Science Notes Managing the Planet

Environment is made up of: BIOTIC refers to all the living things present in an ecosystem. E.g. trees, fungi, birds, insects etc. ABIOTIC refers to all the non-living factors. Human Impact Urbanization Introduce new species Farming Removal of species Mining Loss of habitat for animals, natural habitat loss adds to greenhouse effect, more people, less space Loss of native animals, competition for food, can be pests Salinity, plants cant keep up with water, use of pesticides/other chemicals Affects food chain/webs, loss of other species Air pollution excess waste comes out landslides earths surface loose movement, salinity

Mining and the Environment Some forms of mining can leave large holes in the ground and removing vegetation. Damage to an ecosystem can threaten the habitats of animals and plants, pollute water and air and leave piles of waste soil. Rehabilitation seeds are collected and grown until they are mature enough to be replanted in the holes left from earlier mines. Air/water quality

Environment Biotic Abiotic Ecosystem Cycle Resource Renewable Nonrenewable Fossil fuel Pollution
Greenhouse effect

Includes things like oxygen, CO2 H2O, temperature, soil, plants, animals and food living parts of an environment eg organism Non living parts of an environment eg temp, oxygen The non living and living parts of an environment make up an ecosystem A single complete execution of a periodically repeated phenomenon. Its anything that we use A natural resource that can be used again A natural resource that can eventually run out.
something we burn that has been made from the remains of dead organisms over many years.

It the contamination by unwanted substances.

carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapour prevent heat from leaving the earth in the same way glass prevents heat from leaving a greenhouse. As we add to these gases, so the earth warms.

Science Notes Temperature Water Soil Wind Speed Direction pH Water Soil Moisture Rainfall In soil Air pressure Rock type Salt level Pollution

Thermometer Wind vane, anemometer Universal indicator TRANSPIRATI Hygrometer, wet and dry thermometer (humidity) Moisture meter Barometer Observations and description Dissolve in soil, evaporate in water % Oil spill, radiation, dioxins in water, gas composition

The water cycle:

CONDENSAT PRECIPITAT RUN EVAPORATIO INFILTRATI GROUND

WATER CYCLE
CO2

RESPIRATIO N

PHOTOSYNTH ESIS

The carbon cycle:

BURN COMBUSTION FOSSIL

ANIMAL S EAT

PLAN TSS

RESPIRATION

DECAY

DEATH WITHOUT

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Impacts of human activities on ecosystem: Introduction of a new species Invasive plants can be weeds Animals can consume native species Reduce water quality Increase soil erosion Compete with native animals for food

Bioaccumulation Builds up in an organism It will increase the substance as it moves up in the food chain Can affect the behaviour and physical health of organisms Over farming Loss of top soil Soil erosion High levels of salinity Mining Cause deforestation Loss of habitat Trees cut down Noise and air pollution Chemicals can leak into water Methane gas released

Removal of a species Can affect food web, distort it Cause some species to over populate Extinction of some species

Energy is important because we are totally reliant on it. We mainly use fossil fuels like coal, oil to fuel our cars and to generate electricity. Changes to protect the environment: taken lead out of petrol, most cars burn E10- burn more efficiently, recycling, registration or laws to prohibit the dumping of materials, clean water + air act. 94% of our energy comes from fossil fuels, non-renewable resources will run out. Largest energy source available to us is the Sun Not all types of radiation are harmful; examples include radio waves, microwaves, and infrared. Radiation is energy (waves or particles) radiating out from a source.

Radiation

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Light, radiant heat (IR) and radio are all examples of radiation that is relatively safe Dangerous radiation is of the kind called ionising radiation. Examples are UV, X-rays and gamma rays. Waves are carriers of energy. Earthquake waves carry a lot of energy. Waves may be transverse or longitudinal. TRANSVERSE (a) eg light and all other types of electromagnetic radiation. (b) the energy carried travels at right angles to the direction of the vibration causing the wave. (c) can travel through a vacuum does not need matter (d) all forms of electromagnetic radiation travel at the same speed as light 300 000 km/sec. LONGITUDINAL (a) eg sound which travels at 330 metres/second (b) requires matter ie particles are needed to vibrate (c) vibrations are along the direction of energy transfer (d) sound waves travel as a series of alternating compressions and rarefactions.

Waves Water waves carry energy, shown in the experiment with the cork. Its also true for light and sound waves. Earthquakes waves carry energy, which transmits from the focus to the epicenter. (Primary, Secondary and Longitudinal). Crest is the top of the wave, highest point Trough is the bottom of the wave, lowest point Amplitude is half the wave height Wavelength is the distance between two crests, measured in meters Frequency The number of waves past a certain point in 1 second. (Measured in hertz) High frequency = high pitch Criteria Waveform Speed Medium Light Waves- electromagnetic Transverse waves (Matter moves up and down which is right angle to the direction the energy is moving) 300 000 000 m/s Light cant travel through opaque objects Sound Waves Longitudinal waves (Move backwards and forwards in the same direction as the energy) 330 m/s 350 m/s depending on temp. Sound waves cant travel through a vacuum, the need particles.

