawatankuasa Meneliti (Commitee of
Investigation) will have to ask the sta to go for a second visit, which will
cause a case to take about three months to complete (Abdullah, 2010b).
Before 2009, all applications were handled case by case. Each case
was put into a le for further action. As a result, the management in
previous years was quite slow and ine cient. However, after 2009,
the management changed the way they handled cases. They put the
cases into dierent groups as shown in Tables 10, 11, 12 and 13. The
groups are allocated by timeframe. These groups are divided into two
categories: Fakir and Miskin. The funds to be distributed vary between
these two groups. There were four groups from October 2009 to
September 2010.
Distinction between Fakir and Miskin
In Brunei, the average monthly expenses per person total BND$253.
Thus, referring to MUIB guidelines, the total monthly expenses for
Bruneian family, on average, is BND$1518. In this case, the fathers
92
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
(head of family) designated monthly income is BND$1,000. However,
if the head of a familys monthly income is just BND$400, this family
would fall under the needy group because his wealth can cover only
50% or less than half of the designated family heads monthly income.
If the family falls into the Fakir category, the head of the family will
receive BND$10,000, and the dependents will receive BND$5,000 each.
If the family is considered poor (Miskin), this Asnaf would be put in
category B, Miskin; the head of the family would receive BND$2,000
and the dependents would receive BND$5,000 each (Islamic Religious
Council of Brunei, 2010; Abdullah, 2010b)
4
.
Table 8
Number of Zakat Recipients in the Fakir and Miskin Categories, 2001-2009
Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Total 3,543 3,631 3,347 13,298 19,420 16,751 16,210 16,450 16,378
Change (%) 2.5 -7.8 297.3 46.0 -13.7 -3.2 1.5 -0.4
Table 8 shows the number of zakat recipients in the Fakir and Miskin
categories from 2001 to 2009. The number in these categories increased
drastically from 3,543 persons in 2001 to 13,298 persons in 2004. The
increase of almost 12,000 persons was due to some adjustments in the
government policy for distributing the zakat funds. That is, the head
of the family and all dependents were counted as eligible to receive
zakat. In the previous years, the zakat for Fakir and Miskin was given
only to the head of the family.
In 2009, there was a 0.4% decrease in the number of recipients of Fakir
and Miskin compared to the previous year (Table 8). However, the
share of Zakat Fakir and Miskin increased tremendously from 67.9%
(2008) to 93.4% (2009) (Table 9). This shows that the amount of zakat
increased is clearly not due to the number of zakat recipients.
According to MUIB guidelines before 2009, the amount distributed to
Fakir and Miskin was as follows: Miskin families received amounts of
BND$200 for the head of the family, BND$100 for the wife, BND$65
per family member for food, and BND$60 per person for the childrens
school expenses. For Fakir, the head of family received BND$1,300
and the dependent family members BND$380 each. In 2009, there
were changes in the distribution of zakat to the Asnaf Fakir and Miskin
93
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
as agreed to by the Commitee of Zakat Distribution during the 7
th

Islamic Religious Council meeting held on 25
th
August 2009. Due
to the limited amount of money in the pool of zakat funds, the zakat
distribution commitees held another meeting on 18
th
February 2010
about the new zakat distribution.
Table 9
Share of Zakat Recipient by Category (%)
Year Amil Fakir & Miskin Muallaf Ibn al-Sabil Gharimin Total
2001 5.2 67.9 25.1 0.0 1.8
100.0
2009 0.1 93.4 2.9 0.0 3.6
100.0
Table 10
Zakat Distribution to Recipients of Fakir and Miskin for Group 1
Group 1
(Fakir)
Group 1
(Miskin)
Oct. 2009 Sep.
2014
(5 years)
Head of family will
receive BND$20,000;
dependents will receive
BND$10,000 each for a
period of 5 years or 60
months.
Oct. 2009 Sep.
2010
(1 year)
Head of family will
receive BND$3,000;
dependents will
receive BND$2,000
each for a period of 1
year (12 months).
Source: Islamic Religious Council of Brunei (2010).
Table 11
Group 2
(Fakir)
Group 2
(Miskin)
May 2010 April
2015
(5years)
Head of family will
receive BND$20,000;
dependents will receive
BND$10,000 each for a
period of 5 years or 60
months.
May 2010
April 2011
(1 year)
Head of family will
receive BND$3,000;
dependents will
receive BND$2,000
each for a period of 1
year (12 months).
Source. Brunei Islamic Religious Council (2010).
94
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Table 12
Group 3
(Fakir)
Group 3
(Miskin)
May 2010 Oct.
2012
(2.5 years)
Head of family will receive
BND$10,000; dependents
will receive BND$5,000
each for a period of 2.5
years (30 months).
May 2010
April 2011
(1 year)
Head of family will
receive BND$2,000;
dependents will
receive BND$1,200
each for a period of
1 year (12 months).
Table 13
Group 4
(Fakir)
Group 4
(Miskin)
Sep. 2010
Feb. 2013
(2.5 years)
will receive BND$5,000
each for a period of 2.5
years (30 months).
May 2010
Aug. 2011
(1 year)
will receive BND$1,200 each
for a period of 1 year (12
months).
Source. Islamic Religious Council of Brunei, 2010).
Di culties and Problems
The present investigation identied some di culties and problems
faced by the Department of Zakat Collection and Distribution (DZCD)
that involve the process of receiving the applications, investigating
the applicants, and making the necessary recommendations for
submission to the higher commitee for their approval and subsequent
disbursement of the zakat funds. The problems are:
(1) The di culties in processing the applications, as the sta
members of DZCD are multi-tasking, doing several jobs at a time.
(2) A huge number of applications, which has resulted in the
accumulation of more than 1,000 applications since 2006.
(3) DZCD o cers are not assigned to specic areas, causing a lack
of a sense of responsibility among the sta to make sure that
their clients are progressing.
95
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
In February 2009, a new initiative was introduced to speed up the
application process. The tasks given to the sta members were reduced
so that they can be more focused. However, the same procedures still
applied. The chief o cer of DZCD said that, although they were
speeding up the process, the number of new applications received
was higher than the actual number of applicants being visited by
MUIB o cers.
Moreover, MUIB is now fully equipped with a computerized zakat
collection system. The system will allow direct communication
between Amil (including banks) and MUIBs district o ces with the
main o ce. Using only the applicants identity card number, the sta
can nd the information in the system. The use of the computerized
zakat collection system will enable the involvement of a wider range
of the community and is expected to be more secure and to provide
an improved monitoring mechanism. It was very important to speed
up the processing time and to organize the many application forms
into three categories: new, renewal, and appeal. In addition, this has
made them more e cient now in terms of the distribution and receipt
of zakat applications.
The accumulated zakat funds are saved in the Islamic Bank of Brunei
Darussalam. From 1956 until December 2007, the accumulated zakat
funds in the bank totaled about $262 million. His Majesty the Sultan
of Brunei Darussalam raised concern over the state of zakat aairs in
the country during the MUIB annual meeting in January 2009. He
referred to the 2004 amount of accumulated zakat funds, which stood
at BND$240 million (Brunei Times, January 2009). In response to this,
MUIB took the step of disbursing about BND$100 million of the zakat
funds by distributing it to more than 4,000 recipients in October 2009
and declaring them free from poverty (Azaraimy, 2009).
The Empowerment Zakat Recipients Program (EZRP) was launched
on 5th November 2007. The program is a joint eort by the Islamic
Religious Council of the Ministry of Religious Aairs and the Youth
Development Centre. The objective of the program is to provide
training for the poor and needy to get skills and have the opportunity
to get jobs at government o ces or start their own businesses. They
will be assisted to start a business and to get capital from the zakat
funds. Divided into two sessions, the participants atend class-based
lessons for three months before undergoing practical training at
government departments and companies (Islamic Religious Council
of Brunei, 2010).
96
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
The participants should be from the poor and needy Asnaf groups
and must be willing to develop and improve their standard of living.
The training is a three-month program plus six months of work
atachment. The participants are oered skills in using computers
and o ce administration, baking cakes and pastries, cooking and
catering, salon and hairdressing, car repair and welding, and basic
sewing and embroidery. The facilities provided are transportation, an
allowance for stationery, uniforms, training equipment, a refreshment
allowance, and a pocket money allowance. About BND$2 million has
been allocated for this program to cover a ve-year period from 2008
through 2012 (Islamic Religious Council of Brunei, 2010).
The responses from the participants were not encouraging, as only 18
participants registered out of 102 candidates who were approached to
join the program. It is important to note that this program is separate
from the capital assistance scheme handled by MUIB (Abdullah,
2010a).
Based on this discussion, the objectives of the zakat institution in
Brunei can be reorganized and restructured as follows:
(1) In addition to the collection and disbursement of zakat, the zakat
institution intends to formulate a database of zakat rituals and
to reinforce the spirit of cooperation among the zakat payers
and recipients;
(2) The government has to carry out the function of the collection
of zakat from both individuals and rms;
(3) The recruiting of qualied zakat collectors should involve a
training program in technical and legal skills;
(4) Financial and technical assistance should be provided in terms
of productive family projects and production means to uplift
the poor; and
(5) Information should be provided and research conducted for
the establishment of a database.
The collection and disbursement of zakat from payers to its entitled
Asnaf is carried out throughout the year. The disbursement process of
zakat to its entitled beneciaries is based entirely upon the function of
collecting zakat itself. However, this situation entails the restructuring
of the zakat institution as an Islamic entity to pursue the eradication
of poverty and realize equity and social solidarity. The main function
of the zakat institution is to distribute zakat to the entitled groups
mentioned in the Quran in terms of money or productive activities.
97
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
The philosophy behind providing productive projects is to enhance
work habits as encouraged by Islam, which, in turn, reduces the
number of recipients and eventually increases the number of zakat
payers.
Policy Implications

Zakat administration in Brunei is naturally facing some problems
in terms of the assessment and collection of zakat. Some policy
implications can be presented as follows:
(1) In regard to Brunei law, the penalty for not paying zakat has not
been enforced. The possible reasons are as follows:
(a) There is no proper database of zakat payers, so it is
impossible for the MUIB to track Muslims who fail to
pay zakat.
(b) The zakat o ce is small and able to carry out only daily
administrative duties.
(c) The zakat administration is not authorized to carry
out investigations, such as checking the accounts and
condential nancial details of zakat payers.
(d) Consequently, the only thing that the o cers can do
given that no law has been enforced against those
who have refused to pay zakat is by generating more
awareness among the general public regarding their
responsibility as members of the Islamic community to
pay their zakat.
(2) Some Muslims, instead of paying zakat to MUIB, would rather
pay zakat through uno cial or informal channels. A number of
possible factors may be involved in this practice:
(a) Payers prefer to pay zakat to their close relatives or
neighbors who are known to be eligible to receive zakat
funds.
(b) There is a lack of publicity and information on the types
of zakat that should be paid.
(c) Payers have a negative perception of the zakat
administrations management of zakat funds. They
believe that the zakat administration does not e ciently
distribute the zakat funds. To overcome these problems,
the zakat administration should educate people and
allow other parties to be involved such as universities
and the media.
98
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
(3) Modern sources of income should be covered and subjected
to zakat eectively. To enhance e ciency and reliability in the
calculation and distribution of zakat funds, a proper mechanism
has to be adopted. Also, such measures have to be implemented
to ensure that all those who are eligible to pay zakat are willing
to pay and doing so accurately and that the funds reach those
who truly deserve it.
(4) There is room for improvement in terms of zakat administration
and organization in Brunei. The computerized system has yet
to be stabilized so that the use of the database will be more
e cient and reliable. Much data is yet to be entered into
the system.
Conclusion
Zakat is an important institution in the economic system of Islam,
which is one of the ve pillars on which the Islamic code of life is
founded. Zakat is an obligation of Muslims to give a specic amount
of their wealth according to certain conditions and requirements to
specic categories of beneciaries mentioned in Islamic sources. The
concept of zakat in Islam reects a strong concern with social justice
and well-being (Kahf, 1997).
Zakat practice in Brunei varies from that of other Muslim countries in
terms of coverage, distribution, and method of collection. In coverage,
the zakat administration should cover all types of Zakat al-Mal, which
includes all kinds of zakatable wealth including tradable items and
nancial and monetary assets (Abdullah, 2010b). The institution of
zakat in Brunei should have some positive economic implications.
Therefore, it is considered an obligatory poverty eradication program
that provides a compulsory social security system in society.
The ndings prove that zakat management in Brunei is progressing
to achieve the objectives of zakat system: providing social security
for the poor and the needy in society, developing balanced economic
growth, and commiting an act of spiritual purity and development.
A majority of the zakat recipients lives become easier in terms of
beter living and beter education, and the most important thing is
that they can acquire their basic necessities including food, shelter,
clothes, medicine, and education, which are meant to maintain life
and, hence, fulll the objective of zakat as a whole.
99
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Contemporary zakat administration in Brunei must move forward
to conrm that the compulsory implementation of zakat through
rules and laws is eective and e cient in reducing inequality in the
distribution of income and wealth. Besides its basic religious value,
zakat has a social aspect that aims at freeing the community from the
blight of poverty. It also has an economic aspect that is aimed to drive
the collected funds into circulation. This, in turn, helps to relieve
the community of most of its charitable burdens. By its very nature
and purpose, the institution of zakat is the most powerful means of
translating the Islamic principle of human brotherhood into a living
reality. It is for this very reason that the institution of zakat lays special
stress on rehabilitation, on promptly restoring the impoverished
individual to a condition of self-su ciency, thereby enabling him to
once more take his place as a productive member of the social group,
actively contributing to its prosperity.
This paper outlines the ndings from the interview with the o cers and
from analyzing and examining the questionnaires. The ndings from
both the interview and questionnaires have answered the research
questions about the zakat administration in Brunei Darussalam;
collection and distribution; and zakat recipients perception of zakat
in their lives.
Based on the analysis ndings; the present paper can conclude and
identify the following regarding the zakat distribution in Brunei
Darussalam:

(1) The Unit of Zakat Collection and Distribution gives priority to
zakat distribution to the Asnaf Fakir and Miskin
(2) There was a decrease in the amount for Amil in 2006 to 2009. It
is questionable why this happened since this Amil deserves to
get the same share of zakat as the other Asnaf.
(3) The Empowerment Zakat Recipients Program (EZRP) aims to
provide training for the poor and needy to get skills and have
the opportunity to get jobs. The response from the participants
was not encouraging, as only 18 participants registered
out of the 102 candidates who were approached to join this
programme. It is important to observe that this program is
handled separately from the capital assistance scheme. In
addition, only three respondents said that they had joined
the programme. It is a clear indication that there is a lack of
awareness among the public about this program.
100
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Future research should use a large sample to enhance the validity
of the current ndings. Using a dierent approach may contribute
to beter understanding of the management of zakat funds and
improving the contemporary practices of zakat institution.
End Notes
1 See the Laws of Brunei, 1/1984, Religious Council and Kadi
Courts, Chapter 77, Section 114.
2 US$1.00 =BND$1.22 (as of 1
st
October 2012).
3 There are another two categories; Riqab: To free slaves and
those who are oppressed and Fi Sabilillah: Fighters in the
cause of Allah (SWT). As stated by the Muftis fatwa (reference
number: 14 MKB 3/1969, dated on 1st September 1970), these
two categories do not exist in Brunei Darussalam. Nevertheless,
a special commitee has been formed under the Ministry of
Islamic Religious Aairs in 2005 to review the position of the
two categories.
4 There is no extreme poverty in Brunei, but to some extent
the problem is with relative poverty. Some services such as
primary health care and education are provided free by the
government. Welfare support is also given to several types of
citizens.
References
Abdullah, R. (2010a). Zakat fund as source of capital for poor and
needy in Brunei Darussalam. The 1
st
International Conference on
Islamic Finance (ICIF 2010). 1
st
-2
nd
March 2010. Rizqun Hotel,
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam: UNISSA.
Abdullah, R. (2010b). Zakat management in Brunei Darussalam:
A case study. The 7
th
International Conference- The Tawhidi
Epistemology: Zakat and Waqaf Economy. 6-7 January 2010. Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia: Institute of Islam Hadhari, UKM.
Abioye, M. O. (2008). Accountability for zakat disbursement: An
exploratory study of empowerment schemes in zakat institutions
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). International Islamic
University Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia.
al-Hashimi, M. A. (2007). The ideal Muslim society as dened in the
Quran and Sunnah. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: International Islamic
Publishing House.
101
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Al-Qaradawi, Y. (1997). Fiqh az-zakah (24th ed.). Beirut, Lebanon:
Mu`assasat al-Risalah.
Awad, M. H. (1998). Poverty eradication in Islamic and other economic
systems. Khartoum, Sudan: UNDP.
Azaraimy, H. H. (2009). Sultan queries zakat distributions balance.
Borneo Bulletin. Retrieved from: htp://www.bruneionline.com
Bakar, M. A., & Ghani, A. A. (2011). Towards achieving the quality
of life in the management of zakat distribution to the rightful
recipients (The poor and needy). International Journal of Business
and Social Science, 2(4), 237245.
Baki, H. M. (2007). Panduan mengira zakat. Negara Brunei Darussalam:
Pusat Dawah Islamiah Publisher, Kementerian Hal Ehwal
Ugama.
Billah, M. M. (2007). Applied Islamic law of trade and nance: A selection
of contemporary issues. Selangor, Malaysia: Sweet & Maxwell
Asia Publisher.
Chapra, M. U. (1992). Islam and the economic challenge. Leicester, UK:
The Islamic Foundation.
Chaudhry, M. S. (1999). Fundamentals of Islamic economic system.
Lahore, Pakistan: Burhan Education and Welfare Trust.
Hassan, M. K. (2010). An integrated poverty alleviation model
combining zakat, awqaf and micro-nance. The 7th International
Conference The Tawhidi Epistemology: Zakat and Waqaf Economy.
Bang, Malaysia: UKM Press. Retrieved from htp://www.ukm.
my/hadhari/sites/default/les/prosiding/p14.pdf
Islamic Religious Council of Brunei. (2010). Pengelolaan zakat di
Negara Brunei Darussalam. Negara Brunei Darussalam: Islamic
Religious Council of Brunei, Kementerian Hal Ehwal Ugama.
Kahf, M. (1990). Fiqh of zakah: The principle of socio-economic justice in
the contemporary. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Islamic Research and
Training Institute, IBD.
Kahf, M. (Ed.). (1997). Economics of Zakah: Book of reading. Jeddah,
Saudi Arabia: Islamic Research and Training Institute, IBD.
Oxford Business Group. (2011). Brunei Darussalam Report 2011.
London, UK: Oxford Business Group.
Pusat Dawah Islamiah. (1999). Zakat: Meningkatkan kesentosaan
dan perpaduan Masyarakat Negara Brunei Darussalam: Bandar
Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam: Pusat Dawah Islamiah
Publisher, Kementerian Hal Ehwal Ugama.
Rahman, M. (2003). Zakat collection primarily based on qh uz zakat.
Leicester, UK: The Islamic Foundation.
Rani, A. N. (2008). Isuisu ekonomi: Teori analisis dari perspective ekonomi
Islam. Negara Brunei Darussalam: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
102
IJMS 19 (2), 75102 (2012)
Sadeq, A. A. (1994). A survey of the institution of zakah: Issues, theories
and administration. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Islamic Development
Bank and Islamic Research and Training Institute, IRTI.
Sahl, I. M. (1997). Poverty from an Islamic perspective. Seminar
on Poverty: Towards an Agenda for Research. Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia: UIAM Press.
Zayas, F. G. (2003). The law and institution of zakat. A. Z. Abbasi (Ed.).
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: The Other Press.
103
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
PENGURUSAN PEMBANGUNAN HARTA
WAKAF: PENGALAMAN MAJLIS AGAMA
ISLAM NEGERI PULAU PINANG (MAINPP)
TERHADAP WAKAF SEETEE AISHAH
WAQF PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT
MANAGEMENT: THE EXPERIENCE OF ISLAMIC
RELIGIOUS COUNCIL OF PULAU PINANG
(MAINPP) IN MANAGING THE WAQF LAND OF
SEETEE AISHAH
HYDZULKIFLI HASHIM
Islamic Business School
ASMAK AB. RAHMAN
Faculty of Syariah & Economics
Universiti Malaya
Abstrak
Terdapat beberapa kaedah yang boleh dipraktikkan untuk memproduktifan
aset wakaf. Hal ini termasuk aktiviti seperti, menyewakan aset wakaf kepada
pihak yang berkepentingan dan melakukan aktiviti ekonomi dalam pelbagai
bidang seperti bidang pertanian dan penternakan. Sekiranya kesemua
kaedah tersebut tidak sesuai dipraktikkan, nazir hendaklah mencari alternatif
lain agar tanah tersebut dapat diproduktifan. Pemegang amanah wakaf
juga seharusnya peka terhadap potensi sesebuah tanah wakaf yang berada
di bawah jagaannya agar dapat dioptimunkan penggunaannya. Oleh itu,
pelaburan hartanah merupakan salah satu alternatif yang boleh dilakukan
untuk tujuan membangunkan tanah wakaf. Pelaburan hartanah terhadap
harta wakaf dapat dibuat dengan cara pembinaan bangunan secara komersil
seperti pasar raya, tempat penginapan (hotel) dan juga taman perumahan.
Dengan ini penciptaan aset wakaf baru akan terhasil setelah tanah wakaf
tersebut dibangunkan. Penyelidikan ini dilakukan untuk mengkaji kaedah
pembangunan secara komersil yang telah dilakukan oleh Majlis Agama
Islam Negeri Pulau Pinang (MAINPP) terhadap salah sebuah tanah
wakaf (waqaf Seetee Aishah) yang terletak di Seberang Jaya, Pulau Pinang.
104
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
Dengan kepakaran pengurusan yang ada dipihak MAINPP serta kerjasama
daripada UDA Holdings Berhad, tanah wakaf Seetee Aishah telah berjaya
diproduktifan dengan pembinaan sebuah taman perumahan yang dikenali
sebagai taman perumahan wakaf Seetee Aishah.
Kata kunci: Pembangunan harta wakaf, Majlis Agam a Islam Negeri Pulau
Pinang (MAINPP), pelaburan harta wakaf.
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this study is to review the waqf property
development that has been implemented by the Islamic Religious Council of
Pulau Pinang (MAINPP) as a trustee for the endowment land named waqf
Seetee Aishah. The Seetee Aishah endowment land located at Seberang Jaya,
Pulau Pinang. This waqf land was developed into a housing estate.
Methodology This study employs two types of methods library research
and eld research. The library research is used as the rst method for
collecting data, where the data is extracted from qh contemporary books,
qh classic books, journals, internet websites, annual reports and scientic
conference papers. The second method of data collection is eld research,
where interviews were conducted with the head of the endowment (waqf)
and also the project manager of the Seetee Aishah endowment at MAINPP.
The methods of analysis covered three aspects deductive, inductive and
comparative.
Findings This study nds that the development of waqf properties at
Pulau Pinang was carried out by the collaboration between MAINPP with
the developer (UDA Holdings Bhd.). Because of the lack of cash ows,
MAINPP is not able to provide nancial capital (liquid assets) to carry out
the development of waqf property, but able to provide unmovable capital
(waqf land) for the project.
Originality/Value This study proves that joint venture between MAINPP
and UDA Holdings Bhd. in developing the waqf land could increase the value
of existing waqf properties. The joint venture implemented by MAINPP can
also be used as a model for the other states in Malaysia to construct their
waqf property more productive.
Keywords: Waqf development, state islamic religious council of Pulau
Pinang (MAINPP), waqf investment.
105
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
Pengertian Harta Wakaf
Ibn al-Athr menyatakan bahawa asal kalimah harta (ml) telah
digunakan dalam kalangan masyarakat Arab yang menunjukan
pemilikan individu terhadap emas dan perak secara khusus
1
.
Kalimah ml telah mula diperluaskan skop pengertiannya kepada
kesemua pemilikan yang bernilai seperti unta dan sebagainya. Hal
ini kerana unta merupakan harta yang paling bernilai dan banyak
dalam kalangan bangsa Arab pada ketika itu
2
. Kalimah al-ml pada
bahasa pula merupakan kata terbitan dari kalimah (tamawwal)
iaitu memiliki harta, ianya membawa maksud apa yang dimiliki oleh
seseorang daripada sesuatu barangan
3
. Harta juga turut ditakrifan
sebagai sesuatu aset yang dikeluarkan dari perut bumi sama ada
berbentuk makanan, tumbuhan dan juga haiwan ternakan
4
.
Para fuqaha telah berbeza pandangan dalam mentakrifan maksud
harta. Perbezaan ini timbul kerana adakah status harta ini terhad
untuk barangan zikal (ayn) sahaja atau juga merangkumi pemilikan
manfaat dan pemilikan hak kuasa. Fuqaha anafyah telah berselisih
pandangan tentang manfaat harta kepada dua pandangan. Pandangan
yang pertama dari golongan yang terdahulu (al-mutaqaddimn)
yang mengatakan bahawa harta hanya terhad kepada barangan
zikal sahaja
5
. Terdapat juga pandangan golongan terkemudian (al-
mutaakhkhirn) yang mengatakan bahawa harta juga terdiri daripada
pemilikan terhadap manfaat yang diperoleh dari harta (tanpa aset
zikal) dan juga pemilikan harta zikal itu sendiri
6
. Manakala
jumhur fuqaha selain daripada fuqaha anafyah al-mutaqaddimn
telah bersepakat bahawa penggunaan kalimah harta merangkumi
ketiga-ketiga sifat tersebut iaitu zikal (ayn), pemilikan manfaat dan
pemilikan hak kuasa
7
.
Daripada pemahaman konsep harta yang telah diutarakan oleh
jumhur fuqaha, boleh kita membuat kesimpulan bahawa harta ialah
setiap apa yang mempunyai manfaat pada sisi syarak dan mempunyai
nilai dalam kalangan manusia. Harta secara umumnya hendaklah
mempunyai dua asas yang utama, pertama, harta tersebut mampu
dimiliki dan boleh didagangkan dalam kalangan manusia sama ada
berbentuk zikal ataupun berbentuk manfaat. Sekiranya barangan
tersebut tidak mempunyai nilai dalam kalangan manusia disebabkan
bilangannya sedikit seperti sebiji beras atau setitik air, maka barang
itu tidak boleh disenaraikan sebagai harta. Asas kedua, hendaklah
barangan tersebut bermanfaat penggunaannya pada setiap keadaan
(bukan pada waktu darurat sahaja). Sekiranya barangan tersebut
106
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
bermanfaat dalam kalangan segelintir manusia sahaja, akan tetapi
tiada nilainya pada sisi syarak seperti arak dan babi ianya juga tidak
boleh disenaraikan sebagai harta yang bernilai pada kaca mata Islam
8
.
Manakala pengertian kalimah wakaf pula berasal dari bahasa Arab
waqf yang membawa kepada beberapa maksud antaranya: berhenti (al-
sukun), menegah (al-mana a), menahan (al- abs)
9
. Kalimah waqf dari
segi bahasa terbahagi kepada dua bahagian iaitu, pada pembacaan al-
Quran membawa maksud memotong atau memberhentikan kalimah.
Dari segi pemahaman fuqaha, waqf membawa maksud al- abs, iaitu
menahan zikal barangan ke atas pemilikan
10
. Kalimah al- abs pula
membawa beberapa makna, antaranya, menegahnya (mana uhu),
memegangnya (amsakuhu) dan memenjarakannya (sajjanuhu)
11
.
Penggunaan lafaz al- ubays daripada kalimah asal al- abs dengan
menggunakan wazan fu aylun membawa maksud maf l iaitu
setiap barangan yang ditahan dengan niat untuk diagihkan dan
disedekahkan ke arah kebaikan
12
.
Secara asasnya, pembahagian wakaf dapat dibahagikan kepada
dua bahagian yang utama iaitu wakaf kebajikan (waqf al-khayr)
dan wakaf keluarga (waqf al-ahl). Wakaf kebajikan (waqf al-khayr)
merupakan pewakafan individu terhadap harta yang dimilikinya
ke arah kebajikan dan kesejahteraan awam. Harta tersebut boleh
dimanfaatkan oleh orang ramai seperti mewakafan harta kepada
mawqf alayh, sekolah, universiti dan segala aktiviti kebajikan
yang lain. Oleh itu harta wakaf merupakan sesuatu yang memenuhi
syarak serta disyaratkan ke atas harta tersebut mempunyai nilai
(mutaqawwm) sama ada harta tersebut berupa harta tak alih ( aqr),
harta yang boleh dialih (manql), manfaat atau hak kuasa.
Rukun Wakaf dalam Perundangan Islam
Pentadbiran dan pengurusan harta wakaf hendaklah mengikut garis
panduan yang telah ditetapkan oleh Islam
13
. Seperti mana ibadah
yang lain, wakaf juga mempunyai rukunnya yang tersendiri. Secara
umumnya, terdapat empat rukun dalam menunaikan ibadah wakaf.
Antara rukun-rukun wakaf adalah seperti berikut:
Pewakaf Harta (al-Wqif)
Pewakaf harta atau dikenali dengan al-wqif merupakan individu
yang memberikan harta miliknya untuk diwakafan pada jalan
Allah. Terdapat beberapa kriteria telah digariskan terhadap pewakaf
107
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
agar harta yang diwakafannya tidak akan menimbulkan sebarang
permasalahan kelak. Pewakaf hendaklah menepati beberapa syarat,
antaranya berakal, merdeka (bukan dari golongan hamba), sampai
umur dan juga cerdik
14
.
Harta yang Diwakafan (al-Mawqf Bih)
Harta yang hendak diwakafan mestilah sesuatu yang bernilai pada
sisi Islam dan mempunyai manfaat serta dimiliki oleh pewakaf
15
.
Barangan yang bakal diwakafan juga hendaklah diketahui serta
dinyatakan oleh pewakaf secara terperinci kepada pemegang amanah
wakaf. Pembahagian harta wakaf boleh dipecahkan kepada dua
bahagian yang utama. Pertama harta wakaf tetap (ghayru al-manql)
seperti tanah atau bangunan
16
. Manakala pembahagian yang kedua
pula berupa harta wakaf tidak tetap (al-manql) seperti mashaf, wang
tunai dan lain-lain lagi yang bernilai pada pandangan Islam
17
.
Penerima Manfaat Wakaf (al-Mawqf Alayh)
Penerima manfaat harta wakaf terdiri daripada golongan individu
ataupun berkumpulan seperti institusi atau persatuan. Pemegang
amanah wakaf juga boleh menyalurkan manfaat harta wakaf untuk
membantu kar zimmi yang patuh kepada pemerintah
18
. Sekiranya
golongan ini memberontak serta melawan pemerintah, manfaat harta
wakaf tersebut diharamkan untuk agihan kepada mereka, ini kerana
mereka telah bertukar menjadi kar harbi
19
.
Lafaz ghah Wakaf (Ijb & Qabl)
Lafaz pemberian dan penerimaan harta wakaf merangkumi ijb dan
qabl
20
yang boleh dibuat secara bertulis ataupun secara lisan. Kalimah
ghah merupakan setiap apa yang menunjukkan ke atas keredaan
pada antara dua pihak (pewakaf dengan pemegang amanah) yang
berurusan
21
. Penggunaan lafaz ghah adalah harus
22
, ianya amat
diperlukan bagi menjelaskan kepada masyarakat dan keluarga
perihal status harta yang telah diwakafan.
Kaedah Semasa Pembangunan Harta Wakaf Secara Komersil
yang Diamalkan oleh Majlis Agama Islam Negeri Pulau
Pinang (MAINPP)
Bermula pada tahun 1905, keseluruhan pentadbiran tanah wakaf
di negeri Pulau Pinang telah ditadbir mengikut sistem pentadbiran
penjajahan British melalui sebuah badan yang telah ditubuhkan
108
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
khusus dikenali sebagai Muslim and Hindu Endowments Board
1905(MAHEB)
23
. Kemudian, setelah tertubuhnya MAINPP mengikut
Enakmen Undang-Undang Pentadbiran Agama Islam 1959, semua
harta wakaf (umat Islam) yang telah ditadbirkan secara bersama
di bawah MAHEB telah diambil alih secara beransur-ansur oleh
MAINPP melalui peruntukan di bawah seksyen 89 (2) Undang-
Undang Pentadbiran Agama Islam Pulau Pinang 1959. Akan tetapi
pengambil alihan secara menyeluruh pentadbiran tanah wakaf oleh
MAINPP hanyalah bermula pada 1 Januari 1967 setelah terdapat
percanggahan dalam perihal mengenai wakaf dan khairat orang
Islam peruntukan dalam Muslim and Hindu Endowments Board
Ordinance Caps. 175
24
. Kini dengan kepakaran yang terdapat dalam
institusi MAINPP, perundangan wakaf telah diperkemaskan lagi
dengan wujudnya Enakmen Pentadbiran Hal Ehwal Agama Islam
Negeri Pulau Pinang 1993. Di bawah seksyen 92 Enakman tersebut
menjelaskan bahawa MAINPP merupakan pemegang amanah
tunggal terhadap semua harta wakaf Islam yang terdapat di Pulau
Pinang.
Fungsi utama MAINPP adalah sebagai penasihat keagamaan dalam
isu-isu yang berkaitan dengan agama Islam di Pulau Pinang. Terdapat
enam bahagian organisasi yang telah dibentuk oleh MAINPP,
antaranya
25
:
1. dbiran & Kewangan
2. Bahagian Sumber Am
3. Bahagian Pembangunan & Pelaburan
4. Bahagian Wakaf
5. Bahagian Akaun
6. Bahagian Undang-undang
Lokasi tanah wakaf yang ditadbir oleh MAINPP boleh dipecahkan
kepada dua bahagian umum iaitu, di kawasan Pulau Pinang dan
juga di kawasan Seberang Prai. Setiap bahagian umum lokasi tanah
wakaf di Pulau Pinang pula mempunyai pecahan kawasannya yang
tersendiri. Pembahagian lokasi tanah wakaf di Pulau Pinang boleh
diringkaskan seperti yang telah tertera di dalam jadual 1:
Menurut ketua wakaf MAINPP, data inventori keseluruhan lokasi
tanah wakaf amat penting bagi mengenal pasti tanah-tanah yang
berpotensi untuk dimajukan. Setelah selesai mengenal pasti tanah
wakaf yang berpotesi, satu kajian terhadap projek (project feasibility
109
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
study) akan dilakukan. Sekiranya nisbah (ratio) keuntungan terhadap
projek tersebut positif, pihak MAINPP akan mencari sumber
kewangan atau peruntukkan untuk mendapatkan aliran modal bagi
tujuan pembangunan.
Jadual 1
Inventori Tanah Wakaf MAINPP mengikut Pecahan Daerah di Pulau Pi
Daerah Bilangan dalam Lot Keluasan Tanah (ekar)
Timur Laut 139 89.70
Barat Daya 123 162.82
Seberang Prai Utara 424 575.52
Seberang Prai Tengah 271 263.61
Seberang Prai Selatan 138 161.82
Jumlah Keseluruhan 1095 1,253.47
Sumber. Majlis Agama Islam Negeri Pulau Pinang (MAINPP).
Sebagai pemegang amanah tunggal harta wakaf di Pulau Pinang,
MAINPP telah melakukan pembangunan terhadap tanah-tanah
wakaf agar dapat menyalurkan manfaat daripada harta wakaf
tersebut kepada mawqf alayh. Meskipun terdapat beberapa faktor
yang membawa kepada kesukaran untuk melakukan pembangunan
hartanah wakaf, tetapi dengan pengalaman serta kepakaran yang ada
pada MAINPP, ianya mampu diusahakan dengan bantuan kerajaan
persekutuan, pihak swasta dan syarikat berkepentingan kerajaan
(GLC). Sehingga ke hari ini, terdapat lima kaedah pembangunan harta
wakaf untuk mendapatkan sumber kewangan yang telah diamalkan
oleh MAINPP. Di antara kaedah-kaedah pembangunan yang telah
dirancang ialah seperti dalam rajah 1
26
.
Sungguhpun terdapat lima kaedah asas pembangunan harta wakaf
yang telah dilakukan oleh MAINPP dalam usaha memproduktifan
harta tersebut, akan tetapi kajian yang dilakukan ini hanya menyentuh
satu kaedah sahaja daripada lima kaedah yang telah diutarakan di
atas iaitu penggunaan kaedah usaha sama (joint venture JV) dengan
Syarikat Berkaitan Kerajaan (Government-link Company GLC).
Pembangunan harta wakaf Seetee Aishah di Seberang Jaya telah
menggunakan kaedah JV dengan GLC. Hasil gabungan perkongsian
yang mantap ini telah berjaya menterjemahkan suatu nilai aset yang
tinggi terhadap tanah wakaf Seetee Aishah.
110
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)

Sumber. Ubah suai daripada penerangan ketua wakaf MAINPP.
Rajah 1. Kaedah pembangunan harta wakaf di MAINPP.
Pembangunan Terhadap Tanah Wakaf Seetee Aishah, No.
Lot. 1444 (Mukim 4) Seberang Jaya, Pulau Pinang
Di antara projek pembangunan yang terkini diusahakan oleh MAINPP
untuk memakmurkan tanah wakaf ialah kaedah usaha sama dengan
GLC. Pembangunan secara komersil unit kediaman dilakukan di
atas tapak wakaf Seetee Aishah antara MAINPP dengan UDA Land
North Bhd.
27
yang terletak di persimpangan dua lebuh raya utama
iaitu Lebuh Raya Utara-Selatan dengan Lebuh Raya Buterworth-
Kulim. Tapak tanah wakaf tersebut terletak di lokasi yang strategik
kerana terdapat beberapa buah pasar raya besar yang berhampiran
seperti Carrefour, Tesco Extra, Sunway Carnival, Billion dan Giant.
Tanah wakaf Seetee Aishah pada asalnya sebuah kawasan
penanaman padi. Tanah wakaf lot 1444 (Mukim 4) ini mempunyai
keluasan 9.86 ekar (39,902.04 meter kaki persegi) telah diwakafan
oleh Seetee Aishah bt. Haji Mahmood pada 30 September 1901. Pihak
MAINPP telah merancang untuk membangunkan tanah tersebut
dengan membuat pembinaan sebuah ladang perumahan secara
komersil. Projek pembangunan ladang perumahan ini melibatkan
pembinaan sebanyak sembilan unit kedai tiga tingkat dan 76 unit
rumah teres dua tingkat. Projek tanah wakaf Seetee Aishah telah
dibangunkan secara berperingkat dalam dua fasa. Fasa pertama
projek tersebut dijangka siap pada 3 Mei 2012, manakala fasa kedua
pula akan dimulakan setelah keseluruhan fasa 1 siap untuk tempoh
36 bulan. Memandangkan tempoh limitasi untuk tujuan menyiapkan
bangunan adalah terhad, syarikat UDA Holdings Bhd. perlu melantik
KaedahPembangunanHartaWakafdiMAINPP
PenggunaanKaedahIstibdl Usahasama(jointventure)dengan
GovernmentLinkCompany(GLC)
SumberPembiayaandari
TabungKewanganWakaf
SumberPembiayaandengan
PihakSwasta
PeruntukanRancangan
Malaysia(RMK810)
111
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
sebuah syarikat kontraktor yang boleh dipercayai untuk tujuan
tersebut. Syarikat UDA Holdings Bhd. telah memberi kepercayaan
kepada syarikat Kejuruteraan Seri Gemilang Sdn. Bhd. untuk tujuan
menyiapkan projek pembinaan ini dalam tempoh masa yang telah
diperuntukkan.
Wakaf Seetee Aishah merupakan wakaf bersyarat, yang mana
pewakaf telah mengenakan beberapa syarat kepada pemegang
amanah untuk membahagikan hasil manfaat tanah tersebut kepada
beberapa bahagian
28
:
1. Mengadakan kenduri arwah sekali dalam bulan Ramadhan
dan membuat pembayaran sebanyak RM3 untuk jemaah yang
hadir
29
.
2. Membayar dan membekalkan satu tin minyak tanah untuk
masjid di kawasan Permatang Pauh ketika bulan Ramadhan
setiap tahun.
3. Mengirim duit setiap tahun ke Mekah dan seterusnya untuk
tujuan umrah.
4. Baki yang diperoleh digunakan untuk tujuan pembaikian
masjid di Permatang Pauh atau wang dikirim ke Mekah untuk
tujuan wakaf atau tujuan amal yang lain. Separuh lagi akan
digunakan untuk keturunan pewaris (seperti Saedah Nordin
dan keturunannya) bagi faedah mereka sendiri.
Menurut Tuan Haji Anuar, sebelum MAINPP memetrai perjanjian
dengan rakan kongsi (joint venture partner), beliau perlu menyelidik
kekuatan sesebuah rma yang ingin menjalankan usaha sama dengan
MAINPP. Beberapa perkara asas akan dinilai terlebih dahulu seperti
kedudukan kewangan syarikat yang kukuh, pengalaman terhadap
projek-projek yang telah syarikat usaha sama sertai, modal pegangan
saham syarikat, keuntungan syarikat dan juga terma bertempoh (time
period limitation).
Pihak MAINPP juga telah mengenakan beberapa syarat khusus yang
perlu ada pada syarikat untuk tujuan usaha sama MAINPP dengan
sesebuah syarikat, antaranya
30
:
1. Syarikat usahama secara majoritinya dimiliki oleh orang Islam
serta mempunyai rekod pengalaman dan kejayaan (track record)
yang baik.
2. Kesemua kos pembiayaan akan dibiayai oleh pemaju
(performance guarantee)
112
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
3. Segala kos pembangunan dan urusan yang berkaitan dengan
tanah wakaf akan ditangani oleh pemaju (land maters).
4. Penubuhan jawatankuasa bersama yang melibatkan tiga wakil
daripada MAINPP dan dua wakil pemaju.
5. Hartanah dijual mestilah secara pajakan dengan harga yang
mampu dibeli manakala sebahagian unit rumah jualan
hendaklah didiskaunkan kepada kakitangan MAINPP.
Beberapa syarat asas untuk tujuan usaha sama telah digariskan oleh
pihak MAINPP dengan syarikat UDA Holdings Bhd. dalam usaha
membangunkan tanah wakaf Seetee Aishah, antaranya:
1. Tapak tanah projek (tanah wakaf) tidak boleh dicagarkan
kepada mana-mana institusi kewangan Islam mahupun
konvensional (restrictive covenant).
2. MAINPP sebagai pemilik tanah, manakala syarikat UDA
Holdings Bhd. pula dilantik sebagai pemaju pembangunan.
3. Keseluruhan urusan pembangunan dan penjualan dan kos
pembayaran yang berlaku di atas tanah wakaf adalah di bawah
tanggungjawab pemaju (syarikat UDA Holdings Bhd.).
Melalui konsep usaha sama yang dijalankan ini, setelah siap selesai
projek pembangunan di atas tanak wakaf Setee Aishah, pihak
MAINPP akan mendapat salah satu pilihan token di antara empat
yang akan ditawarkan oleh syarikat usaha sama (UDA Holdings
Bhd.). Pertama, MAINPP sebagai pemilik tanah akan ditawarkan
harga pajakan bersamaan dengan nilai tanah semasa. Pilihan kedua
pula, MAINPP akan memperoleh sebuah bangunan baharu sebagai
ganti terhadap tanah yang telah diusahakan oleh pemaju UDA
Holdings Bhd. Pilihan ketiga pula, MAINPP akan diberikan imbuhan
berupa wang dan juga bangunan yang baharu. Pilihan yang terakhir,
pihak MAINPP akan diberi bayaran pajakan mengikut nilai semasa
atau memperoleh bangunan yang baharu (bangunan yang siap dibina
di atas tanah tersebut) ditambah pula dengan agihan keuntungan
yang bakal diperoleh setelah penjualan manfaat rumah tersebut
berlangsung.
Pihak MAINPP telah memilih pilihan yang ke empat, iaitu kaedah
memperoleh nilai tanah/bangunan baharu ditambah dengan
margin keuntungan. Sebanyak sembilan unit kedai tiga tingkat
akan diserahkan kepada MAINPP secara percuma sebagai imbuhan
pembangunan usaha sama. Berserta agihan keuntungan mengikut
formula 30% (MAINPP): 70% (UHB). Perkiraan agihan keuntungan
113
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
pula dibuat seperti berikut. 30% x (70% x actual sales proceeds
anticipated share proceeds). Taman wakaf Seetee Aishsah pula
mempunyai dua jenis keluasan buah rumah untuk tujuan jualan
(jualan manfaat) bergantung kepada keluasan kaki persegi rumah
tersebut. Jenis yang pertama seluas 1,494 kaki persegi dan keluasan
yang kedua pula merangkumi 1,718 kaki persegi. Manakala harga
rumah yang dijual pula bermula daripada RM 281,800.00 sehingga
RM 439,600.00 seunit (penjualan manfaat rumah kepada pembeli).
Modus operandi kaedah pembangunan tanah wakaf Seetee Aishah
adalah seperti dalam rajah tersebut.
Petunjuk:
Pergerakan aliran tunai

Sumber. Ringkasan daripada penerangan oleh MAINPP.
Rajah 2. Kaedah Pembangunan Harta Wakaf Seetee Aishah di
Seberang Jaya, Pulau Pinang.

1. MAINPP akan memeterai perjanjian usaha sama dengan UDA
Holdings Bhd. untuk tujuan membangunkan sebuah ladang
perumahan di atas tanah wakaf Seetee Aishah.
2. Syarikat UDA Holdings Bhd. akan melantik syarikat
Kejuruteraan Seri Gemilang Sdn. Bhd. sebagai kontraktor
pemaju untuk tujuan pembinaan sembilan buah unit kedai tiga
tingkat dan 76 unit rumah teres dua tingkat.