Light only travels in straight lines, can only be seen when it is reflected off an object, can travel through a vacuum. Reflection from the experiment, we discovered that the angle of incidence was the same as the angle of reflection, within experimental error. Internal Reflection: when light passes from one medium to another, not all the light is refracted and some are reflected. Total Internal Reflection: means that the light which strikes the surface is too great of an angle and therefore no light is refracted (if angle is bigger than critical angle)

Science Notes

Lasers and optic fibers both require total internal reflection. Uses of convex mirrors include: magnify objects; focus light onto a screen e.g. projectors, cameras, telescopes, and microscopes. Uses of concave mirrors include: often used with convex mirrors to give a sharper image, torches, car headlights, make-up mirrors. Refraction is the bending of waves. When light moves from one substance to another at an angle the speed it is travelling at is changed, causing it to bend. Moving from a less dense substance to a denser one slows light; this bends it towards the normal. When it moves into a more dense substance it bends away from the normal.

Moving from a dense substance to a less dense one slows light, this it bends towards the normal (line perpendicular to the flat surface
White light can be dispersed into a spectrum by passing it through a prism.

The electromagnetic spectrum is made up of all the types of radiant energy. These vary in wavelength, frequency and amount of energy. All types of em radiation travel at the same speed as light.

Lowest energy

highest energy

Radioactive Elements Radioactivity involves emission of particles and energy from nuclei. Alpha: can be stopped by thick piece of paper, contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons, positively charges Beta: can be reduced by piece of paper, or denser material, can be stopped by thin aluminum sheet, high energy electrons, negatively charged Gamma: almost stopped by thick pieces of lead sheets, high energy waves Isotopes have an unstable nucleus, it can be either naturally or artificially made Naturally occurring include: uranium-235 and carbon-14 Users: tracers to follow the movement of substances through liquid, (GAMMA) preserve food, kills microorganism in food. Natural radioisotopes can be used to calculate the age of artifacts (radio-carbon dating), smoke detectors, soil analysis, pollution testing, measuring thickness of objects, criminology. Geiger counter can be used to measure radioactivity

Science Notes
Half-life: the time it takes for half the amount of radioactive isotopes to decay.

Some naturally radioactive elements are uranium, radium and polonium. Uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. Radioisotope technology is used in the metal fabrication industry for determining thickness of metals, in the energy industry to detect leaks in gas and petroleum pipelines and in medicine.

Uses of the electromagnetic spectrum in communication Every wireless technology has their own radio band. (e.g. Baby monitors: 49, Garage door openers: around 40) Microwaves are good for transmitting information from one place to another because microwave energy can penetrate haze, light rain, snow, clouds and smoke Infrared is used in most TV, stereo and garage door remote controls. The con is that you can only use it in direct line of sight to communication and you can only connect one to one but its reliable as it is cheap, less chance of interference and it cant be intercepted. Wave Type Radio Wavelengt h 2.8 to 600m Uses Radio Astronomy Listening to music and radio Source Sun Astronomica l objects AM/FM transmitters Gas clouds collapsing into stars Microwave Ovens Radar stations Cell phones Food warming lights Everything above room temperature Lasers Body heat Sun, stars TV remotes Detected by AM/PM radios Groundbased radio telescopes Food (heated) Cell phones Radar systems Microwave telescopes Rattlesnakes eyes Your skin Night vision devices TVs Digital cameras Printers with infrared receivers Cameras Human Eye Animal eyes Plants Telescope Danger None known

Microwave s

1mm to 1m

Microwave astronomy Cooking Radar Communications

High intensities can heat up living cells and kill them. High intensities can heat living tissues and kill them.

Infrared

0.8 to 10 microns

Restaurants Hospitals(sterilisati on) Security cameras Photosynthesis Looking for young stars Communication

Light

micron to 0.6

Solar observations Lasers Vision Photography

Sun Laser Pointers Light bulbs

None Can cause blindness or burn tissue at high intensity

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Ultraviolet 0.29 to 0.4 microns Attracting insects Studying stars Tanning Mineral identification Astronomical observations Medical Diagnosis Security Scanning Black Light Bulbs Tanning Booths Sun CAT scan machines Radioactive materials Airport luggage scanners Radioactive materials Exploding nuclear weapons Solar flares s Flying insects Black and White film UV cameras Spacebased xray detectors X.ray film CCD detectors Gamma detectors on satellites Medical imaging detectors Cancer Skin burns Tissue damage DNA mutations High doses cause death Can cause cancer Cancer Radiation sickness

X-ray

Length of water molecule to large protein molecule < 0.0001 nanometer s

Gamma Rays

Detecting radioactivity Detecting nuclear weapon explosions Medical treatments

How the Eye Works Light moves from an object to your eye and it passes through the cornea, which is refracted by the lens and is focused at the retina. Also refracted by two fluids, then the image is upside down and it carried to the brain by optic nerves. Note: Iris is a muscle that controls how much light enters the eye by expanding and contracting. Muscles connected to the lens also expand and contract to control the focus of image.
Choroid Cornea Vitreous humour Retina Aqueous humour Fovea Lens Iris Blind spot Optic nerve Sclera Pupil Most sensitive part of the retina Black layer with lots of blood vessels Made of stiff jelly and can change shape to focus light Clear part that lets light into the eye Contains light sensitive rod and cone cells Transparent jelly that supports the back part of the eye Carries nerve impulses to the brain Opening in the iris through which light passes Watery liquid filling the front part of the eye Controls the amount of light entering the eye Part of the retina where the optic nerve enters the eye (no light sensitive cells) Fibres supporting the lens

White Light Mixture of colors with different frequencies. When it passes through a prism the colors are bent different amounts by the glass. Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet. Dispersion: process of spilling light Higher frequency waves bend more than those of lower frequency. Rainbows Light is dispersed by water droplets Enters water droplets and is refracted according to their wavelengths Its reflected off the back and refracted when it leaves the drop. Only one color is observed depending on your line of sight. A rainbow is always seen directly opposite the sun.