MAINPP
(PemilikTanah)
PEMBELIRUMAH
(Manfaat)
KEJURUTERAANSERI
GEMILANGSDN.BHD.
(KontraktorPemaju)
76UNITRUMAH&
9UNITKEDAI
UDAHOLDINGS
(PemajuPembangunan)
2
3
5
4
1
6
114
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
3. Syarikat Kejuteraan Seri Gemilang Sdn. Bhd. akan menyiapkan
pembinaan tersebut mengikut perjanjian secara berperingkat.
Fasa yang pertama selama 24 bulan, manakala fasa yang kedua
selama 36 bulan.
4. Setelah projek tersebut siap, pemaju akan menawarkan
penjualan rumah tersebut kepada pembeli dengan cara pajakan
99 tahun (leasehold)
5. Pembeli yang berminat akan membeli rumah tersebut daripada
pemaju (UDA Holdings Sdn. Bhd.) dari harga serendah RM
281,800.00 sehingga RM 439,600.00 untuk seunit.
6. Seperti yang dijanjikan di antara UDA Holdings Bhd. dengan
MAINPP, MAINPP akan menerima sembilan unit kedai
pejabat tiga tingkat dan juga keuntungan usaha sama dengan
UDA Holdings Bhd. MAINPP juga berhak menerima sebanyak
30% keuntungan hasil penjualan manfaat rumah tersebut.
Kejayaan memproduktifan tanah wakaf yang telah dibuat oleh
MAINPP di Seberang Jaya dapat dilihat dengan berlakunya
pertambahan nilai terhadap aset wakaf tersebut. Pada dasarnya
MAINPP tidak menjual tanah wakaf Seetee Aishah kepada pembeli,
akan tetapi penjualan yang dibuat berasaskan kepada manfaat rumah
itu sendiri
31
. Oleh itu, tanah wakaf Seetee Aishah masih lagi menjadi
milik MAINPP dan kekal menjadi tanah wakaf. Pihak MAINPP akan
mengeluarkan geran kepada pemilik (pembeli) berasaskan kepada
rumah yang telah berjaya dimiliki pembeli. Dengan ini, MAINPP
telah berjaya menunaikan hasrat pewakaf untuk membuat agihan
hasil wakaf beliau seperti yang telah diwasiatkan. Lebihan daripada
pendapatan tersebut akan digunakan untuk disalurkan kepada
mawqf alayh serta dalam usaha meringankan bebanan mereka.
Hasil dapatan kajian yang menunjukan usaha MAINPP ini selari
dengan pandangan Monzer Kahf
32
, Nazh ammd
33
, Murat
Cizakca
34
dan juga Muhammad Anas Zarqa
35
bahawa pemegang
amanah wakaf perlu mencari jalan untuk membangunkan harta
wakaf selagi mana ianya tidak melanggar syarat-syarat wakaf
serta menjaga hasrat pewakaf agar dapat menjana ekonomi umat
Islam. Malah, pembangunan harta wakaf menggunakan kaedah
moden ini turut dilaksanakan oleh pemegang amanah wakaf yang
lain seperti di Singapura. Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura (MUIS)
telah menggunakan sukuk musyrakah sebagai salah satu kaedah
pembangunan untuk memproduktifan serta menaik taraf nilai aset
wakaf yang terdapat di negara mereka
36
.
115
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
Kesimpulan
MAINPP merupakan antara Majlis Agama Islam Negeri (MAIN)
di Malaysia yang terkehadapan atau progresif dalam usaha
membangunkan aset wakaf yang diselia mereka secara komersil.
Kesemua rumah teres di atas tanah wakaf tersebut telah berjaya
ditempah oleh pelanggan. Kejayaan MAINPP di dorong oleh faktor
kedudukan tanah wakafnya yang terletak dilokasi yang strategik
serta tanah tersebut mempunyai nilai yang tinggi. Dengan kepakaran
yang terdapat di pihak MAINPP serta sokongan dan kerjasama
yang telah ditonjolkan daripada pihak pemaju, MAINPP mampu
untuk membangunkan harta wakaf yang berskala besar. Kaedah
pembiayaan ini boleh diadaptasi oleh pemegang amanah wakaf yang
lain dengan syarat mendapat kerjasama dengan pihak pembiaya atau
pelabur. Memandangkan perkembangan ekonomi hartanah pada
masa kini kian giat membangun, adalah wajar bagi tanah-tanah
wakaf yang tidak produktif turut dibangunkan sama ada tanah
wakaf tersebut bersifat wakaf khas ataupun wakaf am. Pembangunan
ini hendaklah dilaksanakan untuk memenuhi hasrat pewakaf dan
dalam masa yang sama ianya juga mengambil kira potensi pulangan
ekonomi yang boleh dimanfaatkan oleh mawqf alayh.
Nota Akhir
1 al-Mubrak Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Jazri Ibn al-
Athr (1963), al-Nihya f Gharb al-Hadth wa al-athr, j.4, Mi r:
al-Maktabah al-Islmiyyah, al-Qhira , h. 373.
2 Abbs A mad Muhammad al-Bz (1999), A km al-Ml al-
Harm wa awbi al-Intif wa al-Ta arruf f al-Fiqh al-Islm,
c.2, al-Urdun: Dr al-Nafis li al-Nasyri wa al-Tauz .
3 Abd. al-Rahm Ibn Ibr m Ibn Abd. al-Rahman al-Sayyd al-
shim (2006), al-Ta yn wa Atharuhu f al-Uqd al-Mlyyah, c.1,
al-Mamlaka al-Arabyyah al-Sa dyah: al-Riy , Wazra
al-Ta lm al-l, h. 24.
4 Muhammad Amra (1993), Qms al-Mu alaht al-
Iqti dya f al-Ha ra al-Islmyah, c.1, Lubnn: Dr al-
Syurq, Bayrt, h.503.
5 Golongan fuqaha mazhab ana yang terdahulu ini antaranya
Muhammad Amn al-Syamr Ibn al-bidn dan Syamsu al-
Dn al-Sarkhas, mereka mengatakan harta ialah aset atau
barangan yang bersifat zikal sahaja. Harta tersebut hendaklah
bersifat dengan sifat dimiliki sepanjang waktu ( ). Konsep
116
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
pemilikan ( ) merupakan pemeliharaan serta pengawalan
sesuatu harta. Sedangkan manfaat pula bukan satu sifat yang
kekal, ianya akan terhasil daripada zikal harta itu sendiri
(sebagai sandaran kepada manfaat). Rujuk. al-Sarkhas.
Syamsu al-Dn al-Sarkhas (1989), Kitbul Masb li Syamsu
al-Dn al-Sarkhas, j.11, Lubnn: Dr al-Marifah, Bayrt, h.
79-80. Manfaat pula merupakan sesuatu yang maknawi pada
barangan berjasad (zikal) dan ianya tidak boleh dicapai
(bukan berbentuk zikal). Oleh yang demikian manfaat pada
sisi mereka merupakan suatu akad terhadap sesuatu harta
seperti akad sewaan. Akad sewaan pula merupakan akad ke
atas manfaat zikal harta tersebut. Manfaat harta dan hak
kuasa bagi mereka merupakan suatu pemilikan dan bukannya
dianggap sebagai harta. Lihat. Muhammad Amn al-Syamr
Ibn al-bidn (1966), Hsyya Raddu al-Mukhtr al al-Dr
al-Mukhtr: Syar Tanwr al-Ab r f qh maz ab al-Imm Ab
anfa al-Numn, c.2, j.4, Mi r: Maktabah Mu afa al-Bb,
h. 501.
6 Merupakan pandangan fuqaha dari mazhab ana (al-
mutaakhkhirn) antaranya, al-Ksni, menyatakan bahawa
harta tersebut bukan sekadar bersifat zikal, akan tetapi
termasuk juga pemilikan manfaat harta dan pemilikan hak
kuasa. Mereka beranggapan bahawa pandangan fuqaha
mutaqqadimn ini kurang sesuai. Berasaskan ayat
... surah al-Baqara (2:29), Mu tafa
Ahmad Zarq telah mendenisikan al-ml sebagai segala
benda yang mempunyai nilai kebendaan pada pandangan
manusia. Lihat. Mu tafa Ahmad al-Zarq (1968), al-Madkhal
al-Fiqhi al-Am al-Islmi f Thaubihi al-Jadd, j. 1, Lubnn: Dr-al-
Fikr, Bayrt, h. 329.
7 Muhammad Zakary Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahy al-
Knda alaw (1999), Aujz al-Masliki il Muwa Mlik, j.12,
c.1, Lubnn: Dr al-Kutub al-Ilmya , Bayrt, h. 275.; Jall
al-Dn Abd. al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad al-Say (1990), al-
Asyb wa al-Na ir, c.1, Lubnn: Dr-al-Kutub al-Ilmyah,
Bayrt, h. 327.; Ab Ishq Ibrhm Ibn Ali Ibn Ysuf al-Faizri
al-Syrz (1995), al-Muhazzab f Fiqh al-Imm al-Sy e, (kitb
bay ), c.1, j.2, Lubnn: Dr-al-Kutub al-Ilmyah, Bayrt, h.
11.; Ibn Qudma al-Maqdis (t.t), al-Syarh al-Kabr al Matn
al-Mughn, j.4, Lubnn: Dr-al-Kutub al-Ilmyah, Bayrt, h. 7.
8 dil Sy n Muhammad Sy n (2004), Akhzu al-Ml al
Akml al-Qurab, c.1, j.1, Saudyh: Dr Kunz lil Nasyri wa
al-Taw i, Riy , h.43-44.
117
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
9 asn Ayyb (1998), Fiqh al-Mu malah al-Mlyah f al-Islm,
c.1, j. 2, Lubnn: Bayrt, h. 9-10.
10 Maj al-Dn Muhammad Ya qb Muhammad Ibn Ya qb
al-Fayrz bd (1412), al-Qms al-Mu , c.1, Mi r: al-
Maktabah al-Husnyah, al-Q irah, h. 205.
11 Ibid., h. 205
12 Ab al-Fadl Muhammad Ibn Manzr (1982), Lisn al- Arab
Dr dr, j. 6, Lubnn: Bayrt, h. 44-45.
13 Abd. al-Mlik Ibn Muhammad, Ibn Abd. Rahmn al-Qsim
(1999), Charity Even With a Trie, Sa dyah: Riy , Dr al-
Salm li Nasyri wa Taw , h. 9.
14 Anwr Dabr Mahmd (1985), Ahkm al-Wa ya f al-Fiqh
al-Islmi wa al-Qann, Mi r: Dr al-Thaqfa al-Arabyah, al-
Qhira , h. 285.
15 Muhamad Salim al-Bayhani (t.t), Mu malah wa Dayn, Mi r:
Ma bi al-Madan, al-Qhira , h.69-70. al-Dasqi pula
mempunyai pandangan yang berbeza tentang pemilikan
secara mutlak. Beliau berpandangan bahawa tidak disyaratkan
kepada harta yang hendak diwakafan pemilikan secara
mutlak. Rujuk. Syams al-Dn Urfa al-Dasq (t.t), Hsyya
al-Dasq al al-Syarh al-Kabr, j.4, Mi r: Dr Ihy al-Kutub al-
Arabyah, al-Q irah, h.76.
16 Harta wakaf tetap berupa tanah pertanian merupakan harta
wakaf yang paling banyak disumbangkan untuk tujuan
pewakafan berbanding dengan wakaf bangunan pada zaman
pemerintahan kerajaan Uthmn. Senario ini dapat dilihat
pada zaman pemerintahan Sultan Muhammad Al Bsy,
yang mana hampir suku daripada keluasan tanah di mesir
telah didedikasikan sebagai harta wakaf merupakan tanah
pertanian. Lihat. Abd. al-Mlik al-Sayyd (1990), al-Dawr al-
Ijtima li Waqf, Min Aml Nadwah, Saudi: Idrah wa Tathmr
al-Awqf, Nasyr al-Ma had al-Islm li Buhth wa al-Tadrb,
Jeddah, h. 266.
17 Wakaf dinar dan dirham ini juga boleh diperoleh hasil daripada
pelaburan terhadap perniagaan dan sewaan bangunan yang
terletak di atas tanah wakaf. Manakala manfaat yang diperoleh
daripada harta wakaf (dinar & dirham) tersebut boleh disalurkan
kepada penerima manfaat yang ingin mengerjakan ibadah
haji, persiapan pengantin untuk melangsungkan perkahwinan
mereka dan terdapat juga wakaf tersebut disalurkan untuk
membaiki jalan raya. Ibn Ba a (1958), Rehlah Ibn Ba a ,
j.1, Mi r: al-Maktabah al-Tijryah al-Kubra, h.63.
118
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
18 Syams al-Dn al-Syikh Muhammad Arfah al-Dusqi (t.t),
opcit., j.4, h. 78.
19 Mu ammad Ibn A mad al-Kha b al-Syarbn (1958), Mughn
al-Mu tj, j.2, Mi r: Mu af al-Bb al- alab, al-Qahrah,
h. 379-381.; Ab Ishq Ibn Al Ibn Ysuf al-Fayrzabdi al-
Syrz (1994), al-Muhadhdhab f Fiqh al-Imm Sy , j.1, Misr:
Mu af al-Bb al- alab, al-Qahrah, h. 441-442.
20 Terdapat dua lafaz yang boleh digunakan oleh pewakaf
untuk tujuan pewakafan harta mereka. Pertama lafaz secara
orhah seperti waqaftu, habastu dan sabaltu. Lafaz kedua pula
dilakukan secara lafaz kinyah seperti ta adaqtu, haramtu dan
abbadtu. Rujuk. Ibn Qudmah (1973), Mujam al-Fiqh al-Hanbal
Mustakhli Min Kitb al-Mugni, j.2, Lubnn: Dr al-Kitab
Arab, Bayrt, h.1054.; Lihat juga asn Ayyb (1998), op.cit,
j. 2, h. 9-10.
21 Abd. al-Rahmn al-Jazayr (1999), Kitb al-Fiq Al al-Maz ib
al-Arbaa , c.1, j.2, Lubnn: Dr al-Kutub al Ilmyah Bayrt, h.
141.
22 Sul n Ibr m Ibn Sul n al- syim (2002), Ahkm Ta arruft
al-Wakl f Uqd al-Muwi t al-Mlyah, al-Imrt: Dr al-
Buhth li al-Dirst al-Islmyah wa Ihy al-Turth, Dbay,
h. 97.
23 Syarikat Hindia Timur telah berlabuh di Pulau Pinang pada
tahun 1798. Kumpulan ini telah dianugerahkan oleh pemerintah
tempatan sebuah tapak tanah untuk tujuan penempatan,
pembinaan masjid serta perkuburan Islam. Pembangunan di
atas tapak tanah tersebut telah dilakukan oleh Tok Nadong
Khan (Tok Nadang Berkajang Kain). Tanah di persekitaran
tapak tanah tersebut telah menjadi sebuah kawasan yang
besar (wakaf yang besar) setelah berlakunya penggabungan
tanah antara Tok Nadong Khan dengan saudagar-saudagar
India Muslim yang lain. Hasil pengembangan kedua-dua
kawasan ini telah menjadikan kawasan tersebut padat. Lantas
satu penempatan baharu untuk generasi India muslim telah
mula diterokai yang terletak di Lebuh Chulia. Pertambahan
pedagang-pedagang Islam ke Pulau Pinang telah menjadikan
tapak tanah tersebut semakin meluas. Kebanyakan pedagang
India yang datang berdagang merupakan mereka yang
beragama Islam. Oleh sebab kebanyakan saudagar yang
datang berdagang tidak mempunyai pewaris, majoriti mereka
telah mewakafan tanah-tanah untuk melaksanakan segala
aktiviti berunsur ajaran Islam. Dengan berlakunya banyak
pertambahan tanah yang ditinggalkan oleh pedagang India
119
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
Muslim pada ketika itu, Pesuruhjaya Undang-Undang
Kolonial telah menubuhkan Ordinance 1905 yang dikenali
sebagai Muslim and Hindu Endowments Board (MAHEB). Encik
Fakhruddin Abd. Rahman, Ketua Wakaf MAINPP, Majlis
Agama Islam Negeri Pulau Pinang Tingkat 8, Menara UMNO,
Jalan Macalister, Pulau Pinang, Temu bual pada 14 Disember 2011.
24 Encik Fakhruddin Abd. Rahman, op.cit.
25 Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia & Majlis Agama Islam
Negeri-Negeri Seluruh Malaysia (2011). Prol Majlis Agama
Islam Negeri Seluruh Malaysia, c. 1, JAKIM, h. 100 & 101.
26 Encik Fakhruddin Abd. Rahman, op.cit.
27 Syarikat UDA Holdings Sdn. Bhd. telah ditukar status kepada
syarikat UDA Holdings Bhd. pada Julai 1999. Ianya juga telah
disenaraikan di papan utama Bursa Saham Kuala Lumpur
pada 18 November 1999. UDA Holdings Bhd. juga begitu
komited untuk meningkatkan daya saing dan memainkan
peranan penting dalam sektor pembangunan bandar dengan
menyumbang kepada pertumbuhan keusahawanan sejajar
dengan wawasan kebangsaan. Aktiviti utama syarikat UDA
Holdings Bhd. berkisar dalam pembangunan sektor hartanah.
Lihat UDA Holding Sdn. Bhd. htp://www.uda.com.my/web/
guest/background. 19 Disember 2011. UDA Holdings Sdn. Bhd.
htp://www.uda.com.my/web/guest/seetee#tab2. 19 Disember 2011.
28 Tuan Haji Anuar Bin Ahmad, Pengurus Projek MAINPP, Majlis
Agama Islam Negeri Pulau Pinang Tingkat 9, Menara UMNO,
Jalan Macalister, Pulau Pinang, Temu bual pada 14 Disember 2011.
29 Kadar RM3 dan setin minyak tanah merupakan kadar yang
telah ditetapkan oleh pewakaf pada 1901. Pihak MAINPP
telah menetapkan satu nilai semasa yang khusus untuk tujuan
meraikan hasrat pewakaf.
30 Tuan Haji Anuar Bin Ahmad, op.cit.
31 Penggunaan borang 15A akan digunakan untuk tujuan pajakan
tanah (milik manfaat sahaja), MAINPP boleh menyewa/
memajak kepada pihak bank sehingga menjangkaui 99 tahun.
Pihak bank pula boleh menyewakan atau memajakkan tanah
tersebut kepada pelanggan (pembeli). Sebagai contoh, pihak
bank boleh memajakkan manfaat rumah tersebut kepada
pembeli dengan kadar waktu 33 tahun (9933= 66 tahun)
terdapat 66 tahun lagi baki tempoh pajakan, oleh itu pihak
bank boleh menyewa/memajakkan manfaat rumah tersebut
kepada pihak ke empat untuk tempoh 66 tahun.
32 Monzer Kahf (1998). Financing the development of Awqaf property.
(Kertas Kerja Seminar Development of Awqaf, Anjuran IRTI,
Kuala Lumpur, 2-4 March 1998).
120
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
33 Nazh ammd (1993). Asalib Istithmar al-Awqaf wa Asasu
Idratuh, Kuwait: Markaz Abhs al-Waqf wa al-Dirsat al-
Iqti dyah, h. 175.
34 Murat Cizakca. (1998). Awqaf in history and its implications for
modern Islamic economies. Islamic Economics Studies Journal, 6
(1), (November 1998), h. 4367.
35 Muhammad Anas Zarqa. (1994). Financing and investment in
Awqaf projects: A non-technical introduction. Islamic Economic
Studies Journal, 1 (2), (June 1994), Islamic Research and Training
Institute (IRTI), Islamic Development Bank (IDB), h. 55-60.
36 Shamsiah Abdul Karim. (2007). Contemporary Waqf administration
and development in Singapore: Challenges and prospects, Majlis
Ugama Islam Singapore (MUIS), (Kertas Kerja International
Waqf Conference), Fullerton Hotel, Singapore, 6-7 Mac 2007),
h. 12.; Shamsiah Abdul Karim (2010), Contemporary shariah
compliance structuring for the development and management
of Waqf assets in Singapore. Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies,
Vol. 3, No. 2, (March 2010), Japan: Kyoto University Research
Information Respository (KURENAI) h. 5562.
Rujukan
Abd. al-Rahmn al-Jazayr. (1999). Kitb al-Fiq Al al-Maz ib al-
Arbaa , c.1, j.2. Lubnn: Dr al-Kutub al Ilmyah Bayrt.
Ab al-Fadl Muhammad Ibn Manzr. (1982). Lisn al- Arab Dr
dr, j. 6, Lubnn: Bayrt.
dil Sy n Muhammad Sy n. (2004). Akhzu al-Ml al Akml al-
Qurab, c.1, j.1, Saudyh: Dr Kunz lil Nasyri wa al-Taw i,
Riy .
Abbs A mad Muhammad al-Bz. (1999). A km al-Ml al-Harm
wa awbi al-Intifwa al-Ta arruf f al-Fiqh al-Islm, c.2, al-
Urdun: Dr al-Nafis li al-Nasyri wa al-Tauz .
Abd. al-Mlik al-Sayyd. (1990). al-Dawr al-Ijtima li Waqf, Min
Aml Nadwah, Saudi: Idrah wa Tathmr al-Awqf, Nasyr al-
Ma had al-Islm li Buhth wa al-Tadrb, Jeddah.
Abd. al-Mlik Ibn Muhammad, Ibn Abd. Rahmn al-Qsim. (1999).
Charity Even With a Trie, Sa dyah: Riy , Dr al-Salm li
Nasyri wa Taw .
Abd. al-Rahm Ibn Ibr m Ibn Abd. al-Rahman al-Sayyd al- shim.
(2006). al-Ta yn wa Atharuhu f al-Uqd al-Mlyyah, c.1, al-
Mamlaka al-Arabyyah al-Sa dyah: al-Riy , Wazra al-
Ta lm al-l.
121
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
Ab Ishq Ibrhm Ibn Ali Ibn Ysuf al-Faizri al-Syrz. (1995).
al-Muhazzab f Fiqh al-Imm al-Sy e, (kitb bay ), c.1, j.2,
Lubnn: Dr-al-Kutub al-Ilmyah, Bayrt.
Ab Ishq Ibn Al Ibn Ysuf al-Fayrzabdi al-Syrz. (1994). al-
Muhadhdhab f Fiqh al-Imm Sy , j.1, Misr: Mu af al-Bb
al- alab, al-Qahrah.
al-Mubrak Ibn Muhammad Ibn Muhammad al-Jazri Ibn al-Athr.
(1963). al-Nihya f Gharb al-Hadth wa al-athr, j.4, Mi r: al-
Maktabah al-Islmiyyah, al-Qhira .
al-Sarkhas. Syamsu al-Dn al-Sarkhas. (1989). Kitbul Masb li
Syamsu al-Dn al-Sarkhas, j.11, Lubnn: Dr al-Marifah, Bayrt.
Anwr Dabr Mahmd. (1985). Ahkm al-Wa ya f al-Fiqh al-Islmi
wa al-Qann, Mi r: Dr al-Thaqfa al-Arabyah, al-Qhira .
asn Ayyb. (1998). Fiqh al-Mu malah al-Mlyah f al-Islm, c.1, j.
2, Lubnn: Bayrt.
Ibn Ba a . (1958). Rehlah Ibn Ba a , j.1, Mi r: al-Maktabah al-
Tijryah al-Kubra.
Ibn Qudmah. (1973). Mujam al-Fiqh al-Hanbal Mustakhli Min Kitb
al-Mugni, j.2, Lubnn: Dr al-Kitab Arab, Bayrt.
Ibn Qudma al-Maqdis. (t.t). al-Syarh al-Kabr al Matn al-Mughn,
j.4, Lubnn: Dr-al-Kutub al-Ilmyah, Bayrt.
Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia & Majlis Agama Islam Negeri-
Negeri Seluruh Malaysia. (2011). Prol Majlis Agama Islam
Negeri Seluruh Malaysia, c. 1, JAKIM.
Jall al-Dn Abd. al-Rahman Ibn Muhammad al-Say . (1990). al-
Asyb wa al-Na ir, c.1, Lubnn: Dr-al-Kutub al-Ilmyah,
Bayrt.
Maj al-Dn Muhammad Ya qb Muhammad Ibn Ya qb al-Fayrz
bd. (1412). al-Qms al-Mu , c.1, Mi r: al-Maktabah al-
Husnyah, al-Q irah.
Muhamad Salim al-Bayhani. (t.t). Mu malah wa Dayn, Mi r: Ma bi
al-Madan, al-Qhira .
Muhammad Amra . (1993). Qms al-Mu alaht al-Iqti dya f
al-Ha ra al-Islmyah, c.1, Lubnn: Dr al-Syurq, Bayrt.
Muhammad Amn al-Syamr Ibn al-bidn. (1966). Hsyya Raddu
al-Mukhtr al al-Dr al-Mukhtr : Syar Tanwr al-Ab r f qh
maz ab al-Imm Ab anfa al-Numn, c.2, j.4, Mi r: Maktabah
Mu afa al-Bb.
Mu ammad Ibn A mad al-Kha b al-Syarbn. (1958). Mughn al-
Mu tj, j.2, Mi r: Mu af al-Bb al- alab, al-Qahrah.
Muhammad Zakary Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahy al-Knda alaw.
(1999). Aujz al-Masliki il Muwa Mlik, j.12, c.1, Lubnn:
Dr al-Kutub al-Ilmya , Bayrt.
122
IJMS 19 (2), 103122 (2012)
Mu tafa Ahmad al-Zarq. (1968). al-Madkhal al-Fiqhi al-Am al-Islmi f
Thaubihi al-Jadd, j. 1, Lubnn: Dr-al-Fikr, Bayrt.
Nazh ammd. (1993). Asalib Istithmar al-Awqaf wa Asasu Idratuh,
Kuwait: Markaz Abhs al-Waqf wa al-Dirsat al-Iqti dyah.
Sul n Ibr m Ibn Sul n al- syim. (2002). Ahkm Ta arruft
al-Wakl f Uqd al-Muwi t al-Mlyah, al-Imrt: Dr al-
Buhth li al-Dirst al-Islmyah wa Ihy al-Turth, Dbay.
Syams al-Dn Urfa al-Dasq. (t.t). Hsyya al-Dasq al al-Syarh
al-Kabr, j.4, Mi r: Dr Ihy al-Kutub al-Arabyah, al-Q irah.
Muhammad Anas Zarqa. (1994). Financing And Investment in Awqaf
Projects: A Non-Technical Introduction, Islamic Economic
Studies Journal, Vol. 1, No. 2, (June 1994), Islamic Research and
Training Institute (IRTI), Islamic Development Bank (IDB).
Murat Cizakca. (1998). Awqaf in history and its implications for
modern Islamic economies. Islamic Economics Studies Journal, 6
(1), (November 1998).
Shamsiah Abdul Karim. (2010). Contemporary shariah compliance
structuring for the development and management of Waqf
assets in Singapore. Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies, Vol.
3, No. 2, (March 2010), Japan: Kyoto University Research
Information Respository (KURENAI).
Monzer Kahf. (1998). Financing The Development of Awqaf Property.
(Kertas Kerja Seminar Development of Awqaf, Anjuran IRTI,
Kuala Lumpur, 24 March 1998.
Shamsiah Abdul Karim. (2007). Contemporary Waqf administration and
development in Singapore: Challenges and Prospects, Majlis Ugama
Islam Singapore (MUIS), (Kertas Kerja International Waqf
Conference). Fullerton Hotel, Singapore, 67 Mac 2007).
UDA Holding Sdn. Bhd. Retrieved from htp://www.uda.com.my/
123
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
PERBELANJAAN AWAM DAN PERTUMBUHAN
EKONOMI: BUKTI EMPIRIK DARI KERAJAAN
NEGERI DI SEMENANJUNG MALAYSIA
PUBLIC SPENDING AND ECONOMIC GROWTH:
AN EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM STATE
GOVERNMENT IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
NORAIN MOD ASRI
ZULKEFLY ABDUL KARIM
MD ZYADI MD TAHIR
WOOK ENDUT
Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan
Abstrak
Kertas ini bertujuan mengkaji hubungan antara perbelanjaan awam dengan
pertumbuhan ekonomi di peringkat kerajaan negeri di Semenanjung
Malaysia. Beberapa pemboleh ubah yang lain seperti hasil cukai, imbangan
skal, dan jumlah populasi penduduk juga diambil kira dalam menganggar
model persamaan. Kajian ini mengaplikasi ujian kointegrasi Johansen untuk
menganalisis hubungan jangka panjang (kointegrasi) dan model vektor
pembetulan ralat (VECM) untuk menentukan arah sebab-menyebab dalam
jangka pendek dan jangka panjang dalam kalangan pemboleh ubah kajian.
Keputusan kajian menunjukkan; pertama, tidak wujud hubungan jangka
panjang antara output negeri dengan belanja awam di negeri Selangor.
Kedua, di negeri Pahang dan Melaka wujud hubungan sebab-menyebab
dua hala dalam jangka panjang antara output negeri dengan belanja awam.
Ketiga, dalam jangka pendek, perubahan output signikan menjadi penyebab
Granger kepada perubahan perbelanjaan awam di Negeri Sembilan, Kedah,
Melaka dan Pulau Pinang, yang menyokong hipotesis Wagner. Sebaliknya,
di negeri Pahang dan Perak, perubahan perbelanjaan awam signikan
menjadi penyebab Granger kepada perubahan output dalam jangka pendek,
yang mengesahkan hipotesis Keynes di negeri tersebut.
Kata kunci: Perbelanjaan awam, pertumbuhan ekonomi, ujian kointegrasi
Johansen, VECM, VAR.
124
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Abstract
Purpose This paper investigates the relationship between public spending
and economic growth using the state level data in Peninsular Malaysia.
Several other variables namely tax revenue, scal balance, and total
population have also been considered in estimating the baseline model.
Design/methodology/approach This study applied the Johansen
cointegration test in analyzing the long run relationship (cointegration)
among the variables of interest, and a vector error correction model (VECM)
in investigating the direction of causality in the long-run and short run
among the variables.
Findings The empirical ndings can be summarized as follows. First,
there is no long-run relationship among state output and public spending in
Selangor. Second, in Pahang and Melaka, there is a long run bi-directional
causality between state output and public spending. Third, in the short run,
a changes in output is signicantly to Granger cause the public spending in
Negeri Sembilan, Kedah, Melaka and Pulau Pinang, in which has supported
the Wagner hypothesis. In contrast, in Pahang and Perak, a changes in
public spending has a signicance eect to Granger cause the changes of
output in the short run, in which has conrmed the existence of Keynesian
hypothesis in those states.
Originality/value This study provides new empirical evidence on the
relationship between public spending and economic growth using the state
level data in Peninsular Malaysia. Moreover, several other variables namely
tax revenue, scal balance, and state population have also been considered in
the baseline model.
Keywords public spending, economic growth, Johansen cointegration
test, VECM, VAR.