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Scattering of Light Light from our Sun hits atmosphere the gas particles scatted the blue light as more particles is scattered through more atmosphere then more light is scattered until it appears red. Transparent Materials Some colors may be absorbed and some may be transmitted If color pass through the material, it is colorless If some pass through and some are absorbed, the material is the color of light that passed through Opaque Objects Depending on the material some colors are absorbed and some are reflected. If all colors are reflected: smooth surface will reflect light in a regular way and will appear silvery (mirror), rough surfaces will scatter light in all directions and the surface will appear white. If all colours are absorbed then it will appear black. It some colours are absorbed and some are reflected, the object will appear to have a mixture of the colours being reflected. Optic Fibres and Lasers Advantages of fibre for telecommunication: ability to carry large amount of data and for a longer distance Other uses include for medicine, thin strands for insertion into blood vessels, lungs etc. Advantages of optic fibres include: cheaper, thinner, more capacity for information, wont interfere with other fibres, non-flammable, light weight, flexible. Lasers are concentrated beams of light of the one colour. They can be used in medicine (eg eye surgery), in dentistry to remove decay, in cosmetic surgery, in communications (eg telephones and CD players). In communications they often travel through optical fibres. Lasers: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser light travels in the same wavelength and is the same colour (monochromatic) They are coherent meaning that each photon follows the same course as another; its compact and directional with a tight beam. Uses: tumour, tattoo, hair removal, in optic fibres, DVD and CD, light shows, supermarket scanners, cutting.

Fission and Fusion Energy from nuclear reactions can be harnessed Fission: neutrons are fired at uranium causing it to split, releasing neutrons, radiation and heat. The neutrons collide with each other causing a chain reaction. Note: the heat can be used for electricity. Fusion: Occur in hydrogen nuclei are pushed together to form helium nuclei, it releases a large amount of energy and is the reaction that fuels the sun. Problems associated with production of radioisotopes: toxic waste is difficult to store safely, may damage the environment; transportation of waste is a problem (leakage).

Science Notes
ANSTO irradiates silvers of silicon that are components of computers, televisions, air-conditioners, cars and video cameras.

CARBON There are more substances containing carbon than any other carbon Carbon atoms can link to each other and other elements Simple carbon compounds can join up to form long molecules called polymers Hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen

Alcohols Alcohol has the same structure as a hydrocarbon with one or more of its hydrogen atoms replaced by a hydroxyl (OH) Uses of alcohol: drinks, fuels, solvents Alcohols are soluble in water An alcohol is an organic compound with the structure of a hydrocarbon except one is a OH Renamed by replacing the e with ol Good solvents able to dissolve other substances placed in them Methanol is poisonous. It is used as a solvent and in the making of varnish, plastics and drugs Ethanol (C2H5OH) is present in beer, wine and spirits. It is the most common alcohol. Also used as a solvent and a fuel. Alcohols burn in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy Ethanol is formed when sugar from fruits is reacts with yeast and bacteria (fermentation) Alkanes Hydrocarbons which contain only single bonds Alkanes single bond, alkenes double bond, alkynes triple bond First four alkanes are methane, ethane, propane and butane. Next four are pentane, hexane, heptane and octane Burn easily and are valuable as clean fuels Burn to form water and carbon dioxide when there is oxygen. Methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + Complete energy combustion Ethane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy Incomplete combustion when not enough oxygen they burn to produce soot (black carbon) and carbon monoxide (poisonous)

Petroleum Consists of both natural gas and rude oil Made up of many different carbon compounds Formed by oil and natural gas formed over millions of years from remains of algae and animals, the remains were buried and covered then heat and pressure caused the remains to be turned into hydrocarbons Crude oil is refined by a process called fractional distillation (possible

Science Notes

because compounds have different boiling points)

Plastics and Polymers Polymers are huge molecules made by the joining of small molecules (monomers) Naturally occurring polymers include DNA, cellulose, starch, rubber and proteins Synthetic polymers include plastics and fibres eg. Nylon and PVC Process by which polymers form is called polymerisation Materials used to make plastics come from oil or coal Thermoplastics are plastics that soften when heated
EARTH, PAST AND FUTURE

Astronomy Technologies used in astronomy include: Sensor technologies Satellites Receivers for spacecraft tracking Precision optics Data bases Electromagnet spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. The "electromagnetic spectrum" of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by that particular object. Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are particularly important for understanding remote sensing. These are the wavelength and frequency. Do light waves always travel in straight lines No, light waves don't always travel in a straight line although they do move away from a source in a straight line Magnetic forces and other kind of interference have the ability to bend and refract light waves; such as black holes. Definitions: Reflection: Something, such as light, radiant heat, sound, or an image, that is reflected. Refraction: The turning or bending of any wave, such as a light or sound wave, when it passes from one medium into another of different optical density. The Law of Reflection Light is known to behave in a very predictable manner. If a ray of light could be observed approaching and reflecting off of a flat mirror, then the behaviour of the light as it reflects would follow a predictable law known as the law of reflection. The diagram below illustrates the law of reflection.

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Big Bang Theory What is the BIG BANG THEORY? The Big Bang Theory is a theory that states: Most astronomers believe the Universe began in a Big Bang about 14 billion years ago. The Big Bang Theory states that the universe exploded in all directions from a single point called a singularity containing an enormous and concentrated amount of energy. At the instance of creation, the universe must have been very hot with energy being converted. In a fraction of a second, the Universe grew from smaller than a single atom to bigger than a galaxy filled with variety of particles at one hundred trillion trillion degrees and it kept on growing, it is still expanding today. As the Universe expanded and cooled, energy changed into particles of matter and antimatter. These two opposite types of particles largely destroyed each other. But some matter survived. More stable particles called protons and neutrons started to form when the Universe was one second old. Over the next three minutes, the temperature dropped below 1 billion degrees Celsius. It was now cool enough for the protons and neutrons to come together, forming hydrogen and helium nuclei (chemical elements). After 300 000 years, the Universe had cooled to about 3000 degrees. Atomic nuclei could finally capture electrons to form atoms. As the universe expanded, radiation took the form of heat, radio waves and microwaves A billion years later, swirling gas clouds compacted to form galaxies, within these galaxies clouds of gas collapsed to give birth to the first stars made of hydrogen and helium. What are the major evidences which support the Big Bang theory? We are reasonably certain that the universe had a beginning. Galaxies appear to be moving away from us at speeds proportional to their distance. This is called "Hubble's Law," named after Edwin Hubble (18891953) who discovered this phenomenon in 1929. This observation supports the expansion of the universe and suggests that the universe was once compacted. If the universe was initially very, very hot as the Big Bang suggests, we should be able to find some remnant of this heat. In 1965, Radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a 2.725 degree Kelvin Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMB) that pervades the observable universe. This is thought to be the remnant, which scientists were looking for. Penzias and Wilson shared in the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery. Finally, the abundance of the "light elements" Hydrogen and Helium found in the observable universe are thought to support the Big Bang model of origins. Epicenter - the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake. Focus - refers t the site of an earthquake Renewable Energy: These include: tidal power, wave power, solar power, wind power, hydroelectricity, radiant electricity, geothermal power, biomass, compressed natural gas and nuclear power. Global Warming Global warming is the term we use for the gradual increase in the average temperature at the Earths surface that has occurred over the past century or so. Why is this happening? First, we need to understand some of the natural processes that have occurred on Earth for millions of years.

The greenhouse effect is the process whereby greenhouse gases trap some

Science Notes
of the infrared radiation from the Earths surface, which helps moderate the temperatures at the Earths surface. The natural greenhouse effect has enabled life to evolve on this planet. Without it, the temperatures experienced on Earth would be like those on the Moon, which is the same distance from the Sun as we are far too hot by day and far too cold by night for us to survive. The average ground temperature on the Moon is 17C. On Earth it is 16C. The difference arises because the Moon has no atmosphere and hence no greenhouse gases to help moderate the temperatures at its surface. What might be the consequences of global warming? Rising sea levels, mostly from expansion of the upper layers of the seawater, would result in the flooding of low-lying coastal areas. A large number of people would lose their homes and livelihoods. There would be damage to marine ecosystems due to the loss of species that cannot survive in the warmer water. Much of the polar ice caps would melt, resulting in the loss of specie and contributing to rising sea levels. There would be significant changes to climate around the world, including an increase in the frequency and severity of cyclones, typhoons and other extreme weather events. This may also lead to a wider spread of tropical diseases such as malaria. The enhanced greenhouse effect is not the only factor contributing to global warming. The vast amount of heat radiated out by our big cities and big industrial complexes also contributes to the problem. Definitions and functions Current: Electric current measures the amount of charge flowing around the circuit every second. A large current involves more charge passing through a circuit each second than a small current does. Voltage: Voltage is a measure of the amount of energy available to push charges around a circuit and is supplied by batteries, power points and power packs. Resistance: Resistance is a measure of how much an object opposes the passage of electrons. Conductor material that allows current to flow easily Cells batteries, source of electricity Globe omits light Switches turns on the flow of electricity Resistors a device having resistance to the passage of an electric current. Ammeters instrument that measures current Voltmeters instrument that measures voltage

ELECTRICITY
Circuits

Science Notes
Current (I) Amps (p) Voltage (V) volts (v) Resistance (R) Ohms ()

Conductors are substances hat allow electricity to flow through them easily (metals & graphite) Insulators are substances that do not allow electrons to flow through them easily (plastics, glass, wood) Current (I) - amount of electrons flowing through a conductor. Ammeter is used to measure current. Voltage (V) the amount of electrical pressure the power pack gives the electrons. Voltmeter is used to measure voltage. Resistance (R) a measure of how hard it is for electrons to flow through a conductor (like water flows through a large smooth pipe more easily than through a narrow, rough sided pipe)