Paper type Research Paper.
Pengenalan
Episod turun naik dalam kitaran ekonomi sering kali menuntut
pelarasan dasar skal agar kesan daripada ketakstabilan ekonomi
tersebut tidak berpanjangan. Dalam hal ini, mekanisme pelarasan
yang kerap dipraktiskan lebih tertumpu kepada pemboleh ubah
perbelanjaan awam apabila ianya dapat mempengaruhi pertumbuhan
125
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
ekonomi secara langsung berbanding dengan komponen skal
yang lain. Namun begitu, perbelanjaan awam ini sebenarnya boleh
mengundang kepada kewujudan kesan asakan keluar (crowding-out
eects). Hal ini bererti peningkatan perbelanjaan awam melalui dasar
belanjawan desit akan meningkatkan kadar bunga domestik yang
seterusnya akan mengurangkan pelaburan daripada sektor swasta.
Akibatnya, sesebuah negara akan mengalami kesukaran untuk
mencapai suatu laluan pertumbuhan yang seimbang (balance growth
path) dalam jangka panjang (Raurich, 2001).
Walaupun begitu, kajian mengenai hubungan antara perbelanjaan
awam dengan output masih lagi relevan sehingga ke hari ini kerana
kegawatan ekonomi (termasuk pada zaman kemelesetan besar atau
Great Depression pada tahun 1930-an) telah terbukti dapat distabilkan
menerusi campur tangan yang aktif daripada sektor awam.
Berdasarkan kajian terdahulu, terdapat dua pendekatan yang telah
digunakan untuk melihat hubungan antara belanja awam dengan
output (pendapatan) negara (Wahab, 2004). Pertama, perbelanjaan
kerajaan dianggap sebagai pemboleh ubah endogenous seperti yang
dikemukakan oleh Wagner (1958). Hal ini bermaksud perubahan
perbelanjaan awam dipengaruh oleh perubahan pendapatan negara
secara anjal, iaitu kadar (peratusan) peningkatan perbelanjaan awam
melebihi daripada kadar peningkatan output negara. Hukum Wagner
ini dianggap oleh Akitoby, Clements, Gupta, dan Inchauste (2006)
sebagai voracity eect yang berlaku disebabkan beberapa faktor
seperti kelemahan institusi dan perpecahan etnik. Ia dimanifestasikan
menerusi kemunculan pelbagai kumpulan berkepentingan yang
meminta lebih peruntukan perbelanjaan awam bagi melindungi
kebajikan mereka dalam pembangunan negara.
Walau bagaimanapun, analisis Wagner agak terbatas pada masa
ekonomi gawat. Beliau tidak melihat secara jelas kesan kegawatan
ekonomi (kejatuhan output negara) terhadap pertumbuhan
perbelanjaan awam. Realitinya, terdapat tiga bentuk tindak balas
belanja awam terhadap kejatuhan pendapatan negara. Pertama,
sekiranya kemerosotan output negara menyebabkan peningkatan
dalam belanja awam, maka ini mencerminkan belanja awam
bertindak sebagai countercyclical instrument untuk merangsang
kembali pertumbuhan ekonomi. Kedua, jika kejatuhan (peningkatan)
output diiringi dengan kejatuhan (peningkatan) belanja awam
pada kadar yang lebih tinggi (rendah), maka bentuk hubungan ini
menyangkal hukum Wagner. Ketiga, jika kejatuhan (peningkatan)
output diiringi dengan kejatuhan (peningkatan) belanja awam pada
126
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
kadar yang lebih rendah (tinggi), lantas hubungan ini dikatakan
konsisten dengan hukum Wagner dan turut merujuk kepada cyclical
ratcheting (Akitoby et al., 2006).
Pendekatan yang kedua melihat perbelanjaan awam sebagai
pemboleh ubah eksogenous menurut jurus pandang ahli ekonomi
Keynesian. Hal ini bererti peningkatan perbelanjaan awam akan
merangsang peningkatan pendapatan negara melalui pemboleh
ubah perbelanjaan agregat. Sebagai contoh, campur tangan kerajaan
menerusi peruntukan terhadap perbelanjaan awam dan cukai bersih
(iaitu cukai kasar ditolak bayaran pindahan) memberikan kesan
yang berbeza terhadap perbelanjaan agregat. Kesan pertambahan
perbelanjaan awam terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi sebenarnya
adalah lebih besar berbanding dengan kesan kejatuhan cukai
bersih kerana saiz pengganda perbelanjaan awam yang lebih besar
berbanding dengan pengganda cukai. Namun begitu, sekiranya
kadar pertambahan perbelanjaan awam kurang daripada kadar
pertambahan pungutan cukai, maka tabungan awam akan meningkat.
Sebaliknya, pertambahan cukai pula bakal mengundang kejatuhan
dalam tabungan swasta, yang mana akan menjejaskan paras tabungan
negara, dan akhirnya menjejaskan aktiviti pengumpulan modal dan
kegiatan ekonomi.
Memandangkan terdapat banyak kemungkinan berkaitan arah
hubungan antara perbelanjaan awam dengan output, maka kajian
ini mendalami isu tersebut bagi kes kerajaan negeri di Semenanjung
Malaysia. Kajian ini memberikan sumbangan yang signikan terhadap
bidang ekonomi skal daripada beberapa aspek. Pertama, kajian ini
menggunakan data di peringkat kerajaan negeri dengan menggunakan
data ekonomi bersaiz kecil (Malaysia). Banyak kajian lepas hanya
memberikan fokus kajian menurut perspektif negara besar (maju)
khususnya negara Amerika Syarikat (AS) seperti yang dilakukan
oleh Kolluri, Panik dan Wahab (2000), Folster dan Henrekson (2001),
Wahab (2004), dan Glass (2009). Maka, dengan menggunakan data
pada peringkat kerajaan negeri, dapat memberikan maklumat kepada
penggubal dasar di negeri yang berkenaan untuk melaksanakan
dasar belanjawan yang lebih berhemah dan cermat, iaitu dengan
mengambil kira kedudukan ekonomi sebelum memutuskan sesuatu
dasar belanjawan yang hendak dilaksanakan. Kedua, kajian ini juga
mengambil kira beberapa pemboleh ubah lain yang penting seperti
hasil cukai, imbangan skal dan jumlah populasi dalam model
penganggaran. Hal ini kerana kitaran perbelanjaan awam dan output
pada peringkat kerajaan negeri amat bergantung kepada perubahan
hasil cukai, imbangan skal dan jumlah populasi.
127
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Penemuan penting kajian ini pula diringkaskan kepada tiga aspek.
Pertama, tidak wujud hubungan jangka panjang antara output negeri
dan belanja awam bagi kerajaan negeri Selangor. Kedua, di Pahang
dan Melaka wujud hubungan dua hala dalam jangka panjang antara
output negeri dan belanja awam. Ketiga, dalam jangka pendek, wujud
hipotesis Wagner di Negeri Sembilan, Kedah, Melaka dan Pulau
Pinang, manakala, dalam jangka pendek hipotesis Keynes wujud di
Pahang dan Perak.
Kertas ini dibahagikan kepada beberapa bahagian. Bahagian kedua
membincangkan secara ringkas latar belakang hipotesis Keynesian
dan hipotesis Wagner mengenai hubungan antara perbelanjaan
dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi. Bahagian ketiga meninjau daripada
aspek soroton kajian lepas yang melihat hubungan antara perbelanjaan
dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi. Bahagian keempat menerangkan
metodologi kajian dengan tumpuan kepada model vektor pembetulan
ralat (VECM). Bahagian kelima mempersembahkan hasil kajian,
manakala bahagian keenam meringkas dan merumuskan hasil kajian.
Hipotesis Keynes and Hipotesis Wagner
Secara teori, terdapat dua hipotesis yang mendasari hubungan
antara perbelanjaan kerajaan dengan output. Hipotesis pertama,
iaitu pandangan ahli ekonomi Keynesian yang melihat pengaruh
perbelanjaan kerajaan (khususnya melalui belanjawan desit)
terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi negara. Keynesian berpandangan
campur tangan yang aktif daripada kerajaan melalui dasar-dasar
pengurusan permintaan agregat adalah penting untuk menstabilkan
ekonomi negara (pertumbuhan ekonomi). Di samping itu, dasar
skal yang proaktif menerusi perbelanjaan awam ini juga merupakan
instrumen penting yang menjana pertumbuhan ekonomi serta guna
tenaga terutama sekali apabila sesebuah negara berada pada peringkat
awal pertumbuhan (Al-Faris, 2002). Idea Keynesian ini juga selari
dengan penambahbaikan terhadap teori pertumbuhan endogenous
seperti yang dilakukan oleh Barro (1990) yang menekankan kesan
langsung perbelanjaan awam yang produktif terhadap fungsi
pengeluaran dan penggunaan swasta. Idea Barro (1990) ini telah
disokong oleh Grossman dan Helpman (1991) serta Tanzi dan Zee
(1996). Walaupun Barro (1991) kemudiannya gagal membuktikan
kepentingan belanja awam terhadap output dengan menggunakan
data di negara maju dan negara sedang membangun, tetapi beliau
telah merumuskan bahawa saiz sektor awam (belanja awam) yang
128
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
besar bakal membantut pertumbuhan ekonomi. Hal ini disebabkan
oleh saiz belanja awam yang besar bakal disertai oleh desit skal
dan seterusnya cukai yang tinggi lantas ia akan melemahkan
pertumbuhan ekonomi.
Hipotesis kedua pula dikemukakan oleh ahli ekonomi Jerman,
Wagner (1958), yang menegaskan bahawa belanja awam merupakan
pemboleh ubah endogenous yang ditentukan oleh pertumbuhan
ekonomi. Beliau juga menyatakan belanja awam lebih bersifat anjal
terhadap pertambahan pendapatan negara yang kebiasaannya
koesien keanjalan belanja awam terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi
melebihi daripada satu. Dalam kata lain, teori ini menjelaskan saiz
pertumbuhan sektor awam lebih cepat daripada saiz pertumbuhan
ekonomi. Terdapat tiga faktor yang telah dikenal pasti menyumbang
kepada tindak balas perbelanjaan awam tersebut. Pertama, apabila
ekonomi berkembang, maka wujud peningkatan keperluan dan
permintaan terhadap barangan awam (keselamatan, pendidikan, dan
infrastruktur) yang ditawarkan oleh kerajaan. Kedua, peningkatan
peruntukan bagi barangan sosial dan budaya, dan ketiga, kawalan
birokrasi serta pentadbiran yang baik bagi menjamin kelancaran
operasi pasaran. Hukum Wagner ini telah berjaya dibuktikan oleh
Kolluri, Panik dan Wahab(2000) dan Akitoby et al. (2006) bagi kes
negara perindustrian maju dan negara membangun. Sebaliknya,
Henrekson (1993) gagal mengesahkan kewujudan hukum Wagner
manakala Wahab (2004) pula memperoleh keputusan yang bercampur
iaitu beliau mendapati hipotesis Wagner wujud di negara Eropah
tetapi tidak wujud di negara G7 dan Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD).
Kajian Lepas
Hubungan antara perbelanjaan awam dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi
telah pun dikaji dengan mendalam oleh ramai pengkaji sebelum ini
seperti Aschauer (1989), Barro (1981, 1987), Evans dan Karras (1994),
dan Henrekson (1993). Namun, disebabkan kaedah pengujian yang
berbeza, maka keputusan yang diperoleh adalah pelbagai. Sebagai
contoh, Rao (1989) berjaya mengesahkan hipotesis Wagner bagi kedua-
dua kumpulan negara maju dan negara berpendapatan rendah serta
sederhana. Al-Faris (2002) juga menyokong hipotesis Wagner bagi
negara rantau Arab kecuali Bahrain yang menunjukkan kewujudan
hubungan dua hala antara perbelanjaan awam dengan pertumbuhan
ekonomi. Al-Faris (2002) turut menegaskan bahawa pertumbuhan
129
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
output dan guna tenaga di sektor bukan petroleum telah menarik ramai
expatriate yang turut membawa keluarga mereka ke negara Arab
berkenaan. Hal ini seterusnya menyebabkan kerajaan negara Arab
terpaksa menambah perbelanjaan dalam penyediaan infrastruktur
serta khidmat sosial. Beliau juga menggariskan tiga alasan yang
menyebabkan perbelanjaan awam tidak mempengaruhi output
seperti yang diketengahkan oleh Keynesian. Pertama, kerajaan lebih
banyak memperuntukkan perbelanjaan awam terhadap komponen
yang kurang produktif iaitu perbelanjaan semasa (mengurus).
Kedua, sebarang penawaran barangan awam yang dilihat bersaing
dengan sektor swasta akan mengarah kepada kejatuhan ekonomi.
Ketiga, impak perbelanjaan sosial seperti perbelanjaan pendidikan,
kesihatan serta infrastruktur terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi akan
mengambil masa.
Dapatan kajian Al-Faris (2002) di atas selari dengan keputusan
Devarajan, Swaroop dan Zou (1996) yang membuktikan perbelanjaan
modal (perbelanjaan produktif) berhubungan negatif atau tidak
mempunyai hubungan dengan output disebabkan kerajaan
memperuntukan perbelanjaan modal melebihi tahap optimum.
Walaupun begitu, mereka berjaya mengesahkan kewujudan
hipotesis Keynesian bagi hubungan perbelanjaan awam total dengan
pertumbuhan output. Tetapi, peningkatan jumlah perbelanjaan
awam ini hanya mampu mendorong peningkatan kutipan cukai
dan kadar pertumbuhan output pada steady state dengan syarat
produktiviti perbelanjaan awam melebihi daripada kerugian luput
(beban berlebihan) akibat peningkatan cukai tersebut. Sebaliknya,
Folster dan Henrekson (2001) pula mendapati perbelanjaan awam
mempengaruhi output secara negatif di negara maju (kaya). Hal ini
terkesan daripada keupayaan perbelanjaan awam mengasak keluar
pelaburan swasta dengan banyak yang menyebabkan kejatuhan
output negara. Selain itu, banyak kajian terbaru pula dilihat mengambil
kira kesan perbelanjaan awam secara simetri dan asimetri terhadap
output negara. Contohnya, analisis keratan rentas oleh Wahab
(2010) mendapati perbelanjaan awam hanya mempengaruhi output
apabila pertumbuhan perbelanjaan awam berada di bawah trend
growth dengan menggunakan model asimetri, sedangkan model
simetri menunjukkan output negara sememangnya dipengaruhi oleh
perbelanjaan awam secara positif.

Di Malaysia, kajian mengenai hubungan antara perbelanjaan
awam dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi tidak mendapat perhatian
yang meluas daripada pengkaji lepas serta lebih tertumpu kepada
130
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
persoalan hukum Wagner dengan menggunakan data di peringkat
kerajaan persekutuan. Misalnya, Sinha (1998) mendapati kewujudan
hipotesis Wagner pada Malaysia dalam jangka panjang. Selain itu,
kajian beliau juga mendapati tidak wujud sebarang hubungan antara
pertumbuhan ekonomi dengan perbelanjaan awam dalam jangka
pendek, lantas beliau merumuskan faktor bukan ekonomi lebih
dominan mempengaruhi perbelanjaan awam dan pertumbuhan
output di Malaysia. Ghani, Habibullah, Azali dan Azman-Saini (2005)
yang menggunakan pendekatan ARDL pula berjaya membuktikan
kewujudan hubungan dua hala antara pertumbuhan ekonomi dan
belanja awam dalam jangka panjang, manakala hukum Keynes
hanya berlaku dalam jangka pendek. Sebaliknya, Norain, Md. Zyadi
dan Wook (2010) yang menggunakan model vektor ralat pembetulan
(VECM) telah mendapati hipotesis Keynesian wujud dalam jangka
panjang, manakala dalam jangka pendek, hipotesis Wagner wujud
sama ada dengan menggunakan data agregat atau subkomponen
perbelanjaan awam. Kajian oleh Fatimah, Zarinah, Saad dan Ahmad
Farid (2010) juga mengesahkan impak positif antara perbelanjaan
pembangunan terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi, yang mana kesan
perbelanjaan awam ini lebih besar berbanding kesan pelaburan
asing terhadap pertumbuhan output. Kajian pada peringkat kerajaan
tempatan pula telah dilakukan oleh Dayang-A zzah, Habibullah
dan Azman-Saini (2006) serta Habibullah dan Dayang-A zzah
(2008) yang masing-masing bagi kes kerajaan tempatan di Sabah
dan Sarawak. Mereka turut memperoleh keputusan yang pelbagai,
iaitu hubungan sehala serta hubungan dua hala antara belanja awam
dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi.
Berdasarkan kepada tinjauan kajian lepas di atas, amat jelas terdapat
beberapa jurang literatur yang belum diterokai lagi, khususnya
bagi kes di Malaysia. Maka, kajian ini menerokai isu tersebut
dengan memberikan sumbangan kepada dua inovasi penting dalam
bidang ekonomi skal. Pertama, berbeza dengan kajian terdahulu
di Malaysia yang menggunakan data pada peringkat kerajaan
persekutuan, kajian ini mengkaji hubungan antara perbelanjaan
awam dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi pada peringkat kerajaan
negeri di Semenanjung Malaysia. Hal ini penting untuk mengenal
pasti gelagat pembuat dasar di kerajaan negeri yang diandaikan lebih
dekat serta memahami kehendak dan keperluan pengundi/pembayar
cukai. Kedua, kajian ini juga mengambil kira beberapa pemboleh
ubah lain seperti hasil cukai, imbangan skal, dan populasi negeri
dalam model persamaan. Ini kerana kitaran perbelanjaan awam dan
pertumbuhan ekonomi juga terdedah terhadap perubahan pemboleh
ubah tersebut.
131
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Spesikasi Model dan Data
Spesikasi Model
Kajian ini menggunakan pendekatan Akitoby et al. (2006) yang
mengaplikasi teori Wagner untuk menunjukkan hubungan
keseimbangan (steady-state) antara belanja awam (G) dengan output
atau Keluaran Dalam Negeri Kasar (Y). Secara ringkas, model tersebut
adalah seperti berikut:

(1)
yang mana, menurut Wagner, > 1, dan

juga merupakan nilai
keanjalan konstan jangka panjang belanja awam terhadap output
negara. Persamaan (1) di atas boleh ditulis semula dalam bentuk
linear sebagai:
(2)

dengan a = log A, dan adalah sebutan ralat rawak. Namun, bagi
memperhalusi gelagat dan kitaran belanja awam tersebut, maka
persamaan (2) di atas telah diubah suai dengan mengambil kira
pergerakan dalam hasil dan imbangan skal seperti yang disarankan
oleh Akitoby et al. (2006). Maka, dengan mengambil kira pemboleh
ubah hasil cukai (HC) dan imbangan skal (IF) ke dalam persamaan
(2), persamaan baru bolehlah ditulis seperti berikut:
(3)

Persamaan (3) hanya memfokus kepada hasil cukai dan bukannya
sumber hasil yang lain disebabkan hasil cukai, terutama sekali cukai
tanah yang berkadar malar (at-rate), merupakan antara hasil utama
kerajaan negeri di Malaysia. Kutipan hasil cukai ini diandaikan
digunakan sepenuhnya untuk membiayai perbelanjaan kerajaan
negeri. Andaian ini juga dilihat hampir selari dengan idea Barro
(1990) yang menegaskan belanja awam pada peringkat kerajaan
persekutuan umumnya dibiayai oleh cukai pendapatan yang berkadar
malar. Manakala, kemasukan pemboleh ubah imbangan skal pula
membolehkan tindakan pengukuhan skal oleh sesebuah kerajaan
negeri dikenal pasti menerusi perubahan kedudukan imbangan skal
Dalam masa yang sama, daripada jurus pandang pembangunan
ekonomi wilayah, perbelanjaan awam juga merupakan instrumen
untuk mengenal pasti kewujudan eksternaliti negatif akibat kepadatan
G
t t
AY G

t t t
Y a G P G

t t t t t
IF HC Y a G P D E G

132
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
wilayah (bandar) atau eksternaliti positif akibat pemusatan bandar
(De Mello, 2002). Namun, penentuan sama ada wujud eksternaliti
negatif atau positif ini hanya boleh dilakukan menerusi perbandingan
antara jumlah populasi semasa (L) dengan saiz populasi kritikal (L).
Contohnya, jika L<L, maka ini menunjukkan pemusatan wilayah
menjana eksternaliti positif. Hal ini juga bererti, kerajaan negeri
berupaya dan cenderung menawarkan pelbagai aktiviti ekonomi,
sosial dan kebudayaan apabila saiz populasinya besar. Sebaliknya,
jika L>L, ini mencerminkan kepadatan wilayah atau saiz populasi
yang terlalu ramai akan hanya mewujudkan eksternaliti negatif
seperti pencemaran, keganasan serta kesesakan lalu lintas. Oleh itu,
memandangkan saiz populasi (POP) juga memberi impak kepada
belanja, lantas persamaan (3) perlu diubah menjadi:
(4)
Seperkara yang perlu ditegaskan di sini, disebabkan kebanyakan
barangan awam bersifat tidak bersaingan dan tiada pengecualian
terutama sekali bagi barang awam tulen, lantas jumlah belanja awam
lebih bermakna kepada individu berbanding dengan jumlah per
kapita (Barro, 1990). Justeru, semua pemboleh ubah dalam persamaan
(4) bukan dalam bentuk per kapita. Tetapi kesan saiz negeri yang
berbeza telah dikawal menerusi kehadiran pemboleh ubah populasi.
Ujian Punca Unit (Unit root test)
Sebelum ujian kointegrasi dan analisis sebab-menyebab antara
perbelanjaan awam dengan output dilakukan, kepegunan setiap
pemboleh ubah perlu ditentukan untuk mengelakkan masalah regresi
palsu. Kepegunan setiap pemboleh ubah ditentukan menggunakan
ujian Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) yang diperkenalkan oleh Said
dan Dickey (1984) seperti berikut:
(5)

yang mana

adalah operator pembezaan pertama,

c
t
adalah
sebutan ralat ganguan putih (white noise), dan X
t
adalah siri masa
pemboleh ubah. Hipotesis yang perlu diuji adalah hipotesis nol:

q
1
= 0,
yang bererti wujud unit root (siri masa tidak pegun), manakala
hipotesis alternatif:

q
1
< 0, yang menunjukkan siri masa adalah
pegun. Sekiranya hipotesis nol ditolak, maka ini menunjukkan siri
t t t t t t
POP IF HC Y a G P J D E G
t i t
k
i
i t t
X X X H K K K ' '

1
1 1 0

133
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
masa

X
t
adalah pegun dengan nilai min sifar. Bagi mengesahkan lagi
keputusan ujian ADF tersebut, maka kajian ini turut melakukan ujian
kepegunan Phillip Perron (PP).
Ujian Kointegrasi Johansen
Ujian kointegrasi Johansen yang diperkenalkan oleh Johansen dan
Juselius (1990) boleh dilakukan jika semua pemboleh ubah siri masa
mempunyai darjah integrasi yang sama, iaitu pegun pada peringkat
pembezaan pertama atau I(1). Kaedah ini adalah berdasarkan
penganggaran kebolehjadian maksimum serta menguji vektor
kointegrasi yang wujud dalam kalangan siri masa. Ujian kointegrasi
ini juga menggunakan dua nilai statistik ujian iaitu ujian trace dan
ujian max. Nilai statistik ujian ini kemudiannya akan dibandingkan
dengan nilai kritikal yang diperoleh daripada Osterwald-Lenum
(1992). Sekiranya nilai statistik ujian lebih besar daripada nilai kritikal
ini pada aras keertian tertentu, maka wujud kointegrasi dalam
kalangan pemboleh ubah yang terdapat dalam sistem.
Model Vektor Pembetulan Ralat (VECM)
Walaupun begitu, ujian kointegrasi Johansen tidak dapat mengenal
pasti kewujudan hubungan sebab-menyebab dalam kalangan
pemboleh ubah siri masa tersebut. Jika pemboleh ubah-pemboleh ubah
tersebut berkointegrasi pada darjah integrasi yang sama iaitu pada
I(1), maka sebutan pembetulan ralat tertangguh perlu dimasukkan
ke dalam model sebelum ujian sebab-menyebab Granger (1969)
boleh dilakukan. Oleh yang demikian, persamaan (4) perlu dianggar
dalam versi model VECM seperti berikut (dengan mengandaikan
semua pemboleh ubah akan menjadi pemboleh ubah bersandar):
(6a)
(6b)

(6c)

(6d)

(6e)
t
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i t G t
POP IF HC Y G G
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 10
P F E J M G H O D ' ' ' ' ' '

t
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i t Y t
POP IF HC Y G Y
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1 20
P F E J M G H O D ' ' ' ' ' '

t
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i t HC t
POP IF HC Y G HC
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3 1 30
P F E J M G H O D ' ' ' ' ' '

t
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i t IF t
POP IF HC Y G IF
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4 1 40
P F E J M G H O D ' ' ' ' ' '

t
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i
n
i
i t i t POP t
POP IF HC Y G POP
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5 1 50
P F E J M G H O D ' ' ' ' ' '

134
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
yang mana,

adalah operator pembezaan pertama,

t-1
ialah sebutan
pembetulan ralat tertangguh iaitu ralat daripada persamaan vektor
kointegrasi yang dihasilkan oleh ujian kointegrasi Johansen dan

pula merujuk kepada sebutan ralat. Sebaliknya, jika ujian kointegrasi
Johansen sebelum ini mendapati tidak wujud kointegrasi antara
pemboleh ubah, maka sebutan pembetulan ralat tertangguh perlulah
disingkirkan daripada persamaan VECM di atas.
Analisis model VECM juga dapat mengasingkan kesan jangka pendek
dan jangka panjang pemboleh ubah penerang terhadap pemboleh
ubah bersandar. Kesan jangka panjang ditentukan menerusi sebutan
pembetulan ralat tertangguh yang mengukur kelajuan pelarasan (speed
of adjustment) ke arah keseimbangan jangka panjang, iaitu masa yang
diambil oleh pemboleh ubah penerang untuk menumpu (converge)
ke arah keseimbangan jangka panjang. Ia juga menerangkan arah
sebab-menyebab jangka panjang dalam kalangan pemboleh ubah
penerang terhadap pemboleh ubah bersandar. Manakala, hubungan
sebab-menyebab Granger jangka pendek pula dapat dikenal pasti
melalui ujian wald (statistik F) terhadap sekumpulan koesien yang
berkenaan seperti berikut:

H
0
:
2n
=0,
3n
=0,
4n
=0,
5n
=0 melawan H
1
:
2n
= 0,
3n
= 0,
4n
= 0,
5n
= 0
H
0
:
1n
=0,
3n
=0,
4n
=0,
5n
=0 melawan H
1
:
1n
= 0,
3n
= 0,
4n
= 0,
5n
= 0
H
0
:
1n
=0,
2n
=0,
4n
=0,
5n
=0 melawan H
1
:
1n
= 0,
2n
= 0,
4n
= 0,
5n
= 0
H
0
:
1n
=0,
2n
=0,
3n
=0,
5n
=0 melawan H
1
:
1n
= 0,
2n
= 0,
3n
= 0,
5n
= 0
H
0
:
1n
=0,
2n
=0,
3n
=0,
4n
=0 melawan H
1
:
1n
= 0,
2n
= 0,
3n
= 0,
4n
= 0
Data dan Denisi Pemboleh Ubah
Kajian ini menggunakan lima data siri masa bagi setiap negeri di
Semenanjung Malaysia, iaitu belanja awam (G), Keluaran Dalam
Negeri Kasar (Y), jumlah hasil cukai (HC), imbangan skal (IF) dan
jumlah populasi (POP). Untuk tujuan analisis, kesemua pemboleh
ubah telah diubah suai dalam log semula jadi. Data skal (G, HC,
IF) diperoleh daripada laporan kewangan tahunan negeri pelbagai
tahun, manakala data output (Y) dan populasi (POP) didapati
daripada laporan ekonomi negeri dan Rancangan Malaysia pelbagai
tahun. Kajian ini menggunakan sampel data tahunan dari tahun 1970
hingga 2008 yang merangkumi tempoh selama 39 tahun.
135
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Keputusan Empirikal
Bahagian ini membincangkan keputusan ujian punca unit dengan
menggunakan kaedah ADF dan PP, ujian kointegrasi Johansen serta
ujian model VECM. Berdasarkan Jadual 1, didapati semua pemboleh
ubah siri masa tidak mencapai kepegunan pada peringkat paras, I(0),
tetapi mencapai kepegunan pada peringkat pembezaan pertama, I(1),
iaitu pada aras keertian lima peratus. Keputusan ini membolehkan
ujian kointegrasi Johansen dilakukan seterusnya.
Jadual 1
Ujian Kepegunan ADF
Negeri Pemboleh
ubah
Nilai statistik ADF Nilai statistik PP
Paras Pembezaan
pertama
Paras Pembezaan
pertama
Selangor G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-2.6875 (0)
-1.9587 (0)
-0.1790 (2)
-1.0820 (1)
0.4393 (0)
-5.7586* (0)
-7.0422* (0)
-6.6101* (1)
-9.0877* (0)
-5.3002* (0)
-2.8734 (4)
-1.9587 (0)
-0.4618 (1)
-1.4752 (2)
-1.5157 (2)
-6.0164* (4)
-7.0488* (1)
-10.4612* (3)
-9.2141* (2)
-5.4033* (1)
Perlis G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-1.8449 (2)
-0.3274 (0)
-0.6846 (1)
-2.5345 (2)
-1.2583 (0)
-9.9723* (0)
-5.7044* (0)
-11.8391* (0)
-4.2345* (3)
-5.2491* (0)
-2.0538 (5)
-0.3128 (3)
-1.7589 (1)
-1.8696 (4)
-2.2252 (5)
-11.6883* (5)
-5.6948* (4)
-12.9006* (5)
-12.3426* (7)
-5.7142* (2)
Negeri Sembilan G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-2.3514 (0)
-0.2192 (0)
-1.2042 (0)
-2.3566 (0)
-0.9999 (0)
-5.9813* (0)
-6.1525* (0)
-5.8098* (1)
-6.5182* (0)
-6.0185* (9)
-2.3623 (2)
-0.1464 (4)
-1.2183 (13)
-2.5024 (3)
-1.0535 (3)
-5.9829* (1)
-6.1861* (4)
-9.6034* (11)
-6.5182* (0)
-6.1969* (3)
Kedah G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-1.4925 (0)
-0.6162 (0)
-0.2357 (0)
-0.5361 (2)
-0.2497 (0)
-5.6140* (0)
-6.5250* (0)
-7.3039* (0)
-7.6042* (0)
-6.2097* (0)
-1.5320 (7)
-0.5844 (5)
-0.1193 (5)
-1.0028 (2)
-0.2269 (4)
-6.1166* (8)
-6.7793* (5)
-7.2983* (2)
-9.5736* (9)
-6.2711* (4)
Kelantan G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-1.9254 (0)
-1.1562 (0)
-1.7483 (4)
-2.4043 (0)
-1.8545 (2)
-6.4725* (0)
-6.3224* (0)
-6.6019* (1)
-7.0834* (0)
-5.7467* (9)
-1.9254 (0)
-1.1963 (3)
-1.5287 (5)
-2.3630 (1)
-1.2562 (4)
-6.4739* (2)
-6.3299* (2)
-17.2624* (6)
-7.2644* (6)
-9.3388* (3)
Terengganu G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-1.7962 (1)
-1.9214 (0)
-1.8218 (0)
-2.5815 (0)
-1.7492 (1)
-3.8001* (0)
-5.8200* (0)
-5.3845* (0)
-7.6403*

(0)
-3.7993* (0)
-1.6003 (2)
-2.0260 (3)
-1.8539 (2)
-2.6062 (3)
-1.8585 (4)
-3.7962* (1)
-5.8200* (1)
-5.3989* (2)
-7.6784* (1)
-3.8586* (3)
(sambungan)
136
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Negeri Pemboleh
ubah
Nilai statistik ADF Nilai statistik PP
Paras Pembezaan
pertama
Paras Pembezaan
pertama
Pahang G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-2.5219 (8)
-0.6666 (0)
-0.9868 (7)
-0.8247 (3)
-1.8875 (0)
-6.6744* (1)
-6.2148* (0)
-3.6771* (6)
-6.7282* (2)
-5.6104* (0)
-2.3504 (0)
-0.6504 (3)
-1.4758 (7)
-2.7729 (3)
-1.9228 (2)
-9.0698* (0)
-6.2315* (3)
-10.0149* (12)
-16.9862* (3)
-5.6099* (1)
Johor G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-2.4538 (7)
-0.7396 (0)
-0.6422 (0)
-1.7281

(0)
-1.9021 (0)
-5.0249* (2)
-6.3824* (0)
-6.5601* (0)
-8.0277* (0)
-4.9604* (0)
-3.1279 (0)
-0.7912 (5)
-0.5972 (6)
-1.7281 (0)
-1.7171 (2)
-6.6857* (1)
-6.5565* (5)
-7.3126* (10)
-10.6043* (6)
-4.9702* (2)
Melaka G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-1.6911 (2)
-0.0524 (0)
-2.9371 (0)
-0.8163 (2)
-0.4829 (0)
-6.5500* (1)
-6.2716* (0)
-6.8821* (0)
-6.9074* (1)
-6.2191* (0)
-1.5907 (3)
-2.9514 (1)
-2.9649 (1)
-1.5401 (2)
-0.4609 (3)
-10.4475* (6)
-6.4429* (6)
-6.8821* (0)
-12.8948* (11)
-6.2715* (4)
Perak G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-2.0316 (9)
-0.8619 (0)
-0.2539 (0)
-0.1001 (6)
-1.8806 (0)
-3.0711* (9)
-6.2966* (0)
-5.3155* (9)
-2.5983* (8)
-5.8076*(0)
-1.9060 (10)
-0.8707 (3)
-3.1912 (3)
-1.0933 (7)
-1.8443 (0)
-6.4169* (6)
-6.3153* (3)
-8.6429* (11)
-14.4152* (16)
-5.8181* (0)
Pulau Pinang G
Y
HC
IF
POP
-1.5124 (4)
-0.2315 (0)
-0.7429 (0)
-1.8267 (1)
-1.4417 (0)
-3.1311* (9)
-6.0946* (0)
-7.5585* (0)
-6.4022* (1)
-4.9064* (0)
-0.8329 (4)
-0.1877 (4)
-2.7403 (1)
-2.5754 (1)
-1.2584 (3)
-10.0799* (2)
-6.1248* (4)
-8.5224* (11)
-8.8716* (1)
-4.9014* (2)
Nota. Model ini dijana dengan pintasan. Nilai dalam kurungan menunjukkan lat
optimum yang ditentukan menerusi kaedah Akaike Info Criterion (AIC). *signikan
pada aras keertian 5%.
Jadual 2 menunjukkan keputusan ujian kointegrasi Johansen
berdasarkan statistik ujian Trace dan Max-Eigen. Keputusan ujian
menunjukkan Selangor satu-satunya negeri di Semenanjung
Malaysia yang tidak menunjukkan hubungan jangka panjang antara
pemboleh ubah belanja awam dengan output negeri, hasil cukai,
imbangan skal serta populasi. Hal ini mungkin disebabkan Selangor
sebuah negeri maju dan terletak paling hampir dengan ibu negara
yakni Kuala Lumpur yang memudahkan ia menarik sejumlah besar
pelaburan swasta domestik mahupun asing. Sebaliknya, hipotesis nol
(r=0) yang menggambarkan tidak wujud sekurang-kurangnya satu
vektor yang berkointegrasi berjaya ditolak di negeri-negeri lain. Hal
ini bererti, wujud sekurang-kurangnya satu vektor persamaan yang
berkointegrasi di negeri-negeri tersebut (selain Selangor). Secara
spesiknya, hipotesis ini signikan pada aras keertian lima peratus di
Perlis, Kelantan, Terengganu, Johor dan Perak mengikut kedua-dua
137
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
statistik, lima peratus berdasarkan ujian statistik Trace sahaja di Negeri
Sembilan dan Pulau Pinang, sepuluh peratus mengikut kedua-dua
statistik di Kedah, sepuluh peratus berasaskan statistik Trace sahaja
di Melaka, serta lima peratus mengikut statistik Trace dan sepuluh
peratus berdasarkan statistik Max-Eigen di Pahang. Dalam masa yang
sama, dapatan turut menjelaskan bahawa terdapat juga kes kerajaan
negeri yang wujud sekurang-kurangnya satu vektor kointegrasi antara
pemboleh ubah yang dikaji pada aras keertian berbeza iaitu lima
peratus berasaskan statistik Trace di Perlis, lima peratus berdasarkan
kedua-dua statistik di Kelantan, sepuluh peratus mengikut statistik
Trace di Negeri Sembilan dan Pulau Pinang serta sepuluh peratus
berdasarkan kedua-dua statistik di Pahang. Manakala, di Perak
wujud sekurang-kurangnya tiga vektor kointegrasi yang signikan
pada aras keertian sepuluh peratus mengikut statistik Trace.
Jadual 2
Ujian Kointegrasi Johansen
Negeri Hipotesis
nol
Nilai
Eigen
Statistik
Trace
Nilai
kritikal 5%
Statistik
Max-Eigen
Nilai
kritikal 5%
Selangor r=0 0.4764 56.1371 76.9728 23.9384 34.8059
r1 0.2932 32.1987 54.079 12.8391 28.5881
r2 0.2033 19.3596 35.1928 8.4071 22.2996
r3 0.1723 10.9526 20.2618 6.9954 15.8921
Perlis r=0 0.6469 93.3729* 76.9728 38.5138* 34.8059
r1 0.4239 54.8591* 54.079 20.4094 28.5881
r2 0.3752 34.4497 35.1928 17.4005 22.2996
r3 0.2501 17.0492 20.2618 10.648 15.8921
Negeri r=0 0.5408 79.5362* 76.9728 28.7941 34.8059
Sembilan r1 0.4637 50.7420** 54.079 23.054 28.5881
r2 0.3287 27.688 35.1928 14.7465 22.2996
r3 0.2431 12.9415 20.2618 10.3037 15.8921
Kedah r=0 0.5657 75.1071** 76.9728 33.5042** 34.8059
r1 0.4086 41.6029 54.079 19.4362 28.5881
r2 0.3181 22.1667 35.1928 14.1676 22.2996
r3 0.1283 7.9992 20.2618 5.0809 15.8921
Kelantan r=0 0.6118 95.5009* 76.9728 35.0079* 34.8059
r1 0.5469 60.4929* 54.0790 29.2911* 28.5881
r2 0.3484 31.2019 35.1928 15.8477 22.2996
r3 0.2357 15.3542 20.2618 9.9442 15.8921
(sambungan)
138
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Negeri Hipotesis
nol
Nilai
Eigen
Statistik
Trace
Nilai
kritikal 5%
Statistik
Max-Eigen
Nilai
kritikal 5%
Terengganu r=0 0.6468 88.2518* 76.97277 38.50818* 34.80587
r1 0.4699 49.7437 54.07904 23.48759 28.58808
r2 0.2935 26.2561 35.19275 12.85296 22.29962
r3 0.1929 13.4031 20.26184 7.927773 15.89210
Pahang r=0 0.5904 84.1739* 76.9728 33.0237** 34.8059
r1 0.5356 51.1502** 54.0790 28.3842** 28.5881
r2 0.3247 22.7661 35.1928 14.5288 22.2996
r3 0.1399 8.2373 20.2618 5.5743 15.8921
Johor r=0 0.6946 85.6722* 76.9728 43.8909* 34.8059
r1 0.3796 41.7812 54.0790 17.6637 28.5881
r2 0.3085 24.1175 35.1928 13.6495 22.2996
r3 0.1725 10.4680 20.2618 7.0040 15.8921
Melaka r=0 0.5449 73.2147** 76.9728 29.1308 34.8059
r1 0.4348 44.0838 54.0790 21.1135 28.5881
r2 0.2401 22.9704 35.1928 10.1608 22.2996
r3 0.1888 12.8096 20.2618 7.7411 15.8921
Perak r=0 0.6624 97.0346* 76.9728 40.1753* 34.8059
r1 0.4294 56.8593* 54.0790 20.7616 28.5881
r2 0.3847 36.0977* 35.1928 17.9682 22.2996
r3 0.2960 18.1295** 20.2618 12.9877 15.8921
Pulau Pinang r=0 0.5787 82.5978* 76.9728 31.9843 34.8059
r1 0.4833 50.6135** 54.0790 24.4294 28.5881
r2 0.2884 26.1842 35.1928 12.5875 22.2996
r3 0.2253 13.5967 20.2618 9.4458 15.8921
Nota. Model ini dijana dengan pintasan. Lat optimum adalah satu yang ditentukan
menerusi kaedah Akaike Info Criterion (AIC). *signikan pada aras keertian 5%.
**signikan pada aras keertian 10%.
Selanjutnya, Jadual 3 pula memaparkan keputusan ujian sebab-
menyebab Granger versi VECM. Berdasarkan ujian kointegrasi
Johansen sebelum ini, sebutan pembetulan ralat tertangguh akan
dimasukkan ke dalam model kecuali bagi kes Selangor kerana kedua-
dua statistik ujian Trace dan Max-Eigen tidak signikan. Jika diamati,
keputusan di Jadual 3 sebenarnya menunjukkan kewujudan pelbagai
bentuk hubungan antara pemboleh ubah. Bagi kerajaan negeri Perlis,
imbangan skal dan populasi mempunyai hubungan dua hala dan
turut dipengaruh oleh pemboleh ubah lain dalam jangka panjang.
Manakala, dalam jangka pendek, populasi dan imbangan skal
139
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
berhubungan dua hala, populasi turut mempengaruhi belanja awam,
serta belanja awam dan hasil cukai menjadi penyebab Granger
kepada imbangan skal. Jelas sekali di Perlis, imbangan skal dan
populasi saling mempengaruhi dalam jangka panjang mahupun
jangka pendek. Di Negeri Sembilan pula, hasil cukai dan populasi
saling mempengaruhi dan turut dipengaruh oleh pemboleh ubah
lain dalam jangka panjang. Dapatan dalam jangka pendek pula
membuktikan output negeri dan hasil cukai mempunyai hubungan
dua hala di samping hasil cukai turut dipengaruh oleh populasi.
Manakala output turut menjadi penyebab Granger jangka pendek
kepada belanja awam dan populasi serta hasil cukai mempengaruhi
imbangan skal.

Jadual 3
Ujian Penyebab Granger Versi VECM
Negeri Pemboleh
ubah bebas
Pemboleh ubah bersandar
G Y HC IF POP
Perlis

t-1
0.3057
[1.3195]
-0.0172
[-0.3008]
0.2177
[0.7643]
-0.7721
[-3.7678]*
-0.0041
[-3.6690]*
G
t-1
-0.6353
[-2.0468]**
0.0317
[0.4134]
-0.4675
[-1.2251]
0.4681
[1.7053]***
0.0006
[0.4363]
Y
t-1
-0.6541
[-0.8972]
0.0975
[0.5418]
-0.0315
[-0.0351]
0.0215
[0.0334]
-0.0028
[-0.7965]
HC
t-1
-0.0843
[-0.3446]
-0.0296
[-0.4902]
-0.6747
[-2.2427]**
-0.6069
[-2.8045]*
-0.0009
[-0.7622]
IF
t-1
-0.2751
[-0.8530]
-0.0366
[-0.4600]
-0.3267
[-0.8239]
0.4239
[1.4864]
0.0031
[2.0186]***
POP
t-1
27.9795
[2.4801]**
3.1129
[1.1181]
22.3819
[1.6136]
-37.0832
[-3.7167]*
0.8104
[15.0586]*
Negeri
Sembilan

t-1
-0.0024
[-0.1358]
-0.0093
[-0.4779]
0.0504
[2.4406]**
0.0279
[1.3032]
-0.0039
[-2.9156]*
G
t-1
0.0024
[0.0144]
0.2207
[1.1912]
0.1941
[0.9880]
-0.2144
[-1.0541]
-0.0007
[-0.0526]
Y
t-1
0.5031
[3.0232]*
0.0653
[0.3594]
0.6338
[3.2893]*
0.2546
[1.2763]
0.0218
[1.7365]***
HC
t-1
-0.2509
[-1.6129]
-0.3071
[-1.8083]***
-0.1388
[-0.7707]
0.3232
[1.7330]***
0.0066
[0.5599]
IF
t-1
0.0592
[0.3437]
0.0603
[0.3206]
8.20E-05
[0.0004]
-0.2360
[-1.1439]
-0.0042
[-0.3253]
POP
t-1
1.2586
[0.4395]
2.9273
[0.9364]
9.2939
[2.8031]*
3.4036
[0.9916]
0.0844
[0.3913]
(sambungan)
140
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Negeri Pemboleh
ubah bebas
G Y HC IF POP
Kedah

t-1
0.5630
[2.3281]**
0.2661
[1.6048]
0.1435
[0.6511]
-1.0809
[-4.5633]*
-0.0120
[-0.7291]
G
t-1
-0.3522
[-1.5074]
-0.1018
[-0.6356]
-0.4155
[-1.9517]***
-0.1438
[-0.6281]
0.0322
[2.0165]***
Y
t-1
0.6303
[2.3619]**
0.2676
[1.4627]
0.5097
[2.0964]**
-0.1283
[-0.4908]
0.0459
[2.5219]**
HC
t-1
0.5349
[2.4236]**
0.1785
[1.1794]
0.0197
[0.0978]
-0.3746
[-1.7330]***
-0.0160
[-1.0626]
IF
t-1
-0.5465
[-1.7198]***
-0.1134
[-0.5203]
-0.3836
[-1.3249]
0.3351
[1.0768]
4.17E-06
[0.0002]
POP
t-1
0.3896
[0.2359]
2.6902
[2.3758]**
3.5465
[2.3572]**
0.8652
[0.5349]
0.6265
[5.5567]*
Kelantan

t-1
0.2719
[0.8114]
0.2394
[1.4622]
-0.0739
[-0.2122]
-1.5712
[-4.3793]*
-0.0086
[-1.1336]
G
t-1
-0.4601
[-1.8255]***
0.0829
[0.6739]
0.1314
[0.5012]
0.5188
[1.9223]***
0.0070
[1.2299]
Y
t-1
-0.0621
[-0.1968]
-0.0239
[-0.1554]
-0.2161
[-0.6582]
0.3399
[1.0061]
0.0204
[2.8421]*
HC
t-1
0.0060
[0.0412]
0.0718
[1.0058]
-0.7654
[-5.0339]*
0.0579
[0.3700]
-0.0113
[-3.4005]*
IF
t-1
-0.5219
[-2.1971]**
-0.2219
[-1.9122]***
0.1058
[0.4281]
0.6098
[2.3976]**
0.0089
[1.6663]
POP
t-1
5.7764
[2.2156]**
3.4145
[2.6803]**
5.1826
[1.9104]***
-7.2319
[-2.5906]**
0.8879
[14.9814]*
Terengganu

t-1
0.01131
[2.0879]**
0.0043
[0.8442]
-0.0044
[-0.2936]
-0.0257
[-5.2213]*
0.0006
[1.7925]***
G
t-1
0.2506
[1.1435]
-0.2931
[-1.6616]
0.3544
[0.6781]
0.5313
[3.1004]*
-0.0099
[-0.8815]
Y
t-1
0.1825
[0.8126]
0.0893
[0.4938]
0.3425
[0.6393]
0.0891
[0.5072]
0.0289
[2.5042]**
HC
t-1
0.0381
[0.3415]
0.1884
[2.0981]**
-0.0417
[-0.1566]
-0.3716
[-4.2589]*
0.0029
[0.5134]
IF
t-1
0.0499
[0.2669]
-0.0013
[-0.0089]
-0.0096
[-0.0215]
0.1891
[1.2939]
0.0023
[0.2400]
POP
t-1
0.8067
[0.3977]
3.5157
[2.1535]**
1.5124
[0.3126]
1.9303
[1.2168]
0.7416
[7.1179]*
Pahang