Ohms Law Ohms law describes the relationship between current (I),resistance (R) and voltage (V) in a circuit. Voltage = current x resistance; V= IR

V I R

Parallel Circuit If the globes are arranged next to each other but on separate branches, this is a parallel circuit. The voltage used by each globes is the same but current is split between each branch. If a globes in this circuit is removed or blows, the other globe will remain lit

Series Circuit If two or more globes are arranged one after the other in a line then they said to be in series. The voltage is split between 2 globes but the current passing through is the same. Globes will glow dimmer than a circuit with one globe. If a globe in this circuit is removed or blows the circuit is broken so the other globes dont light either. GENES

Science Notes
All living things are made up of cells Plant and animal cells have 3 parts in common: A cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus theres chromosomes
A gene is a hereditary unit that controls a particular characteristic Genes determine eye colour, body size, skin type etc. Each gene is made up of a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Genes are located of structures called chromosomes, these are found in the

The nucleus contains all the genetic material of an individual, inside the nucleus

nucleus.
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, total of 46. Females have XX chromosomes and males have XY chromosomes

DNA DNA is the keeper of all our genetic information Instructions to make a human or animal are contained within molecules of DNA coiled inside the chromosomes of a cell DNA is a molecule that contains information our cells require to grow, perform functions DNA is found in the nucleus of all cells A molecule of DNA consists of two strands joined together by cross pieces in a spiral shape called a double helix. The rungs of this ladder are chemical units called bases There are 4 types of bases which are represented by A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine), C (cytosine) In every base A is always opposite base T and base C is always opposite base G The sides of the DNA ladder are made up of sugar and phosphate molecules Meiosis Meiosis is a type of cell division that takes place in the ovary or testes for reproduction.
Ovaries produce eggs and testes produce sperm. Lol tadpoles When a perms meets an egg, the resulting cell will have the correct number of

chromosomes
During meiosis the chromosomes are duplicated once In the first division, each chromosome of each homologous pair (matching

similar pairs) separates to form two cells. Each cell only has one copy of each kind

Science Notes

of chromosome four daughter cells

In the second division, the duplicated chromosomes separate to produce total of

Mitosis A type of cell division that occurs for 3 reasons: growth, maintenance and repair. Organized series of steps that result in two daughter cells which are exact copies of the parent cell Takes place in all body cells There is only one division during mitosis The Human Genome Project The project was an international project to determine the complete genetic code for humans. It identifies every gene that codes for each characteristic. Findings from the project: Genetic code that makes each person unique is 99.9% the same for all people 6% of DNA codes for genes, the rest is junk DNA

Dominant & Recessive inheritance In each cell there are two genes for each characteristic, each gene can be dominant or recessive. A dominant gene over-rites the effect of a recessive gene Allele is a member of a pair of genes Homozygous having two identical allele for a single trait Heterozygous having two different allele for a single trait A pure bred had identical genes for a particular characteristic A hybrid had two different genes for a characteristic Genotype refers to the genes carried by an individual eg. BB, Bb, bb Phenotype refers to the appearance of the individual eg, brown eyes, blue eyes B b b etc. Punnet B b B b B B b B b

Mother

Square

Science Notes Father Zygotes

Pedigrees Pedigrees are simple ways of showing how characteristics are inherited for several generations. They are used today to follow a characteristic through generations to discover an inheritance pattern. Enables us to predict the possibility of producing offspring with genetic diseases. Mutations A mutation is any spontaneous change in a gene or chromosome that may produce an alteration in the related characteristic. Mutations in normal body cells (not sex cells) affect the organism but will not be inherited. Only mutations in gametes will be inherited. Helpful mutations: eg. Granny smith apples and breeders use mutations to develop new and improved varieties in dogs, cats etc. IONS/FROM ATOMS TO COMPOUNDS A charged atom is called an ion When two elements combine to form an ionic compound the last shell must be filled Positive ion is a cation, negative ion is a anion Ionic bonds occur between metal ions and non-metal ions Compounds that consist of a positive and negative ion are called ionic compounds Dalton: All matter consisted of tiny particles called atoms which cant be divided into even smaller parts. Atoms of the same element were alike and they combined in simple whole number ratios. Thomson: Atoms were positively charged spheres with negatively charged electrons embedded in them. Rutherford: He proposed that atoms had a dense nucleus with positively charged protons Negatively charged electrons orbited the nucleus. Bohr: Electrons orbit the nucleus at different energy levels. It can move from one level to another by gaining or losing energy. Precipitation Reactions Precipitation is the formation of insoluble solid from solution. All these solutions contain both positive and negatively charged ions. Sometimes when two solutions are mixed, the positive ions from one solution is so strongly attracted to the negative from the other that a insoluble solid is formed (precipitate).

Acids and Alkalis

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Acids: Liquid state Corrosive; eat away skin/metals Weak acids; not corrosive e.g. vinegar Acid test; turns blue litmus paper red and is 0-6 on the pH scale Common acids are sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3) Alkalis: Aka bases Turns blue litmus paper pink, turns phenolphthalein (indicator) magenta, 8-14 on the pH scale Can burn skin Most are solids but in labs, usually used in aqueous solutions Common alkalis are sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (kOH) Neutral solutions: Substances that do not effect the color of litmus paper, 7 on pH scale E.g. water, sugar solution pH scale: Numbers go from 0-14 Acids have a pH number less than 7 and bases have a number greater than 7 You can find the pH of any solution using universal indicator and matching color change to the pH chart Atoms They are the smallest unit of an element. The atomic number is the number of protons and the number of electrons The mass number is the number of neutrons and protons. The mass of electrons is negligible. Nucleus which contains protons and neutrons Protons positive charge Electrons negative charge, found in different energy levels Neutrons have no charge; neutral Periodic Table Elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number The atomic number equals the amount of electrons, hence no. of protons an atom has. The atomic mass is the sum of protons and neutrons added together. The columns are groups and the rows are periods. The last column of the periodic table are noble gases, they react very rarely and have full outer shells. The non-metals extend from boron down to astatine in a zig-zag shape. Compound: two of more elements chemically bonded together. The rearranging of atoms, not by the creating of new ones, forms them. Molecules: Two or more same/different non-metals joined together by chemical bonds. Element: a substance only made up of one type of atom Chemical reaction: when reactants combine together chemically to form new products Synthesis is when elements combine to form a compound. Decomposition is when a single compound breaks down into its elements or simpler

Science Notes

compounds (eg. Passing an electrical current through water to separate oxygen from hydrogen) Combustion is when a substance reacts with oxygen to form an oxide and energy is given out as heat and light. (Magnesium + oxygen= Magnesium oxide) Corrosion is when a metal reacts with substances such as oxygen, water or other substances in its environment Tests for Gases Hydrogen will make a popping sound when held over a naked flame Oxygen will relight a glowing splint Carbon-dioxide turns limewater milky A physical change is when no new substance is formed. A chemical change is when a new substance is formed. A chemical change involves the rearranging of atoms. The bond between atoms with full shells is called ionic. INTELLIGENCE The human body is multicellular and the cells need to be coordinated. Define and give examples of the following terms: Definitions Cells smallest unit of living things bound by cell membrane. Tissues groups of cells of the same type Cartilage. Organs groups of different tissues and cells that complete a specific function heart, liver, etc

Examples Endocrine System Hormone Target organ

It is made up of glands that produce and secret hormones. These hormones regulate metabolism, digestion, blood pressure and growth. Chemical messenger made by a gland. It is released into the bloodstream. Hormones control the actions of certain cells or organs, known as target cells/organs.

The five sense organs, which the body receives information from the external environment includes: sight (eyes), smell (nose), touch (skin), and hearing (ears), taste (tongue). Messages travel from the senses to the brain through nerves. Stimulus response pathway for the nervous system:

stimulus receptor messenger effector response Stimulus endocrine gland produces a hormone hormone carried around the body by the blood hormone sensitive tissue respond (heart, blood vessels, liver, sex organs) Nerve cells with different functions are different shapes. Each nerve consists of a bundle of nerve cells called neurons

Science Notes

Cerebrum: largest part of the brain consisting of 2 hemispheres. It controls the senses, thought, memory, learning and some voluntary muscles. Cerebellum: small section at the back and base of the brain. It controls and coordinates balance and works with the cerebrum to control voluntary muscles. Medulla: (brain stem) controls involuntary functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

CNS (Central Nervous System), it acts as a control centre which includes the brain and spinal cord and receives information sent by the sense organs via sensory nerves. The brain processes the information and causes the body to act appropriately. The brain stores the information allowing humans to learn by trial and error. PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) this includes the sensory and motor nerves, which go from your brain and spinal cord to all parts of the body. There are two Sensory Carries messages from the senses Motor Carries messages from the CNS to muscles, glands and connecting nerves. types of nerves:

Name Pituitary Thyroid Pancreas Adrenals Ovaries Testes

Hormone made Growth hormone, ADH sex hormones Thyroxin Insulin Adrenalin Oestrogen Testosterone

Hormone Function Growth, blood water level, triggers egg release Controls the speed of chemical reaction in cells (metabolism) Controls blood sugar levels Prepares body for action- increasing heart rate glucose levels Controls puberty and help controls menstrual cycle Prepare womb ready for baby Male features, controls puberty

Science Notes
Endocrine System Bloodstream Hormones Slow Response effects many parts of the body Pituitary Usually internal

Communication medium Transmission Time of response Area effected Controlled by Type of stimulus

Nervous impulses travel along the nerve fibres in only one direction. Movement of information along a nerve is electro-chemical Reflex arc: nervous pathway where a sensory response travel to the spinal cord and this initiates a motor action or response without the control of the brain. It protects the body. Eg. drawing hands away from hot objects, blinking
Receptor Stimulus Sensory nerve Effector Response A nerve cell that transmits a impulse from a relay nerve cell to an effector eg. Muscle Information from the environment eg. Light, sound, heat etc. Action made by an organism after receiving a stimulus An organ that responds to a stimulus eg. Salivary gland Cells or organs that can detect a stimulus and pass information to a sensory nerve

Diseases of the endocrine system: Diabetes Symptoms are glucose in the urine, extreme thirst, hunger and loss of weight Caused by the body not producing any or enough of the insulin hormone Type 1 diabetes occurs when the body stops making insulin Type 2 diabetes occurs to those who are overweight and inactive, have high blood pressure or heart disease High levels of glucose in the blood cause serious problems