t-1
-0.1422
[-1.9082]***
0.0423
[1.7284]***
0.0420
[1.6502]
0.2268
[2.6521]**
0.0147
[2.9505]*
G
t-1
-0.4431
[-1.5224]
-0.3328
[-3.4819]*
-0.0031
[-0.0314]
0.0948
[0.2838]
-0.0206
[-1.0597]
Y
t-1
-0.0814
[-0.1219]
0.0868
[0.3956]
-0.1324
[-0.5804]
0.5820
[0.7597]
-0.0232
[-0.5199]
HC
t-1
1.1472
[1.8204]***
0.3798
[1.8349]***
-0.2345
[-1.0895]
-1.3627
[-1.8849]***
0.0386
[0.9167]
IF
t-1
-0.0679
[-0.2779]
-0.2829
[-3.5219]*
-0.0526
[-0.6297]
-0.2939
[-1.0475]
-0.0023
[-0.1426]
POP
t-1
8.6059
[2.1784]**
0.6972
[0.5374]
-0.8426
[-0.6244]
-12.1603
[-2.6829]**
0.2767
[1.0478]
(sambungan)
141
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Negeri Pemboleh
ubah bebas
G Y HC IF POP
Johor

t-1
-0.0631
[-1.6878]***
-0.0237
[-1.0776]
-0.0301
[-1.3896]
-0.0803
[-2.1304]**
-0.0018
[-2.4901]**
G
t-1
0.0256
[0.1663]
-0.0644
[-0.7118]
-0.0675
[-0.7563]
-0.2102
[-1.3541]
0.0086
[2.9489]*
Y
t-1
-0.1238
[-0.3475]
-0.0633
[-0.3025]
-0.1177
[-0.5702]
-0.8059
[-2.2462]**
0.0066
[0.9744]
HC
t-1
0.8444
[2.6796]**
-0.2065
[-1.1158]
-0.0412
[-0.2257]
-0.1219
[-0.3840]
0.0016
[0.2623]
IF
t-1
-0.0951
[-0.4484]
0.1677
[1.3464]
-0.1745
[-1.4199]
-0.5722
[-2.6786]**
-0.0014
[-0.3439]
POP
t-1
-23.3889
[-1.7387]***
-4.3499
[-0.5508]
-8.3700
[-1.0740]
-26.9217
[-1.9871]***
0.2498
[0.9758]
Melaka

t-1
0.2095
[3.5554]*
0.0500
[2.2798]**
0.0519
[2.2345]**
-0.1373
[-2.0838]**
0.0116
[2.9959]*
G
t-1
-0.6611
[-1.6175]
0.2255
[1.4812]
-0.1801
[-1.1163]
0.3979
[0.8707]
-0.0440
[-1.6445]
Y
t-1
-1.0723
[-2.0157]**
-0.0727
[-0.3668]
0.0338
[0.1609]
1.0109
[1.6993]***
-0.0184
[-0.5273]
HC
t-1
-0.1019
[-0.2435]
-0.1752
[-1.1245]
-0.1195
[-0.7240]
0.0460
[0.0984]
0.0115
[0.4206]
IF
t-1
-0.5524
[-1.4218]
0.1593
[1.1005]
-0.1285
[-0.8382]
0.1281
[0.2948]
-0.0324
[-1.2714]
POP
t-1
-7.7366
[-2.4274]**
0.3699
[0.3116]
0.4308
[0.3425]
6.5666
[1.8423]***
0.0103
[0.0494]
Perak

t-1
0.0037
[0.2610]
0.0265
[2.5543]**
0.0341
[6.3477]*
-0.0127
[-1.0255]
0.0023
[1.1407]
G
t-1
0.0940
[0.4062]
0.3366
[1.9598]***
0.2972
[1.9221]***
-0.3017
[-1.4728]
-0.0912
[-2.7247]*
Y
t-1
0.2442
[0.7512]
-0.2629
[-1.0903]
-0.1999
[-0.9207]
0.4348
[1.5115]
0.0583
[1.2402]
HC
t-1
0.0695
[0.3375]
-0.3363
[-2.2019]**
-0.0446
[-0.3247]
-0.0301
[-0.1652]
0.0759
[2.5517]**
IF
t-1
0.3755
[1.6211]
0.3246
[1.8884]***
0.4350
[2.8113]*
-0.5266
[-2.5684]**
-0.0493
[-1.4706]
POP
t-1
0.0788
[0.0739]
0.4321
[0.5466]
-0.4488
[-0.6306]
1.1531
[1.2228]
0.1128
[0.7315]
Pulau
Pinang

t-1
-0.3278
[-4.2067]*
0.0372
[0.9216]
0.0194
[0.3684]
0.3753
[4.6149]*
-0.0015
[-0.9331]
G
t-1
-0.7261
[-1.6324]
-0.0122
[-0.0529]
-0.4185
[-1.3941]
0.3022
[0.6509]
-0.0090
[-1.0074]
Y
t-1
-0.9378
[-2.2385]**
0.0608
[0.2799]
0.5132
[1.8151]***
1.4340
[3.2799]*
-0.0055
[-0.6486]
HC
t-1
-0.1267
[-0.3998]
0.0164
[0.0999]
-0.0019
[-0.0088]
0.2286
[0.6911]
0.0016
[0.2483]
IF
t-1
-0.4806
[-1.2669]
0.0171
[0.0868]
-0.2369
[-0.9252]
0.0736
[0.1859]
-0.0089
[-1.1623]
POP
t-1
-2.5289
[-0.2843]
-0.7093
[-0.1538]
-3.1927
[-0.5318]
4.4280
[0.4769]
0.2669
[1.4919]
142
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Nota. Model ini dijana dengan pintasan. Lat optimum adalah satu yang ditentukan
menerusi kaedah Akaike Info Criterion (AIC) dan sama seperti dalam ujian kointegrasi
Johansen. Nilai dalam [ ] merujuk kepada statistik-t. *signikan pada aras keertian 1%.
**signikan pada aras keertian 5%. ***signikan pada aras keertian 10%.

Walaupun begitu, keputusan di Kedah mencerminkan belanja
awam dan imbangan skal mempunyai hubungan dua hala dan
turut dipengaruh oleh pemboleh ubah lain dalam jangka panjang.
Manakala, dalam jangka pendek, terbukti hasil cukai dan belanja
awam saling mempengaruhi. Keputusan ini sama seperti hubungan
dua hala antara populasi dan output negeri. Namun, belanja awam
juga terpengaruh dengan perubahan output dan imbangan skal.
Selain itu, hasil cukai dominan terpengaruh oleh output dan populasi,
imbangan skal pula dipengaruh hasil cukai dan belanja awam
mempengaruhi perubahan populasi. Bagi kes Kelantan pula, dapatan
menunjukkan belanja awam, output negeri, hasil cukai dan populasi
merupakan penyebab Granger jangka panjang kepada imbangan
skal. Tetapi dalam jangka pendek, wujud tiga bentuk hubungan
dua hala, iaitu antara imbangan skal dan belanja awam, populasi
dan output, serta populasi dan hasil cukai. Dalam masa yang sama,
belanja awam turut dipengaruh populasi, imbangan skal memberi
kesan kepada output dan populasi pula mempengaruhi perubahan
imbangan skal.
Analisis keputusan terhadap Terengganu pula mendapati belanja
awam, imbangan skal dan populasi mempunyai hubungan dua hala
jangka panjang. Sebaliknya, hanya populasi dan output sahaja yang
berhubungan dua hala dalam jangka pendek. Manakala hasil cukai
dilihat menjadi penyebab Granger jangka pendek kepada output
dan imbangan skal. Begitu juga dengan belanja awam yang turut
menjadi penerang kepada perubahan imbangan skal. Seterusnya
bagi Pahang, wujud hubungan dua hala antara belanja awam, output,
imbangan skal dan populasi dalam jangka panjang. Ini bererti wujud
hipotesis Wagner serta Keynes di Pahang dalam jangka panjang.
Namun, keputusan dalam jangka pendek hanya dapat membuktikan
kewujudan hubungan sehala antara pemboleh ubah; belanja awam
dipengaruh oleh hasil cukai dan populasi, output negeri terpengaruh
oleh perubahan belanja awam, hasil cukai dan imbangan skal,
serta hasil cukai dan populasi adalah penyebab Granger kepada
imbangan skal.
143
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Seperti keputusan di Terengganu sebelum ini, analisis bagi Johor
juga menunjukkan belanja awam, imbangan skal dan populasi
mempunyai hubungan dua hala dalam jangka panjang tetapi
hanya belanja awam dan populasi berhubungan dua hala dalam
jangka pendek. Hasil cukai juga didapati menjadi penyebab Granger
jangka pendek kepada belanja awam, sedangkan perubahan
imbangan skal dipengaruh oleh perubahan dalam output negeri
dan populasi. Namun, dapatan bagi Melaka pula unik apabila
kesemua pemboleh ubah saling mempengaruhi dalam jangka
panjang yang secara tidak langsung menunjukkan wujud hipotesis
Wagner dan Keynes di negeri ini dalam jangka panjang. Sebaliknya,
hanya output dan populasi menjadi penyebab Granger jangka
pendek kepada belanja awam dan imbangan skal. Di Perak pula,
output dan hasil cukai mempunyai hubungan dua hala dalam
jangka panjang. Manakala dalam jangka pendek, belanja
awam, hasil cukai dan imbangan skal mempengaruhi output,
sebaliknya, hasil cukai hanya dipengaruh oleh belanja awam
dan imbangan skal. Di samping itu, belanja awam dan hasil
cukai juga menjadi penyebab Granger jangka pendek kepada
populasi. Seterusnya, bagi kes Pulau Pinang, dalam jangka panjang
wujud hubungan dua hala antara belanja awam dan imbangan
skal, sedangkan dalam jangka pendek, hanya output signikan
mempengaruhi belanja awam, hasil cukai dan imbangan skal.
Secara keseluruhannya, keputusan ujian penyebab Granger versi
VECM adalah lebih stabil di Melaka dan Pahang memandangkan
hampir kesemua pemboleh ubah saling mempengaruhi dalam
jangka panjang.
Di Selangor, oleh kerana tidak wujud hubungan jangka panjang
(kointegrasi) dalam kalangan pemboleh ubah, maka ujian
sebab-menyebab perlulah dilakukan tanpa memasukkan pemboleh
ubah pembetulan ralat tertangguh (eror correction term) dalam model
VAR. Jadual 4 meringkaskan keputusan ujian sebab-menyebab
di Selangor, yang mana ia menunjukkan populasi signikan
mempengaruhi belanja awam dan hasil cukai, manakala hasil
cukai menjadi penyebab Granger jangka pendek kepada imbangan
skal.
144
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Jadual 4
Keputusan Ujian VAR Negeri Selangor
Negeri Pemboleh
ubah bebas
G Y HC IF POP
Selangor G
t-1
0.0204
[0.1052]
0.2805
[0.7339]
-0.4578
[-1.6687]
-0.3691
[-1.5981]
0.0216
[0.3454]
Y
t-1
0.0136
[0.1526]
-0.1752
[-0.9955]
0.0848
[0.6713]
0.0307
[0.2885]
0.0120
[0.4166]
HC
t-1
0.1008
[0.7473]
-0.0758
[-0.2849]
-0.0883
[-0.4628]
0.3885
[2.4182]*
0.0075
[0.1724]
IF
t-1
0.1584
[1.1491]
0.1013
[0.3730]
0.2298
[1.1787]
-0.3255
[-1.9828]*
0.0481
[1.0801]
POP
t-1
-1.2245
[-1.7819]*
0.7058
[0.5212]
-1.9585
[-2.0147]*
0.0702
[0.0858]
0.1214
[0.5469]
C 0.1129
[2.6062]*
-0.0012
[-0.0145]
0.1824
[2.9766]*
-0.0128
[-0.2475]
0.0237
[1.6978]*
R
2
R
2
terselaras
Statistik-F
0.1439
0.0058
1.0418
0.0478
-0.1058
0.3110
0.3556
0.2516
3.4207
0.3802
0.2802
3.8030
0.0517
-0.1013
0.3379
Nota. Nilai dalam [ ] merujuk kepada statistik-t. *signikan pada aras keertian 5%. Lat
optimum bagi ujian ini adalah satu yang dijana menerusi kaedah Akaike Info Criterion
(AIC).
Kesimpulan
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji hubungan antara pemboleh
ubah perbelanjaan kerajaan dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi dengan
menggunakan data pada peringkat kerajaan negeri di Semenanjung
Malaysia. Ujian kointegrasi Johansen diaplikasikan untuk melihat
hubungan jangka panjang dalam kalangan pemboleh ubah, manakala
ujian model vektor pembetulan ralat (VECM) pula digunakan untuk
melihat arah sebab-menyebab dalam jangka panjang dan jangka
pendek.
Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat beberapa bentuk hubungan
antara output dengan belanja awam dalam jangka panjang dan
jangka pendek. Pertama, tidak wujud hubungan jangka panjang
antara output negeri dengan belanja awam di Selangor. Kedua, di
Pahang dan Melaka wujud hubungan dua hala dalam jangka panjang
145
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
antara output negeri dan belanja awam. Dapatan ini mengesahkan
hipotesis Wagner dan Keynes di kedua-dua negeri tersebut. Ketiga,
dalam jangka pendek, wujud hipotesis Wagner di Negeri Sembilan,
Kedah, Melaka dan Pulau Pinang. Manakala, hipotesis Keynes berjaya
disahkan di Pahang dan Perak dalam jangka pendek. Keputusan yang
pelbagai ini disebabkan oleh dasar pengurusan serta pembangunan
yang berbeza antara negeri yang menyebabkan peruntukan terhadap
perbelanjaan awam yang berbeza.
Selain itu, keputusan kajian yang menunjukkan pertumbuhan
ekonomi kurang dipengaruh oleh perbelanjaan awam di kebanyakan
kerajaan negeri memberikan dua implikasi penting kepada strategi
pembangunan ekonomi negeri. Pertama, kerajaan negeri perlulah
menggalakkan penglibatan yang aktif daripada sektor swasta, yakni
daripada peniaga kecil hinggalah kepada konglomerat ternama
untuk memacu pertumbuhan ekonomi negeri. Strategi pertumbuhan
ekonomi diterajui oleh sektor swasta (private sector led growth) boleh
dilakukan oleh pihak kerajaan negeri dengan menyediakan keperluan
prasarana yang lebih baik dan moden, di samping insentif skal dan
kewangan yang lebih kompetitif untuk menarik pelaburan domestik
dan asing. Kedua, cerapan terhadap komponen belanja awam negeri
menunjukkan bahawa kerajaan negeri membuat perbelanjaan yang
lebih besar terhadap perbelanjaan mengurus berbanding dengan
perbelanjaan pembangunan. Seperti yang diketahui umum, belanja
mengurus adalah merupakan belanja yang kurang produktif, lantas
ia tidak mampu merangsang pertumbuhan ekonomi negeri dalam
jangka panjang. Maka, untuk meningkatkan kesienan komponen
perbelanjaan awam yang berbeza terhadap output, maka pembuat
dasar pada peringkat kerajaan negeri perlukan peka kepada kitaran
perniagaan sebelum membuat keputusan perbelanjaan. Percaturan
terhadap komponen belanja awam yang bijak ini sudah pasti akan
dapat mengurangkan lagi desit dan hutang skal, serta membantu
mengukuhkan lagi kewangan skal kerajaan negeri. Seperkara
lagi berkaitan dengan pengukuhan skal, disebabkan dapatan
kajian ini membuktikan HC juga mempengaruhi peruntukan belanja
awam, output dan imbangan skal, maka setiap kerajaan negeri
harus berusaha mengurangkan jurang di antara tax eort dengan
tax capacity menerusi pengurangan jumlah cukai tertunggak
tahunan. Secara langsung, apabila kerajaan negeri cekap dalam
kutipan hasil cukai dan hasil bukan cukai, maka kerajaan negeri
tidak lagi perlu terlalu bergantung kepada bantuan (geran) daripada
kerajaan pusat serta mengelak daripada berlakunya penangguhan
projek pembangunan negeri akibat kekurangan dana pembiayaan.
146
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Rujukan
Akitoby, B., Clements, B., Gupta, S., & Inchauste, G. (2006). Public
spending, voracity, and Wagners Law in developing countries.
European Journal of Political Economy, 22(4), 908924.
Al-Faris, A. F. (2002). Public expenditure and economic growth in
the gulf cooperation council countries. Applied Economics, 34,
11871193.
Aschauer, D. A. (1989). Is public expenditure productive? Journal of
Monetary Economics, 23, 117200.
Barro, R. J. (1981). Output eects of government purchases. Journal of
Political Economy, 89, 10861121.
Barro, R. J. (1987). Government spending, interest rates, prices and
budget decits in the United Kingdom 17011918. Journal of
Monetary Economics, 20, 221247.
Barro, R. J. (1990). Government spending in a simple model of
endogenous growth. Journal of Political Economy, 98, 103125.
Barro, R. J. (1991). Economic growth in a cross-section of countries.
Quarterly Jounal of Economics, 106, 407444.
Dayang-A zzah, A. M., Habibullah, M. S., & Azman-Saini, W. N.
W. (2006). Expenditures and revenues: Testing for causality in
Sabah local government nances. International Journal of
Economics and Management, 1(1), 123.
De Mello, L. R. J. (2002). Public nance, government spending and
economic growth: The case of local governments in Brazil.
Applied Economics, 34, 18711883.
Devarajan, S., Swaroop, V., & Zou, H. (1996). The composition of
public expenditure and economic growth. Journal of Monetary
Economics, 37, 313344.
Evans, P., & Karras, G. (1994). Are government activities productive?
Evidence from a panel of US states. Review of Economics and
Statistics, 76, 111.
Fatimah, S., Zarinah, Y., Saad, M. S., & Ahmad Farid, O. (2010).
Foreign investment, government expenditure, and economic
growth in Malaysia. International Journal of Management Studies,
17(1), 118.
Folster, S., & Henrekson, M. (2001). Growth eects of government
expenditure and taxation in rich countries. European Economic
Review, 45, 15011520.
Ghani, J. A., Habibullah, M. S., Azali, M., & Azman-Saini, W.N.W.
(2005). Is Wagner or Keynes right? Testing the government
expenditure and economic growth nexus in Malaysia. The
ICFAI Journal of Public Finance, 3(4), 3542.
147
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Glass, A. (2009). Government expenditure on public order and
safety, economic growth and private investment: Empirical
evidence from the United States. International Review of Law and
Economics, 29, 2937.
Granger, C. W. J. (1969). Investigating causal relations by econometric
models and cross-spectral methods. Econometrica, July, 424438.
Grossman, G. M., & Helpman, E. (1991). Innovation and growth in the
global economy. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Habibullah, M. S., & Dayang-A zzah, A. M. (2008). The tax-spend
debate: Time series evidence from Sarawak municipals, 1975-
2003. The ICFAI Journal of Public Finance, 6(1), 5265.
Henrekson, M. (1993). Wagners Law: A spurious relationship. Public
Finance, 48(3), 406415.
Johansen, S., & Juselius, K. (1990). Maximum likelihood estimation
and inferences on cointegration with application to the demand
for money. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 52, 169210.
Kolluri, B. R., Panik, M. J., & Wahab, M. S. (2000). Government
expenditure and economic growth: Evidence from G7 countries.
Applied Economics, 32, 10591068.
Matos, E., & Rocha, F. (2008). Inequality and size of government:
Evidence from Brazilian states. Journal of Economic Studies,
35(4), 333351.
Norain, M. A., Md Zyadi, M. T., & Wook, E. (2010). Komposisi
perbelanjaan kerajaan dan pertumbuhan ekonomi: Kajian
empirikal di Malaysia. Jurnal Kemanusiaan, 15, 2345.
Osterwald-Lenum, M. (1992). A note with quantiles of the asymptotic
distribution of the maximum likelihood cointegration rank test
statistics. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 54, 461471.
Rao, V. V. B. (1989). Government size and economic growth: A new
framework and some evidence from cross-section and time-series
data: Comment. The American Economic Review, 79(1), 272280.
Raurich, X. (2001). Indeterminacy and government spending in a
two-sector model of endogenous growth. Review of Economic
Dynamics, 4, 210229.
Said, S. E., & Dickey, D. A. (1984). Testing for unit roots in
autoregressive moving average models of unknown order.
Biometrika, 71, 599607.
Sinha, D. (1998). Government expenditure and economic growth in
Malaysia. Journal of Economic Development, 23(2), 7180.
Tanzi, V., & Zee, H. H. (1996). Fiscal policy and long-run growth. IMF
Working Paper No. WP/96/119.
Wagner, R. E. (1958). Three extracts on public nance. In. R. A.
Musgrave & Peacock, A. T (Eds.), Classics in the theory of public
nance. London: Macmillan.
148
IJMS 19 (2), 123148 (2012)
Wahab, M. (2004). Economic growth and government expenditure:
Evidence from a new test specication. Applied Economics, 36,
21252135.
Wahab, M. (2010). Asymmetric output growth eects of government
spending: Cross-sectional and panel data evidence. International
Review of Economics and Finance, 24(4), 574 590.
.
149
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
HUBUNGAN DINAMIK ANTARA PASARAN
SAHAM DENGAN KADAR PERTUKARAN:
BUKTI EMPIRIKAL DI ASEAN-3
DYNAMIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STOCK
MARKET AND EXCHANGE RATE: EMPIRICAL
EVIDENCE IN ASEAN-3
ABU HASSAN SHAARI MOHD NOR
MORI KOGID
TAMAT SARMIDI
Fakulti Ekonomi dan Pengurusan
Abstrak
Tujuan utama kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan hubungan antara
pasaran saham dengan kadar pertukaran di negara ASEAN terpilih iaitu
Malaysia, Thailand dan Filipina. Dengan menggunakan data bulanan
bermula Januari 1994 hingga September 2011, hasil ujian Johansen dengan
perubahan struktur menunjukkan wujud hubungan kointegrasi antara
pasaran saham dengan kadar pertukaran bagi kes Malaysia dan Filipina
sahaja. Walau bagaimanapun, hasil ujian penyebab Granger jangka pendek
berdasarkan pendekatan dinamik VECM dan Toda-Yamamoto menunjukkan
wujud hubungan penyebab dua hala antara pasaran saham dengan kadar
pertukaran bagi kes Malaysia dan Thailand dengan darjah hubungan
penyebab Granger yang kuat daripada kadar pertukaran kepada pasaran
saham di Malaysia. Sebaliknya tiada hubungan penyebab dapat dikesan
bagi kes Filipina. Dua hasil penting daripada kajian ini adalah: (1) Kajian
ini mencadangkan bahawa krisis kewangan Asia dan krisis ekonomi global
memberikan kesan yang berbeza terhadap hubungan dinamik antara pasaran
saham dengan kadar pertukaran di tiga negara yang dikaji; (2) Implikasi
dasar ekonomi berkaitan hubungan antara pasaran saham dengan kadar
pertukaran adalah bersifat khusus kepada sesebuah negara.
Kata Kunci: SP, REER, kointegrasi, Penyebab Granger, perubahan
struktur.
150
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Abstract
Purpose The main aim of this paper is to study the relationship between
stock markets and exchange rates in selected ASEAN countries namely
Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines. In addition to looking at the long-
run cointegration relationship between stock market and exchange rate, this
study tries to examine the causality patern of short-run relationship in the
three countries.
Design/methodology/approach The study uses monthly data covering
the period from January 1994 to September 2011. Several techniques are used
including ADF, PP, and SL unit root tests, long-run Johansen cointegration
test with structural breaks, vector error correction model (VECM) and Toda-
Yamamoto approaches for short-run Granger causality test.
Findings The study indicates a cointegrating relationship between stock
market and exchange rate for the case of Malaysia and the Philippines.
The short-run Granger causality test showed two way causal relationship
between stock market and exchange rate in Malaysia and Thailand, but none
in the Philippines. The study suggests that the Asian nancial crisis and
global economic crisis give dierent impacts on the dynamic relationship
between stock markets and exchange rates in the three countries studied.
Thus, the economic policy implications of the said relationships are specic
to a country.
Originality/value This study examines the relationship between the stock
market and the exchange rate, the negative impact of the economic crises
(structural breaks) and related policy implications for investors and policy
makers in particular and the country in general.
Keywords: SP, REER, cointegration, Granger Causality, structural breaks.
Paper type: Research Paper.
Pengenalan
Pasaran kewangan memainkan peranan penting sebagai saluran
transmisi informasi kewangan antara satu pasaran dengan pasaran
lain sama ada di sebuah negara, kawasan serantau mahupun
seluruh dunia. Tambahan pula, aktiviti liberalisasi dan globalisasi
kewangan dipercayai meningkatkan lagi darjah integrasi antara satu
pasaran dengan pasaran lain secara meluas tanpa sempadan. Ekoran
kecenderungan darjah peningkatan integrasi antara pasaran-pasaran
151
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
kewangan sejak kebelakangan ini, keperluan untuk mengkaji dan
memantau perjalanan serta gelagat pasaran ini sudah semestinya
diberikan keutamaan kerana hubung kait ini boleh memberikan
implikasi dasar bukan sahaja kepada para pelabur tetapi juga kepada
penggubal dasar sesebuah negara. Pasaran saham dan mata wang
misalnya dilihat semakin mendapat tumpuan sejak berlakunya krisis
kewangan Asia pada tahun 1997 dan sekali lagi selepas krisis ekonomi
global 2008 dengan kejatuhan teruk dalam pasaran saham dan mata
wang yang akhirnya membawa kepada kelembapan ekonomi Asia
khususnya di negara atau pasaran baru muncul (EMs) (Diamandis &
Drakos, 2011).
Menurut Solnik dan McLeavey (2009, hlm. 145), EMs berbeza dengan
negara maju. Ekonomi EMs biasanya tidak pelbagai dan sangat
bergantung pada pelaburan asing. Justeru, kejatuhan dalam nilai mata
wang EMs selalunya memberikan tanda-tanda awal bahawa negara
terbabit sedang berhadapan dengan masalah. Solnik dan McLeavey
(2009, hlm. 145) menyifatkan EMs sebagai telah ditakdirkan
mempunyai pasaran mata wang dan saham yang sangat berkait rapat
dengan keadaan ekonomi dan politik di negara terbabit. Hubung
kait ini adalah positif dan sangat kuat. Oleh sebab itu, para pelabur
biasanya akan menerima kesan negatif berganda akibat daripada
kejatuhan mata wang EMs. Para pelabur bukan sahaja kehilangan
aset yang ditukar dalam mata wang domestik, tetapi juga kerugian
kerana kejatuhan nilai mata wang domestik di pasaran saham EMs.
Di samping melihat hubungan kointegrasi jangka panjang antara
pasaran saham dengan pertukaran asing, kajian ini cuba mengkaji
corak hubungan jangka pendek di tiga negara ASEAN iaitu Malaysia,
Thailand dan Filipina dengan menggunakan data siri masa bulanan
bermula Januari 1994 hingga September 2011. Untuk mencapai
objektif kajian, beberapa teknik pengujian digunakan termasuklah
ujian punca unit ADF, PP dan SL, ujian kointegrasi Johansen dengan
perubahan struktur, Vektor Model Pembetulan Ralat (VECM)
dan pendekatan Toda-Yamamoto untuk ujian penyebab Granger
jangka pendek. Berbanding kebanyakan kajian lepas, kelebihan dan
kekuatan kajian ini adalah mengambil kira kemungkinan kehadiran
perubahan struktur yang signikan dalam data siri masa khususnya
yang disebabkan oleh krisis kewangan Asia 1997 dan krisis kewangan
global 2008.
Dalam menjelaskan hubungan antara pasaran saham dengan
pertukaran asing, terdapat beberapa teori yang berkaitan dan sering
diguna pakai. Dua daripadanya adalah berdasarkan pendekatan
152
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
aliran (ow) dan stok (stock). Menurut pendekatan aliran, perubahan
dalam kadar pertukaran akan memberikan kesan ke atas daya saing
antarabangsa dan imbangan dagangan. Kenaikan dalam kadar
pertukaran melalui kejatuhan dalam nilai mata wang domestik
akan menguatkan lagi daya saing rma-rma domestik disebabkan
eksport menjadi lebih murah berbanding import. Sebaliknya
eksport menjadi lebih mahal jika berlaku kejatuhan dalam kadar
pertukaran iaitu melalui kenaikan dalam nilai mata wang domestik.
Justeru, pendekatan ini mencadangkan satu bentuk hubungan
positif antara kedua-dua pasaran ini di mana kadar pertukaran
adalah penyebab kepada pasaran saham. Sementara pendekatan
stok pula merujuk kepada kepelbagaian portfolio antarabangsa
apabila kadar pertukaran dinamik berfungsi dalam mengimbangi
permintaan dan penawaran terhadap aset-aset kewangan domestik
dan asing. Menurut pendekatan ini, apabila harga ekuiti domestik
meningkat, peningkatan ini akan menyebabkan kejatuhan dalam
kadar pertukaran iaitu melalui kenaikan dalam nilai mata wang
domestik. Hal ini disebabkan peningkatan permintaan terhadap
wang domestik untuk membeli ekuiti domestik. Justeru, pendekatan
ini mencadangkan satu bentuk hubungan negatif antara kedua-dua
pasaran ini di mana pasaran saham adalah penyebab kepada pasaran
kadar pertukaran (Yau & Nieh, 2009; Zhao, 2010).
Struktur kajian ini dibahagikan kepada lima bahagian. Bahagian
kedua membincangkan kajian lepas tentang pasaran saham dan kadar
pertukaran. Bahagian ketiga membincangkan tentang metodologi
dan data. Bahagian keempat tentang dapatan kajian dan bahagian
kelima ialah kesimpulan dan menutup perbincangan.
Kajian Lepas
Sebelum berlakunya krisis kewangan Asia pada tahun 1997, terdapat
sejumlah kajian yang melihat hubungan antara pasaran saham
dengan kadar pertukaran sama ada secara langsung ataupun tidak
langsung. Hal ini adalah kerana kedua-dua pasaran ini dipercayai
mempunyai hubung kait yang rapat antara satu sama lain (antaranya
Biger, 1979; Aggarwal, 1981; Solnik, 1987; Senoen & Hennigar, 1988;
Ma & Kao, 1990; Jorion, 1990, 1991; Bailey & Chung, 1995; Abdalla &
Murinde, 1997; Chow, Lee & Solt, 1997).
Kewujudan krisis kewangan Asia pada pertengahan 1997 terbukti
telah mengukuhkan lagi tanggapan bahawa kedua-dua pasaran
saham dan kadar pertukaran saling berhubung kait. Sebagai contoh,
153
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
melihat senario pasaran Malaysia ketika krisis kewangan Asia
berlaku, nilai mata wang ringgit Malaysia telah jatuh sebanyak 37.40
peratus dalam tempoh bermula 1 Julai hingga 30 September 1997.
Pada tempoh yang sama, pasaran saham Malaysia juga telah jatuh
sebanyak 31.37 peratus. Situasi yang sama juga berlaku di kebanyakan
pasaran kewangan Asia yang lain (Baharumshah, Masih & Azali,
2002). Krisis ini yang juga dikenali sebagai demam Asia (Granger,
Huang & Yang, 2000) telah menyebabkan kedua-dua pasaran saham
dengan kadar pertukaran menjadi semakin penting untuk dikaji.
Antara isu menarik yang semakin mendapat perhatian ialah corak
hubungan penyebab antara pasaran saham dengan kadar pertukaran.
Misalnya, menurut Granger, Huang dan Yang (2000), kewujudan
krisis kewangan Asia 1997 telah menimbulkan dilema persoalan
tentang siapakah penyebab kepada kejatuhan dalam pasaran
saham dan kadar pertukaran. Adakah pasaran saham penyebab
kepada kejatuhan dalam pasaran kadar pertukaran atau sebaliknya?
Sementara daripada perspektif keuntungan, jika hubungan dinamik
antara kedua-dua pasaran ini dapat ditentukan secara statistik,
dipercayai peluang untuk mendapatkan untung daripada aktiviti
arbitraj boleh diperoleh terutama sekali ketika berlaku krisis
kewangan yang teruk (Granger et al., 2000).
Antara kalangan penyelidik yang percaya bahawa krisis kewangan
Asia 1997 cenderung mencerminkan hubung kait yang rapat antara
pasaran ekuiti dan pasaran kadar pertukaran termasuklah Granger
et al. (2000) dan Baharumshah et al. (2002). Tambahan lagi, krisis
ekonomi juga dipercayai boleh mengubah corak hubungan antara
pasaran saham dan kadar pertukaran (Pan, Fok & Liu, 2007).
Selain itu, pengetahuan tentang hubungan penyebab dan darjah
integrasi antara kedua-dua pasaran ini juga boleh memberikan
maklumat yang penting kepada para pelabur antarabangsa, syarikat-
syarikat multinasional dan para pembuat dasar (Ajayi, Friedman &
Mehdian, 1998). Walau bagaimanapun, Hatemi-J dan Roca (2005)
dalam kajian mereka mencadangkan bahawa pelabur-pelabur di
pasaran saham tidak boleh menggunakan pasaran pertukaran asing
sebagai strategi lindung nilai yang berkesan untuk pelaburan mereka
dan begitu juga sebaliknya para pelabur di pasaran pertukaran asing
tidak boleh menggunakan pasaran saham sebagai strategi lindung
nilai pelaburan mereka di sepanjang tempoh krisis. Sementara itu,
para pembuat dasar yang cuba memanipulasikan kadar pertukaran
untuk menaikkan pasaran saham dalam tempoh krisis juga dilihat
sebagai pilihan yang kurang bijak.
154
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Berdasarkan sejumlah kajian lepas tentang hubungan antara pasaran
saham dengan kadar pertukaran, hasil keputusan yang diperoleh
adalah bercampur-campur. Kajian oleh Wu (2001) misalnya
mendapati bahawa kadar pertukaran dolar Singapura berbanding
mata wang negara-negara maju berhubung kait secara negatif dengan
pasaran saham Singapura dalam kedua-dua tempoh sebelum dan
semasa krisis kewangan Asia 19971998. Sementara kadar pertukaran
berbanding ringgit Malaysia berhubung kait secara positif dengan
pasaran saham Singapura.
Kajian di negara Pasik Basin pula menunjukkan pasaran saham
dan kadar pertukaran berhubungan secara positif di mana pasaran
saham Amerika Syarikat (AS) dilihat bertindak sebagai saluran yang
signikan kepada hubung kait ini. Dengan menggunakan aplikasi
penganggaran rekursif, bukti empirikal menunjukkan bahawa krisis
kewangan mempunyai kesan yang sementara ke atas pergerakan
bersama dalam jangka panjang bagi pasaran-pasaran ini (Phylaktis
& Ravazzolo, 2005). Kajian Ma dan Kao (1990) pula mencadangkan,
bagi negara yang berorientasikan eksport, kenaikan nilai mata wang
memberikan kesan negatif ke atas pasaran saham, sementara kenaikan
nilai mata wang meningkatkan pasaran saham bagi negara yang
berorientasikan import. Hal ini adalah kerana kenaikan nilai mata
wang bukan sahaja menjadikan eksport tidak kompetitif, tetapi juga
menjejaskan pengeluaran dan harga saham. Sebaliknya, kenaikan
nilai mata wang akan menyebabkan kos import menjadi lebih murah
yang seterusnya menggalakkan pengeluaran dan peningkatan harga
saham (Sarmidi & Mohd Nor, 2001).
Kajian di negara Asia terpilih menunjukkan bahawa kadar pertukaran
adalah penyebab kepada harga saham bagi kes Korea Selatan.
Sementara harga saham adalah penyebab kepada kadar pertukaran
dengan korelasi negatif di Filipina (Granger et al., 2000). Sebaliknya,
kajian oleh Azman-Saini, Dayang-Azzah, Law dan Habibullah
(2007a) di Filipina menunjukkan wujud hubungan penyebab dua
hala antara pasaran saham dan kadar pertukaran. Bagi kes di Hong
Kong, Malaysia, Singapura, Thailand dan Taiwan pula, hasil kajian
menyokong kedua-dua hubungan dua hala yang kuat antara harga
saham dan kadar pertukaran (Granger et al., 2000; Azman-Saini,
Habibullah & Azali, 2003a; 2003b; Azman-Saini, Habibullah, Law &
Dayang-Azzah, 2007b). Walau bagaimanapun, hasil kajian gagal
membuktikan sebarang bentuk hubungan penyebab antara harga
saham dengan kadar pertukaran bagi kes Jepun dan Indonesia
(Granger et al., 2000). Menurut Wu (2000), kedua-dua mata wang
155
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Singapura yang mengalami peningkatan berbanding dolar AS dan
ringgit Malaysia; dan mengalami penurunan berbanding yen Jepun
dan rupiah Indonesia telah menyebabkan peningkatan harga saham
dalam kebanyakan tempoh tertentu dalam tahun-tahun 1990an.
Namun, bagi kes yang berkaitan dengan AS, kadar pertukaran dolar
mempunyai tanda kebalikan antara tempoh krisis 19971998 dan
tempoh pemulihan 19992000. Pengaruh kadar pertukaran ke atas
harga saham pula dilihat semakin meningkat mengikut kronologi
dalam tahun-tahun 1990an.
Kajian lain (Hatemi-J & Roca, 2005) menunjukkan bahawa dalam
tempoh sebelum krisis Asia, kadar pertukaran dan harga saham
berhubungan secara signikan yang kadar pertukaran adalah
penyebab kepada harga saham bagi kes Indonesia dan Thailand,
sementara harga saham adalah penyebab kepada kadar pertukaran
bagi kes Malaysia. Sebaliknya, hasil kajian oleh Pan et al. (2007)
menunjukkan wujud hubungan penyebab yang signikan daripada
kadar pertukaran kepada harga saham bagi kes Hong Kong,
Jepun, Malaysia dan Thailand sebelum krisis kewangan Asia
1997. Hasil kajian ini oleh Hatemi-J dan Roca (2005) dan Pan et
al. (2007) bertentangan dengan hasil kajian oleh Azman-Saini et
al. (2003a; 2007b) bagi kes Malaysia dan Thailand apabila wujud
hubungan penyebab dua hala antara pasaran saham dengan kadar
pertukaran pada tempoh sebelum krisis. Kajian Pan et al. (2007) juga
menunjukkan hubungan penyebab daripada pasaran ekuiti kepada
pasaran pertukaran asing wujud bagi kes Hong Kong, Korea dan
Singapura. Selain itu, wujud hubungan penyebab daripada kadar
pertukaran kepada harga saham di Malaysia dan Thailand (Azman-
Saini et al., 2003a; 2007b) dan di semua negara kecuali Malaysia (Pan
et al., 2007) pada masa krisis Asia. Sebaliknya, tiada negara yang
menunjukkan hubungan penyebab yang signikan daripada harga
saham kepada kadar pertukaran. Kajian oleh Broome dan Morley
(2004) menunjukkan bahawa harga saham domestik, harga saham
Hong Kong dan terutama sekali harga saham AS adalah indikator
utama kepada krisis. Hasil kajian mereka juga menunjukkan wujud
hubungan penyebab dua hala antara pasaran saham dengan pasaran
pertukaran asing.
Tidak dinakan bahawa kewujudan krisis kewangan Asia 1997
telah membawa kepada peningkatan secara drastik kajian ke atas
pasaran saham dan kadar pertukaran. Peningkatan ketara dalam
kajian berkaitan juga berlaku selepas krisis kewangan global pada
tahun 2008 (Diamandis & Drakos, 2011). Hal ini memberi gambaran
156
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
bahawa kajian tentang hubungan antara kedua-dua pasaran ini
sangat penting memandangkan kemusnahan besar yang boleh
diakibatkan oleh pasaran-pasaran ini ke atas ekonomi sesebuah
negara terutama apabila berlaku sesuatu krisis ekonomi atau krisis
kewangan yang tidak dijangka. Kesan yang lebih teruk dapat dirasai
jika kedua-dua pasaran ini saling berhubung kait kerana kombinasi
secara bersama boleh memberikan impak yang sangat besar ke atas
ekonomi sesebuah negara seperti Malaysia. Tambahan lagi, menurut
Pan et al. (2007), krisis ekonomi seperti krisis kewangan Asia
1997 mungkin boleh mengubah hubungan semula jadi dan corak
pergerakan bersama antara harga saham dengan kadar pertukaran.
Hal ini kerana bermula awal Julai 1997 sehingga satu atau dua tahun
berikutnya, beberapa negara Asia Timur telah mengalami kejatuhan
yang besar dalam mata wang mereka sebagaimana kejatuhan yang
teruk dalam pasaran saham. Kejatuhan nilai mata wang dan harga
saham semasa krisis telah membuktikan bahawa kadar pertukaran
dan harga saham cenderung untuk bergerak bersama walaupun
hubungan penyebab tidak jelas sama ada daripada kadar pertukaran
kepada harga saham atau sebaliknya.
Metodologi dan Data
Tidak seperti kebanyakan kajian lepas, kajian ini turut mengambil
kira kesan kewujudan perubahan struktur dalam analisis kepegunan
dan kointegrasi. Ujian punca unit secara konvensional seperti ADF
dan PP dikritik kerana kegagalan dalam mengambil kira perubahan
struktur. Menurut Perron (1989), kegagalan dalam mengambil kira
kesan perubahan struktur dalam ujian punca unit akan menyebabkan
hasil keputusan yang bias iaitu mengurangkan keupayaan dalam
menolak hipotesis nol punca unit yang salah (lihat juga Glynn, Perera
& Verma, 2007; Byrne & Perman, 2007). Umumnya, terdapat dua
kelebihan prosedur pengujian punca unit dengan mengambil kira
perubahan struktur; (1) mencegah daripada mendapat hasil keputusan
ujian yang bias; dan (2) dapat memberikan maklumat penting dalam
analisis sama ada perubahan struktur yang berlaku dalam pemboleh
ubah tertentu adalah berkaitan dengan antara lain, pelaksanaan
dasar ekonomi oleh kerajaan, krisis ekonomi, peperangan, peralihan
rejim dan sebagainya (Glynn et al., 2007). Walau bagaimanapun,
pembangunan pengujian punca unit dengan perubahan struktur
telah menimbulkan persoalan bagaimana perubahan struktur ini
boleh diambil kira dalam memodelkan hubungan kointegrasi antara
pemboleh ubah dalam kajian. Justeru, persoalan ini telah membawa
kepada pembentukkan kaedah kointegrasi dengan mengambil
kira perubahan struktur. Antaranya, Gregory dan Hansen (1996),
157
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Saikkonen dan Lutkepohl (2000) dan juga Johansen, Mosconi
dan Nielsen (2000). Namun. analisis kointegrasi dalam kajian ini
mengguna pakai pendekatan Johansen et al. (2000).
Untuk menentukan kepegunan dan peringkat integrasi data siri
pemboleh ubah, kajian ini menggunakan ujian-ujian punca unit
berdasarkan Dickey-Fuller tambahan, ADF (Dickey & Fuller, 1979;
1981), Phillips-Perron, PP (Phillips & Perron, 1988) dan ujian punca
unit dengan perubahan struktur oleh Saikkonen-Lutkepohl, SL
(Saikkonen & Lutkepohl, 2002; Lanne, Lutkepohl & Saikkonen, 2002;
2003).
Ujian punca unit SL ke atas data siri masa y
t
dapat ditunjukkan seperti
berikut:
(1)
Ralat x
t
diperoleh melalui proses AR(p)yang mewakili o(L)(1-L)x
t
= u
t
di mana o(L) = 1-o
1
L- ...- o
p-1
L
p-1
dan u
t
~iid(0,o
2
). Parameter adalah
- 1 < 1 dan = 1 menunjukkan proses punca unit. Dalam bentuk
pembezaan pertama, persamaan (1) boleh ditulis sebagai
(2)
di mana v
t
= o(L)
-1

u
t
.

Sementara fungsi peralihan di mana tarikh
peralihan, T
E
diwakili oleh dami peralihan,

d
t

ditakrifan seperti
berikut:
(3)
Panjang lat yang optimum dipilih berdasarkan kriteria maklumat
Schwarz (SIC). Sementara taburan nilai kritikal bagi ujian ini adalah
berdasarkan Lanne et al. (2002).
Sementara analisis kointegrasi dalam kajian ini pula adalah
berdasarkan prosedur ujian trace kointegrasi Johansen dengan
mengambil kira perubahan struktur (Johansen et al., 2000). Prosedur
pengujian kointegrasi dalam kes ini hampir sama dengan prosedur
pengujian kointegrasi oleh Saikkonen dan Lutkepohl (lihat Saikkonen
& Lutkepohl, 2000; Trenkler, 2002; Lutkepohl, Saikkonen & Trenkler,
2003; Lutkepohl, 2004). Proses penjanaan data (DGP) bagi Y
t
secara
ringkasnya dapat ditunjukkan seperti berikut:

158
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
(4)
di mana dami peralihan,

mempunyai takrifan yang sama seperti
dalam ujian punca unitberdasarkan SL dalam persamaan (3). Oleh
itu, tarikh perubahan struktur adalah berdasarkan tarikh yang dipilih
dalam ujian SL. Pendekatan kointegrasi Johansen dengan perubahan
struktur ini juga boleh ditulis dalam bentuk VECM seperti berikut:
(5)
di mana
Selain itu, ujian penyebab Granger dan analisis hubungan jangka
pendek dalam kajian ini adalah berdasarkan kepada rangka
kerja vektor autoregresi (VAR). Bagi kes di mana

dan

adalah
pemboleh ubah pegun I(0), persamaan (6) dan (7) tanpa pemboleh
ubah pembetulan ralat boleh dianggarkan dengan menggunakan
kaedah kuasa dua terkecil (OLS) dalam bentuk peringkat aras.
Bagaimanapun, jika dan adalah pemboleh ubah yang tidak pegun,
I(1) dan tidak berkointegrasi, model VAR seperti persamaan (6) dan
(7) tanpa pemboleh ubah pembetulan ralat dalam bentuk peringkat
pembezaan pertama boleh digunakan. Sementara persamaan (6)
dan (7) berdasarkan rangka kerja VECM untuk analisis jangka
pendek dan jangka panjang boleh digunakan bagi kes di mana dan
adalah I(1) dan berkointegrasi.
(6)
(7)
di mana EC
t-1
ialah pemboleh ubah pembetulan ralat atau vektor
kointegrasi yang diperoleh daripada ujian kointegrasi. x
t
ialah
penyebab Granger kepada jika semua a
2i
dalam persamaan (6) adalah
signikan tanpa mengambil kira |
1i
dalam persamaan (7). Sebaliknya
adalah penyebab Granger kepada jika semua dalam persamaan (7)
adalah signikan tanpa mengambil kira a
2i
dalam persamaan (6).
Sementara hubungan penyebab dua hala wujud antara dan jika
semua a
2i
dan |
1i
adalah signikan. Parameter a
3
dan |
3
adalah
merujuk kepada koesien pembetulan ralat atau kelajuan pelarasan
dan juga koesien penyebab jangka panjang.
Ujian penyebab Granger yang telah diubah suai dan dianggap lebih
berkuasa tinggi telah dibangunkan oleh Toda dan Yamamoto (1995)
untuk mengatasi masalah berhubung dengan taburan nilai kritikal
dan
dan .