The endocrine and nervous systems work together NERVOUS SYSTEM The major functions of the nervous system in humans are as follows: (i) It keeps us informed about the outside world through the sense organs. (ii) It enables us to remember, think and to reason out. (iii) It controls all voluntary muscular activities like running, speaking etc. (iv) It regulates several involuntary activities such as breathing, beating of the heart, movement of food through the food canal, etc. Thus, the nervous system makes our body parts work together in proper coordination, as one single integrated unit. The nervous system is made up of the brain, the spinal cord, and nerves. One of the most important systems in your body, the nervous system is your body's control system. It sends, receives, and processes nerve impulses throughout the body. These nerve impulses tell your muscles and organs what to do and how to respond to the environment. There are three parts of your nervous system that work together: the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system.

The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It sends out nerve impulses and analyzes information from the sense organs, which tell your

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brain about things you see, hear, smell, taste and feel. The peripheral nervous system includes the nerves that branch off from the brain and the spinal cord. It carries the nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary action, such as heart beat and digestion.

OUR DYNAMIC PLANET

The shape of the continents and fossil evidence suggest that all the continents were joined together (Pangaea) around 250 million years ago. The shapes of the continents seem to fit together Age of Rocks, age is the same on both sides of the continental margin Similar fossils and rocks are found on different continents All continents in the southern hemisphere have a flightless bird (Ostrich, Cassowary, emu, kiwi, (extinct) Moa, rhea and the penguin) Sea floor spreading on divergent boundaries. Climate change, fossil evidence shows that vegetation grew on snow-covered landscapes, suggesting that they were once at a lower latitude Polar Reversal evidence in rocks The movement of the plate is said to be caused by convection currents in the mantle and to gravitational forces. This theory states that the lithosphere is made up of twelve rigid plates, which slide over a semi-molten layer of the mantle (Asthenosphere). They interact at their plate boundaries and these results in earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain ranges. There 1. 2. 3. are three types of plate boundaries: Divergent- move apart Convergent- plates collide Transform- slide past each other

Tectonic Plate Theory Plate tectonics is the main current theory in Earth Sciences regarding the development of our planet Earth. It is, therefore, appropriate to dedicate some space to explain how the Earth Science community, step by step, has built this theory, from early speculations, through the gathering of proof and severe debates, up to the refinement and quantification, and still ongoing confrontations with alternative ideas. What evidence suggests the continents were once joined? Many fossil comparisons along the edges of continents that look like they fit together suggest species similarities that would only make sense if the two continents were joined together at some point in the past. Outline the evidence for continental drift and plate tectonics Continental drift was a theory proposed in 1912 by Alfred Wegener which involved the movement of continents. This theory is a part of the concept of plate tectonics. Continents have been drifting for hundreds of millions of years. In the theory of plate tectonics the outermost part of the Earths interior is made up of two layers, the outer lithosphere and the inner asthenosphere. Plate tectonic theory arose out of two separate geological observations: seafloor spreading and continental drift. Volcanoes A volcano erupts when magma escapes from inside the earth. As magma is escaping from a confined space, a lot of energy is released with it, as happens with any other explosion. This is why many eruptions also produce huge quantities of gases and dust. Magma sometimes rises under enormous

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pressure, so it not only finds cracks in the earths crust, it can also create them. When magma reaches the earths surface it is called lava. Earthquakes A sudden and violent shaking of the ground, sometimes causing great destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action. The intensity of earthquakes is expressed by the Richter scale Tectonic plate movement causes earthquakes. Beneath the surface of the earth is what is called tectonic plates. These plates, made up of molten lava from the mantle and parts of the crust, are constantly moving, converging or diverging. When two plates converge, they are pushing against each other with incredible strength. As these two plates push, one might slide over the other. This makes an upheaval of the earth's crust. Tremors are felt on the surface of the earth; depending on the strength, earthquakes can cause significant damage to buildings, bridges, homes, and roads. The Mercalli Scale is a measure of the ground shaking from earthquakes. Impact of Volcanos on the environment Atmosphere: Poisonous gases are released (Sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide) Can cause acid rain. Build-up of ash can lead to a global winter. Lithosphere: New land is formed, volcanic structures and new metamorphic rocks Hydrosphere: Courses of rivers are changed due to new material, water can be heated, changing the environment. Dissolved minerals can change pH (acidity) of the water. Biosphere: Destroy living things (trees), cause of death can be suffocation, asphyxiation. Bacteria, micro-organisms that live near volcanic vents. Impact of Earthquakes on the environment Lithosphere: Rocks break, plates move, fault lines occur, movement of rocks . Folding of rocks, valleys and mountains form. The landscape change Hydrosphere: Courses of river change due to shift near faults. May cause tsunami if beneath the ocean floor. Biosphere: Trees roots upended, tsunami destroy living things. People are trapped and buried underneath the rubble. Habitat destruction, food webs, chains and sources disrupted Alfred Wegner - Explained theory of continental drift with the similarities of rocks, fossils and other geographical structures. - Suggested that continents moved sideways as well as up and down. Tsunami Large ocean wave caused by submarine earthquake that occurred < > 50 km beneath sea floor Has a magnitude of less than 6.5 on the Richter scale. Volcanic eruptions also cause tsunamis. Faults and Folds Rock layers break and slip under pressure of the earths movement, resulting crack is a fault. Sudden movement is an earthquake. Normal Fault: pulling apart, fatter piece slides down Reverse Fault: pushing together, fatter piece moves up Transform Faults: slide past each other. More than one faults occur, rift valleys and block mountains can be formed Compression forces push inward on hot rock causing it to buckle.

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Anticline is a fold where it forms an ant hole like shape. Syncline is a fold where it makes a bowl like shape. Monocline is a downward slope fold. Over fold is a S shape fold

Fossils
Are found in sedimentary rocks Knowing when an organism lived is important because it helps us place them on the evolutionary family tree Accurate dates allow us to create sequences of evolutionary change and work out when species appeared and became extinct There are two methods of fating fossils:

Absolute dating Tells the actual age in years There are many absolute dating methods e.g. radioactive dating Nearly all these methods use radio active elements that occur naturally in minerals Radioactive dating (type of absolute dating) Uses radioactive isotopes Useful for igneous and metamorphic rocks which cannot be dated by methods used for sedimentary Relies on the fact that certain elements (uranium, carbon, potassium) contain a number of different isotopes whose half life is exactly known and therefore the relative concentration of these isotopes within a rick or mineral can measure the age A whole rock or single grain can be dated Relative dating Can only tell us if something is older or younger than another cannot pinpoint an actual age in yrs. Can be applies to fossils found on a particular site and can be used to make comparisons Stratigraphy To work out the order the layers were formed in The oldest rocks and fossils are at the bottom and the youngest at the top Scientists recognize fossils that have characteristics of various rock layers They can then place fossils into chronological sequences These known sequences can be compared with other rocks and fossil form other sites to provide relative dating Correlation Is the matching up of rock columns in different locations to find relative age Rocks in different areas can be matched up because of the rock and fossil type Radio telescopes Many objects in space emit radio signals (stars, sun) Radio waves travel at the same speed of light waves; 300,000km/s Radio astronomy is the study of astronomy using radio signals from object in the universe There are 8 dishes in NSW (Narrabri, Coonabarabran and Parkes) Natural selection Process that results in the alteration of characteristics of a population Based on the assumption that variation exists in a population Natural selection selects the most favorable variation while eliminating less

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favorable Individuals with favorable variation are more likely to survive and reproduce therefore passing on favorable genes The characteristics of any population may therefore change overtime to suit its environment, aka Survival of the fittest Charles Darwin presented his theory of evolution through natural selection in his book the origin of species (1859). He visited and kept a journal of his observations whilst travelling from England to South America and Australia. During this time, Darwin observed that many species that were clearly related, differed slightly depending on where they were found

Fun Park Physics: Forces

A force is a push, pull or twist that causes an object to either increase its speed (accelerate), decrease its speed (decelerate), change its direction or change its shape. Mass is the amount of matter in an object. Types of forces: Friction acts between any two surfaces that try and slide over one another. Acts in opposite direction to the movement of attempted movement e.g. slides Electrostatic force repulsion of like charges or attraction of unlike charges Magnetic force repulsion of like poles or attraction of unlike poles Gravity attracts matter to other matter. Every particle in the universe has its own gravity, the strength depending on mass Centripetal/centrifugal center seeking force e.g. the rotor Newtons First Law states two main points: 1. An object at rest will stay that way unless a force acts on it 2. An object in motion will continue to move in he same direction at the same speed unless a force acts on it Inertia is the name for the tendency of an object in motion to remain in motion or an object at rest to remain at rest, unless acted upon by a force. Newtons Second Law states: 1. Something will happen if a force is applied: the object will accelerate and he acceleration will depend on the mass of the object. The force needed to accelerate an object equals the mass of the object multiplied by its acceleration. Gives a formula telling us how much force is needed. It takes more force to accelerate a more massive object. The bigger the force, the bigger the acceleration If the same force is applies to a big object and little object, the smaller one will accelerate more Force = Mass x Acceleration

Science Notes F = ma

F stand for force, measured in Newtons (N) M stands for mass of object in Kg m a A stands for acceleration in meters per second (ms^-2) Matter of balance There is usually more than one force acting on any object. Some of these forces may balance by cancelling each other out. If cancellation is complete then the overall force is zero. Newtons Third Law states: 1. That for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. When an object applies a force to a second object, the second object applies an equal and opposite force to the first. E.g. When an athlete pushes back and down on the starting block, the starting block pushes the athlete forwards and upwards.

Machines
Gears Allow for the transfer of movement Wheels with teeth that lock together with another or connected by a belt/chain If wheels are the same size then both turn at same speed Using different sized gears can speed up or slow down movement or increase/decrease force Levers Help lift loads by increasing the original force used E.g. wheelbarrow, hammers, golf clubs Three tings in common: fulcrum (pivot), load and force Pulleys Change the direction of the force making it easier to lift/pull heavy items Reduces amount of force needed to lift A wheel with rope around it E.g. raise a flag, escalators Wedge Two inclined planes joined together Used for cutting, splitting or pushing through Inclined Plane Sloping flat surface E.g. a ramp