159
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
asimptotik yang tidak sah apabila ujian penyebab dijalankan ke
atas data siri masa yang tidak pegun. Menurut Toda dan Yamamoto
(TY), pendekatan TY pada dasarnya melibatkan penganggaran
ke atas model VAR (k+d
max
) di mana k adalah panjang lat yang
optimum dalam sistem VAR yang asal dan d
max
adalah peringkat
integrasi yang maksimum bagi pemboleh ubah dalam sistem VAR.
Pendekatan TY menggunakan statistik ujian Wald diubah suai
(MWald) untuk kekangan sifar ke atas parameter dalam model VAR
(k). Baki parameter autoregresif dengan lat, d
max
diandaikan sifar dan
dibiarkan dalam model VAR (k+d
max
). Ujian ini mempunyai taburan
khi-kuasa dua asimptotik dengan k darjah kebebasan yang terhad
apabila model VAR (k+d
max
) dianggarkan. Pendekatan TY dalam
bentuk bivariat boleh ditulis seperti berikut:
(8)
(9)
di mana a dan | adalah parameter tidak diketahui, k adalah panjang
lat optimum dan d
max
adalah peringkat integrasi yang maksimum bagi
pemboleh ubah dalam sistem. Selain itu, u dan

v adalah ralat rawak
dan diandaikan sebagai gangguan putih (white noise). Panjang lat, k
pada awalnya dipilih berdasarkan SIC. Bagaimanapun, panjang lat, k
kemudiannya ditambah dengan lebih banyak lat bergantung kepada
peringkat integrasi yang mungkin, d
max
bagi siri pemboleh ubah

dan

Ujian kesignikanan dilakukan ke atas pemboleh ubah dalam sistem
VAR hanya sehingga lat k tidak termasuk tambahan lat,

d
max
dalam
menentukan hubungan penyebab antara dan

dalam sistem VAR.
Untuk tujuan analisis, kajian ini menggunakan data bulanan bermula
Januari 1994 hingga September 2011. Indeks harga saham (SP) sebagai
proksi kepada pasaran saham dan kadar pertukaran efektif benar
(REER) sebagai proksi kepada kadar pertukaran bagi setiap negara
iaitu (MSP, MREER) Malaysia, (TSP, TREER) Thailand dan (FSP,
FREER) Filipina diperoleh daripada Thomson datastream. Kedua-dua
SP dan REER adalah dalam bentuk logaritma.
Dapatan Kajian
Rajah 1 menunjukkan corak trend indeks harga saham dan kadar
pertukaran efektif benar di Malaysia (MSP, MREER), Thailand (TSP,
TREER) dan Filipina (FSP, FREER) bagi tempoh Januari 1994 hingga

160
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
September 2011. Secara umum berlaku turun naik yang agak ketara
dalam kedua-dua siri pemboleh ubah di semua negara terlibat.
Krisis kewangan Asia 1997-1998 juga memberikan kesan yang agak
signikan ke atas kedua-dua siri pemboleh ubah khususnya di
Malaysia dan Thailand tetapi kurang signikan bagi kes Filipina.
Sementara krisis kewangan global 2008 tidak begitu memberikan
kesan yang signikan ke atas REER tetapi memberikan kesan ke atas
SP di semua negara terlibat. Jika dibandingkan dengan Malaysia dan
Thailand, terdapat perbezaan trend dalam kedua-dua SP dan REER
yang agak ketara dalam kes Filipina. Ringkasnya, rajah tersebut
memberikan gambaran umum bahawa kemungkinan berlaku
perubahan struktur dalam kedua-dua data siri masa di semua negara
terlibat dalam tempoh masa kajian.
Rajah 1. Indeks harga saham dan kadar pertukaran efektif benar.
5.6
6.0
6.4
6.8
7.2
7.6
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10
LOG(MSP)
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10
LOG(MREER)
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10
LOG(TSP)
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10
LOG(TREER)
5
6
7
8
9
10
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10
LOG(FSP)
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.1
94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10
LOG(FREER)
161
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Hasil ujian punca unit berdasarkan ADF dan PP menunjukkan
kesemua siri pemboleh ubah tidak pegun pada peringkat aras, I(0)
tetapi pegun pada peringkat pembezaan pertama, I(1). Keputusan ini
adalah konsisten bagi Malaysia, Thailand dan Filipina (lihat Jadual 1
dan Jadual 2). Sementara ujian punca unit berdasarkan SL (Jadual 3)
dengan perubahan struktur menunjukkan hipotesis nol proses punca
unit dengan perubahan struktur tidak dapat ditolak dalam semua
kes kecuali REER dalam kes Thailand. Hal ini memberi gambaran
bahawa krisis kewangan Asia 1997 mungkin memberikan kesan yang
signikan ke atas kadar pertukaran Thailand. Hasil keputusan ujian
SL juga menunjukkan bahawa Februari 1998 dan Ogos 1998 masing-
masing merupakan tarikh perubahan struktur bagi REER dan SP
dalam kes Malaysia. Sementara Julai 1997 dan Oktober 2008 masing-
masing merupakan tarikh perubahan struktur bagi REER dan SP
dalam kes Thailand dan Januari 1998 dan Mei 2009 masing-masing
merupakan tarikh perubahan struktur bagi REER dan SP dalam kes
Filipina.
Jadual 1
Ujian Punca Unit Dickey-Fuller Tambahan
Negara Pemboleh
ubah
Aras Beza Pertama
Pemalar Pemalar &
Trend
Pemalar Pemalar &
Trend
Malaysia
SP -1.9189(1) -2.5030(1) -12.3653**(0) -12.3866**(0)
REER -1.8699(0) -1.7097(0) -13.1054**(0) -13.0977**(0)
Thailand
SP -1.8739(0) -1.8091(0) -13.7460**(0) -13.8561**(0)
REER -2.4733(1) -2.3385(1) -11.8582*(0) -11.8725**(0)
Filipina
SP -1.1625(1) -1.9462(1) -17.5196**(0) -17.5178**(0)
REER -1.5635(1) -1.4442(1) -11.2558**(0) -11.2575**(0)
Nota.
** dan * adalah signikan pada 1% dan 5%. Angka dalam ( ) adalah panjang lat yang
dipilih berdasarkan Kriteria Maklumat Schwarz (SIC).
Dengan mengambil kira kehadiran perubahan struktur dalam data
siri masa yang mungkin mempengaruhi hubungan antara pasaran
saham dengan kadar pertukaran, analisis kointegrasi diteruskan
dengan menggunakan ujian kointegrasi Johansen yang mengambil
kira perubahan struktur. Hasil keputusan ujian ditunjukkan dalam
Jadual 4. Dalam analisis ini, tarikh perubahan struktur dalam
memodelkan hubungan antara pasaran saham dengan kadar
162
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
pertukaran bagi setiap negara dipilih berdasarkan ujian SL ke
atas reja yang diperoleh dengan menggunakan kaedah kuasa dua
terkecil (OLS) ke atas persamaan SP = f(REER). Ujian kointegrasi
Johansen dengan perubahan struktur membenarkan sehingga dua
tarikh perubahan struktur dalam menganalisis hubungan jangka
panjang (kointegrasi) antara pemboleh ubah dalam kajian. Hasil
ujian menunjukkan bahawa wujud hubungan kointegrasi (dengan
kemungkinan perubahan struktur) antara SP dan REER dalam kes
Malaysia dan Filipina tetapi tiada kointegrasi dapat dikesan dalam
kes Thailand.
Jadual 2
Ujian Punca Unit Phillips-Perron
Negara
Pemboleh
Ubah
Aras Beza Pertama
Pemalar
Pemalar &
Trend
Pemalar
Pemalar &
Trend
Malaysia
SP -1.8861(3) -2.4351(3) -12.3086**(7) -12.3131**(8)
REER -1.9874(5) -1.9741(6) -13.1375**(5) -13.1248**(5)
Thailand
SP -1.9496(3) -1.8285(1) -13.7433**(1) -13.8545**(1)
REER -2.2764(1) -1.9166(0) -11.8183**(6) -11.8196**(6)
Filipina
SP -1.3397(1) -2.0543(2) -17.5405**(1) -17.5178**(0)
REER -1.4403(3) -1.3014(3) -11.2556**(0) -11.2575**(0)
Nota.
** adalah signikan pada 1%. Angka dalam ( ) adalah bandwidth berdasarkan Newey-
West menggunakan Bartlet Kernel.
Jadual 3
Ujian Punca Unit Saikkonen-Lutkepohl
N egara Pemboleh Ubah Pemalar Pemalar & Trend
Malaysia
SP -1.7332(1)[8/1998] -2.5591(1)[8/1998]
REER -1.5595(0)[2/1998] -1.0877(0)[2/1998]
Thailand
SP -1.3008(0)[10/2008] -1.1483(0)[10/2008]
REER -3.4377*(1)[7/1997] -3.8466**(1)[7/1997]
Filipina
SP 0.1258(1)[5/2009] -1.2821(1)[5/2009]
REER -1.8498(1)[1/1998] -1.8567(1)[1/1998]
Nota.
** dan * adalah signikan pada 1% dan 5%. Angka dalam ( ) dan [ ] adalah panjang lat
berdasarkan Kriteria Maklumat Schwarz (SIC) dan tarik perubahan struktur.
163
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
J adual 4
Ujian Kointegrasi Johansen dengan Perubahan Struktur
Negara Y = f(X) T
B
H
0
: r = r
0
Statistik Trace Lat
Malaysia SP = f(REER) 8/1997; 8/1998
r = 0
r 1
61.25**
12.37
1
Thailand SP = f(REER) 7/1997
r = 0
r 1
14.27
3.37
2
Filipina
SP = f(REER) 8/1997; 6/2005
r = 0
r 1
33.29*
12.79
1
SP = f(REER) 8/1997; 5/2009
r = 0
r 1
14.39
3.29
2
Nota.
** dan * adalah signikan pada 1% dan 5%. T
B
= tarikh perubahan struktur.
Bagi kes Thailand dan Filipina tanpa hubungan kointegrasi (lihat
Jadual 4), analisis hubungan dinamik antara pasaran saham dengan
kadar pertukaran diteruskan dengan menggunakan pendekatan VAR
(Jadual 5).
Jadual 5
Vektor Autoregresif (VAR)
Negara Hipotesis Nol, H
0
VAR(k)
2
Thailand
REER =/> SP
SP =/> REER
8
26.8122**
41.6478**
Filipina
REER =/> SP
SP =/> REER
1
1.7760
1.1401
Nota.
** adalah signikan pada 1%. =/> menunjukkan bukan penyebab Granger.
Sementara VECM digunakan untuk analisis hubungan jangka pendek
dan jangka panjang bagi kes Malaysia dan Filipina (wujud kointegrasi)
seperti dalam Jadual 6. Hasil keputusan ujian menunjukkan bahawa
hubungan penyebab Granger jangka pendek dua hala antara SP
dengan REER wujud dalam kes Thailand tetapi tiada hubungan
penyebab Granger dapat dikesan antara SP dengan REER di Filipina
dalam kedua-dua kes berkointegrasi dan tidak berkointegrasi (lihat
Jadual 4, Jadual 5 dan Jadual 6).
164
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Sementara hubungan penyebab jangka pendek dua hala antara SP
dengan REER juga dapat dikesan dalam kes Malaysia (Jadual 6). Pada
masa yang sama, hubungan penyebab jangka panjang daripada REER
kepada SP juga wujud dalam kes Malaysia. Sekali gus menunjukkan
hubungan penyebab Granger yang kuat daripada REER kepada SP
di Malaysia. Sementara ketidakseimbangan antara REER dengan
SP dalam jangka panjang diperbetulkan pada kadar yang sangat
perlahan iaitu 3.3% setiap bulan (ditunjukkan oleh nilai EC yang
signikan dalam Jadual 6). Hasil keputusan ujian dinamik penyebab
Granger jangka pendek antara SP dan REER berdasarkan VAR
dan VECM juga disokong dan konsisten dengan hasil keputusan
ujian penyebab Granger berdasarkan pendekatan Toda-Yamamoto
(Jadual 7).
Jadual 6
Vektor Model Pembetulan Ralat (VECM)
Negara Hipotesis Nol, H
0
VAR(k)
2
EC
Malaysia
REER =/> SP
SP =/> REER
7
35.3980**
35.8064**
-0.0334*
-0.0038
Filipina
REER =/> SP
SP =/> REER
1
1.7768
0.6619
0.0013
0.0020
Nota.
** dan * adalah signikan pada 1% dan 5%. =/> menunjukkan bukan penyebab
Granger. EC = koesien pembetulan ralat.
Jadual 7
Ujian Penyebab Toda-Yamamoto
Negara Hipotesis, H
0
VAR(k) k + d
max

2
Malaysia
REER =/> SP
SP =/> REER
9 10
33.8872**
31.6607**
Thailand
REER =/> SP
SP =/> REER
12 13
33.9176**
45.1104**
Filipina
REER =/> SP
SP =/> REER
2 3
2.2596
2.7348
Nota.
** adalah signikan pada 1%. =/> menunjukkan bukan penyebab Granger.
165
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Selain itu, beberapa siri ujian diagnostik telah dijalankan untuk
memastikan model sesuai dan mencukupi di samping untuk
memutihkan ralat. Walau bagaimanapun, sebagaimana sifat
kebiasaan dalam kebanyakan data siri masa kewangan berfrekuensi
tinggi, hasil ujian diagnostik menunjukkan bahawa dalam kebanyakan
ujian, andaian-andaian normal, homokedastisiti dan tiada korelasi
bersiri tidak dipenuhi.
Kesimpulan
Berdasarkan sejumlah kajian lepas, pasaran saham dan pertukaran
asing dilihat mempunyai darjah integrasi dan korelasi yang kuat
dan signikan khususnya di pasaran-pasaran baru muncul (EMs).
Pandangan ini disokong oleh antara lain Granger et al. (2000),
Baharumshah et al. (2002), Solnik dan McLeavey (2009) dan
Diamandis dan Drakos (2011). Selain itu, darjah korelasi hubungan
antara kedua-dua pasaran ini juga dilihat semakin meningkat pada
tempoh ketika berlaku krisis kewangan khususnya krisis kewangan
Asia 1997 dan global 2008 bukan sahaja di negara maju tetapi juga di
negara baru muncul.
Sebagaimana dalam kajian kami, hasil ujian dengan mengambil kira
perubahan struktur menunjukkan wujud hubungan kointegrasi
antara pasaran saham dan kadar pertukaran bagi kes Malaysia dan
Filipina. Sementara hasil ujian penyebab Granger jangka pendek
berdasarkan pendekatan dinamik VECM dan Toda-Yamamoto
menunjukkan wujud hubungan penyebab Granger dua hala antara
pasaran saham dengan kadar pertukaran hanya dalam kes Malaysia
dan Thailand dan sekali gus menyokong hasil kajian terdahulu oleh
Azman-Saini et al. (2003a; 2003b; 2007b). Walau bagaimanapun,
kajian di Filipina menghasilkan dapatan yang berbeza di mana
kajian oleh Azman-Saini et al. (2007a) mendapati wujud hubungan
penyebab dua hala antara pasaran saham dengan kadar pertukaran
yang mana bercanggah dengan hasil dapatan dalam kajian kami iaitu
tiada hubungan penyebab dapat dikesan bagi kes Filipina. Justeru,
kajian kami mencadangkan bahawa krisis kewangan Asia dan krisis
ekonomi global mungkin memberikan kesan yang berbeza terhadap
hubungan dinamik antara pasaran saham dengan kadar pertukaran
di tiga negara yang dikaji. Tambahan lagi, implikasi dasar ekonomi
berkaitan hubungan antara pasaran saham dan kadar pertukaran
adalah bersifat khusus kepada sesebuah negara.
166
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Walau pun kebanyakan kajian lepas sebagaimana dalam kajian
ini memodelkan hubungan antara pasaran saham dengan kadar
pertukaran secara langsung dalam bentuk bivariat, kajian-kajian
berkaitan pada masa akan datang mungkin perlu mengambil kira
saranan daripada kajian lepas iaitu pemboleh ubah lain selain
harga saham dan kadar pertukaran boleh dipertimbangkan dalam
memodelkan hubungan antara kedua-dua pasaran ini dalam bentuk
multivariat kerana dipercayai boleh memberikan hasil keputusan
yang lebih baik memandangkan terdapat pemboleh ubah lain yang
mungkin mempengaruhi pasaran saham dan kadar pertukaran.
Selain itu, kajian yang mengambil kira sifat asimetrik dan tak linear
juga boleh dipertimbangkan dalam memodelkan hubungan antara
pasaran saham dengan kadar pertukaran.
Rujukan
Abdalla, I. S. A., & Murinde, V. (1997). Exchange rate and stock
prices interactions in emerging nancial markets: Evidence on
India, Korea, Pakistan and the Philippines. Applied Financial
Economics, 7, 2535.
Aggarwal, R. (1981). Exchange rates and stock prices. A study of U.S.
capital markets under oating exchange rates. Akron Business
and Economic Review, 12(2), 712.
Ajayi, R. A., Friedman, J., & Mehdian, S. M. (1998). On the relationship
between stock returns and exchange rates: Tests of Granger
causality. Global Finance Journal, 9(2), 241251.
Azman-Saini, W. N. W., Dayang-Azzah, A. M., Law, S. H., &
Habibullah, M. S. (2007a). Stock prices and exchange rates
interaction: The case of the Philippines. ICFAI Journal of Applied
Economics, 6(3), 716.
Azman-Saini, W. N. W., Habibullah, M. S., & Azali, M. (2003a). Stock
prices and exchange rates dynamics: The case of the Thailand.
Savings and Development, 3, 245258.
Azman-Saini, W. N. W., Habibullah, M. S., & Azali, M. (2003b). Stock
price and exchange rate interactions in an emerging market.
RISEC: International Review of Economics and Business, 50(3),
311324.
Azman-Saini, W. N. W., Habibullah, M. S., Law, S. H., & Dayang-
Azzah, A. M. (2007b). Stock prices, exchange rates and
causality in Malaysia: A note. ICFAI Journal of Financial
Economics, 5(1), 713.
167
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Baharumshah, A. Z., Masih, A. M. M., & Azali, M. (2002). The stock
market and the ringgit exchange rate: A note. Japan and the
World Economy, 14, 471486.
Bailey, W., & Chung, Y. P. (1995). Exchange rate uctuations, political
risk, and stock returns: Some evidence from an emerging
market. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 30(4),
541561.
Biger, N. (1979). Exchange rate implications of international portfolio
diversication. Journal of International Business Studies, 10(2),
6474.
Broome, S., & Morley, B. (2004). Stock prices as a leading indicator
of the East Asian nancial crisis. Journal of Asian Economics, 15,
1637.
Byrne, J. P., & Perman, R. (2007). Unit roots and structural breaks: A
survey of the literature. In B. B. Rao (Ed.), Cointegration for the
Applied Economist. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Chow, E. H., Lee, W. Y., & Solt, M. E. (1997). The exchange-rate risk
exposure of asset returns. Journal of Business, 70(1), 105123.
Diamandis, P. F., & Drakos, A. A. (2011). Financial liberalization,
exchange rates and stock prices: Exogenous shocks in four
Latin America countries. Journal of Policy Modeling, 33, 381394.
Dickey, D. A., & Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the estimation
for autoregressive time series with a unit root. Journal of the
American Association, 74, 427431.
Dickey, D. A., & Fuller, W. A. (1981). Likelihood ratio statistics for
autoregressive time series with a unit root. Econometrica, 49,
10571072.
Glynn, J., Perera, N., & Verma, R. (2007). Unit root tests and
structural breaks: A survey with application. Revista de
Metodos Cuantitativos para la Economia y la Empresa = Journal of
Quantitative Methods for Economics and Business Administration,
3(1), 6379.
Granger, C. W. J., Huang, B.-N., & Yang, C.-W. (2000). A bivariate
causality between stock prices and exchange rates: Evidence
from recent Asian u. The Quarterly Review of Economics and
Finance, 40, 337354.
Gregory. A. W., & Hansen, B. E. (1996). Residual-based tests
for cointegration in models with regime shifts. Journal of
Econometrics, 70, 99126.
Hatemi-J., & Roca, E. (2005). Exchange rates and stock prices
interaction during good and bad times. Evidence from the
ASEAN4 countries. Applied Financial Economics, 15(8), 539546.
168
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Johansen, S., Mosconi, R., & Nielsen, B. (2000). Cointegration analysis
in the presence of structural breaks in the deterministic trend.
Econometrics Journal, 3, 216249.
Jorion, P. (1990). The rxchange-rate exposure of U.S. multinationals.
Journal of Business, 63(3), 331345.
Jorion, P. (1991). The pricing of exchange rate risk in the stock market.
Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, 26(3), 363376.
Lanne, M., Lutkepohl, H., & Saikkonen, P. (2002). Comparison of unit
root tests for time series with level shifts. Journal of Time Series
Analysis, 23(6), 667685.
Lanne, M., Lutkepohl, H., & Saikkonen, P. (2003). Test procedures
for unit roots in time series with level shifts at unknown time.
Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 65(1), 91115.
Lutkepohl, H. (2004). Univariate time series analysis. In H. Lutkepohl
& M. Kratig (Eds.), Applied Time Series Econometrics. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Lutkepohl, H., Saikkonen, P., & Trenkler, C. (2003). Comparison
of tests for the cointegrating rank of a VAR process with a
structural shift. Journal of Econometrics, 13, 201229.
Ma, C. K., & Kao, G. W. (1990). On exchange rate changes and stock
price reactions. Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 17(2),
441449.
Pan, M.-S., Fok, R. C.-W. & Liu, Y. A. (2007). Dynamic linkages
between exchange rates and stock prices: Evidence from East
Asian markets. International Review of Economics and Finance, 16,
503520.
Perron, P. (1989). The great crash, the oil price shock and the unit root
hypothesis. Econometrica, 57, 13611401.
Phillips, P. C. B., & Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a unit root in times
series regression. Biometrica, 75, 335446.
Phylaktis, K., & Ravazzolo, F. (2005). Stock prices and exchange
rate dynamic. Journal of International Money and Finance, 24,
10311051.
Saikkonen, P., & Lutkepohl, H. (2000). Testing for the cointegrating
rank of a VAR process with a structural shift. Journal of Business
and Economic Statistics, 18, 451464.
Saikkonen, P., & Lutkepohl, H. (2002). Testing for a unit root in a time
series with a level shift at unknown time. Econometric Theory,
18, 313348.
Sarmidi, T., & Mohd Nor, A. H. S. (2001). Keberkesanan dasar kadar
pertukaran tetap dalam mengkesampingkan faktor luar di
BSKL. Jurnal Pengurusan, 20, 4767.
169
IJMS 19 (2), 149169 (2012)
Seonen, L. A., & Hennigar, E. S. (1988). An analysis of exchange rates
and stock prices: The U.S. experience between 1980 and 1986.
Akron Business and Economic Review, 19(4), 7176.
Solnik, B., & McLeavey, D. (2009). Global investments (6th ed.). Boston:
Pearson-Prentice Hall.
Solnik, B. (1987). Using nancial prices to test exchange rate models:
A note. Journal of Finance, 42(1), 141149.
Toda, H. Y., & Yamamoto, T. (1995). Statistical inference in vector
autoregressions with possibly integrated processes. Journal of
Econometrics, 66, 225250.
Trenkler, C. (2002). Testing for the Cointegrating Rank in the Presence of
Level Shifts. Aachen: Shaker Verlag.
Wu, Y. (2000). Stock prices and exchange rates in a VEC model: The
case of Singapore in the 1990s. Journal of Economics and Finance,
24(3), 260274.
Wu, Y. (2001). Exchange rates, stock prices, and money markets:
Evidence from Singapore. Journal of Asian Economics, 12, 445458.
Yau, H.-Y., & Nieh, C.-C. (2009). Testing for cointegration with
threshold eect between stock prices and exchange rates in
Japan and Taiwan. Japan and the World Economy, 21, 292300.
Zhao, H. (2010). Dynamic relationship between exchange rate and
stock price: Evidence from China. Research in International
Business and Finance, 24, 103112.
NOTES TO CONTRIBUTORS
MANUSCRIPTS
Manuscripts should be writen as accurately as possible and should
be typed in double-spacing on one side of an A4 size paper with
margins of at least 25mm. Each manuscript should not exceed 25
pages. Two copies of the paper should be submited together with a
CD containing the le in MSWord compatible to IBM or Macintosh
machines. Authors should identify the software in the cover leter
when submiting manuscripts.
Since manuscripts are reviewed anonymously, the authors name
and a liation should be supplied only on a cover sheet and
authors should avoid any identifying text references. The title of the
manuscript should appear on the cover sheet at the top of the rst
page. Manuscripts will be reviewed by a panel of referees. Comments
will be made available to contributors without disclosing the referees
names.
COVER LETTER
Manuscripts should be accompanied by a cover leter stating that
the material has not been published, and not under consideration for
publication elsewhere.
ABSTRACT
The abstract should be brief, self-contained and explicit, and should
not exceed 200 words. Contributor who submits a manuscript in
Bahasa Melayu is required to submit an extended abstract in English
not exceeding 300 words.
REFERENCES
References should be carefully checked. The references are to be cited
in the text in the author-date format (APA style e.g. Armstrong &
Overton, 1977; Salma & Mohd. Makzan,1996). A reference list only
of works cited, should be provided at the end of the text arranged in
alphabetical order. Examples of the format for journals and books are
as follows:
Armstrong, J. S., & Overton, T. S. (1977). Estimating non-response
bias in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing Research, 14, 396402.
Salma Ishak., & Mohd. Makzan Musa. (1996). Atitudes of police
personnel towards their job. ANALISIS, 4 (1), 1331.
Kimberly, J. R., Norling, F., & Weiss, J. A. (1983). Pondering the
performance puzzle. In R. H., Hall & R. E., Quinn (Eds.),
Organizational theory and public policy (249264). Beverly Hills:
Sage.
Van Horne, J. C. (1992). Financial management and policy. Englewood
Clis, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
END NOTES
Footnotes should not be used. Endnotes should be used instead.
ABBREVIATION
Full names of agencies should be used in the rst citation in any article.
Accepted abbreviations or acronyms may be used for subsequent
citations.
TABLES
Tables should be numbered with Arabic numerals. Title and column
headings should be brief.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Photographs, if any, should be large, clear, glossy prints, showing
high-contrast.
CONTRIBUTORS
Contributors must provide their full names, fax numbers and full
addresses. A contributor will receive a complimentary copy of the
issues in which his/her article appeared and 10 o-prints.
SUBMISSION OF MANUSCRIPTS
Manuscripts and enquires should be directed to:
Chief Editor
International Journal of Management Studies
UUM Press
06010 UUM Sintok
Kedah, Malaysia

Sharing Information

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Sharing Information

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

ISSN 2232-1608 Vol. 19 No.

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi