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MONOGRAPHIES 36
ParisBeograd 2012
Published with a support of the Ministry of Education and Science of Republic of Serbia (Project n 177021)
ii :
Association des amis du Centre dhistoire et civilisation de Byzance (ACHCByz) 2010 52 rue du Cardinal-Lemoine 75005 Paris ACHCByz
ISBN978-2-916716-31-2978-86-80093-78-9 ISSN 0751-0594 Composition et infographie Artyom Ter-Markosyan-Vardanyan Suivi de la publication Emmanuelle Capet
TABLE OF CONTENTS
THE EMPIRES INFLUENCE ON BARBARIAN ELITES FROM THE PONTUS TO THE RHINE (5th-7thCENTURIES): A CASE STUDY OF LAMELLAR WEAPONS AND SEGMENTAL HELMET
Damien Glad The question of the origin and dissemination of defensive weapons, in particular of lamellar weapons and of segmental helmets used in the Byzantine army in the 5th-7thcen tury, has caused much ink to flow. It will be our aim to show the common origin of these arms in the Near East and their spread in the Empire from the Eastern Mediterranean before their passage to the Germanic tribes in the 6th-7thcenturies. A study of the origin of the relevant finds suggests that they should be considered as a typically Byzantine production. A careful examination of funeral deposits will allow us to assess the Empires influence on the Germanic elites through the distribution of prestige goods and to determine how they spread. Such an analysis will also reveal the role of the PontoDanubian region in the diffusion of early Byzantine weapons to the barbarian chiefs.
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Fig.1: Segmental helmet on a fresco from Kerch (Rostovtseff 1913-1914/2003, plate LXXIX).
Several scholars have considered segmental helmets to be of Sassanian origin. The Byzantines could have adopted this type of helmet and then spread it to Central and Western Europe through trade relations with the Germanic elites (Alfldi1934; Werner 1949/50; Arwidsson1939). Forty years later S.V.Grancsay (1949, 276) suggested that segmental helmets could have been introduced into the Roman world by Sarmatian troops stationed in the NileValley. More recently, M.Feugre (1995, 147) sought again to locate their origin among the Sarmatians, citing the helmets worn by the Syrian archers on the spiral frieze of Trajans Column. At the same time, M.Kazanski (1995) called this theory into question indicating that helmets found in Sarmatian graves were quite different and that not one of these graves produced a segmental helmet. It is our belief that segmental helmets originated in the Eastern Mediterranean and in the NearEast. As early as the 10thcentury B C, the Hittites adorned their gods with segmental helmets as seen on a relief from Malatya in Turkey (Gamber1964, 15). The
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earliest specimen dating from the 6thcentury B C was excavated in Sardis in western Turkey, the capital of ancient Lydia (Fig.2) (Greenewalt, Heywood1992). The main features of a segmental helmet are already present: a conical helmet-bowl reinforced by riveted metal strips which come together under a circular plate riveted to the apex, and a T-shaped nasal plate. Only an oblong neck-guard distinguishes this Lydian helmet from its early Byzantine descendants. A segmental helmet appears on coins of the Parthian king ArsacesI (238-211 BC) (Overlaet1982, 191). From Parthia, it reaches the steppe and the Kuban region where conical helmets, similar to those represented on Kerch frescos and on Trajans Column, were discovered at Gorodskoj in privileged graves dating from the 2nd century AD (Goroncharovski 2006, 446-450). The type of helmet worn by Syrian archers on Trajans column and some other eastern auxiliaries of the Roman D is still found by archaeologists in the second half of the army from the 2ndcentury A 5thcentury, at a time when the bulk of the Byzantine army was of oriental origin. This is also the time when a new type of segmental helmet, the Baldenheim type, makes its appearance, as we will discuss below. As for lamellar weapons, many scholars attribute their introduction to the Avars, a Nomadic people of Central Asia who came into contact with the Byzantine Empire in the mid-6thcentury. Once settled on the Danube, the Avars supposedly spread this type of arms to the Germanic tribes of Central and Western Europe, especially to the Lombards who left lamellar specimens at Castel Trosino and Val di Nievole in Italy, and then to the Alamanni beyond the Alps.P.Paulsen (1967) considers the helmet found in Niedersttzingen (Germany) not as Avar but as Lombard or Byzantine, possibly produced in a Pontic workshop. According to G. Arwidsson, the lamellar helmet
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Fig.2: Parthian or Lydian segmental helmet from Sardis (Greenewalt, Heywood 1992, fig.21)
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Fig.3: Helmets from the Pontic-Caucasian realm. 1: Kertch, 2: Kishpek, 3: Illichevka, 4: Kalkhni
excavated in Kerch (Fig.3: 1), together with lamellar armour, could suggest a PonticScythian origin for lamellar armament. Regarding the origin of the lamellar weapons, O.Gamber (1964, 14-18; 1966, 17; 1968, 7-44) has shown that lamellar helmets were known to the Egyptians in the 15th century BC, to the Hittites in the 13thcentury BC and to the Romans in the 2nd century AD. According to H.VonGall (1990, 64), such weapons were known in the Middle East as early as the Assyrian period. While the lamellar helmet is not attested in 3rd-4th-century SassanianIran (Kazanski1995, 193), it is worn by eastern auxiliaries of the Roman army on the Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki (Greece), built between 298 and 305 AD (Laubscher1975). Horsemen depicted on the Arch wear lamellar helmets with a T-shaped nasal plate very similar to those found in the Eastern Pontus.
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The earliest lamellar helmet from this region was found in a 2nd-century AD Sar ma tian grave by the stanica Tbilisskaja on the Kuban; it has a hemispherical bowl re sem bling the Roman helmets (Simonenko2001, 263-265). Another Sarmatian burial, from Kipek in Kabardino-Balkaria, dated between the late 3rd and the first half of the 4thcentury, contained glass-paste gems and a lamellar helmet with a T-shaped nasal plate (Fig.3: 2). Likewise, the early Byzantine fortress Ilievka on the Taman Peninsula delivered a helmet dated to the 5th-6thcentury (Nikolaeva1986), with a hemispherical bowl and a T-shaped nasal plate (Fig.3: 3). The figurative ears of the 5th-century lamellar helmet with a conical bowl found in Kalkhni in Dagestan (Fig.3: 4) are clearly indicative of a Roman influence (Salihov1985). This feature is also present on a helmet from Iatrus (Bulgaria), dated to the early 5thcentury (Gomolka-Fuchs2007, fig.13/1629). Helmets from Kalkhni and Iatrus could be contemporary. These figurative ears are reminiscent of Weiler-Guisborough type helmets and face helmets of the early Empire (Feugre1994). Archaeological evidences seems to suggest that the lamellar helmet was worn between the late 3rd and the 6thcentury between the BlackSea coast and the Caspian Sea in garrisons under Roman Byzantine influence long before the arrival of the Avars. Likewise, lamellar armour is attested on the Black Sea from the 4th century BC: in irgirin, in Kerch and in Volkovicy-Romny. Since the 2ndcentury B C, it is present in Sarmatian graves, including the Tbilisskaja. The lamellae have the same dimensions and disposition of holes as the early Byzantine specimens from the Balkans (Simonenko 2001, 275-277). The armour of the heavy horsemen on the wall painting from Panjikent is composed of vertical splints attached to a skirt of mail (Fig.4). This technique is
5 cm
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reminiscent of the armour of the Parthian cataphractus depicted on a 2nd century AD graffito from Dura-Europos (Fig.5), which is, in turn, very similar to that of the Sarmatian horsemen on Trajans Column and on the Kerch frescoes. Lamellar armours have been found in a Sassanian context in Dvin and in Aygavan in Armenia (Kalantarjan2003, 331, with tab. 152), as well as in Qasr-iAbuNasr, in Iran (Winlock, Upton, Hauser1934). It is quite possible that the Sassanians transmitted lamellar armour to the Byzantines. Although a lamellar helmet is featured on ceramic figurines dating from the late 3rdcentury AD and on a fresco at Jamalpur(India) dating from the 2nd century AD, the reintroduction into the Mediterranean world of the lamellar technique by people from Central Asia and Far East is to be advanced with the greatest caution. This technique was preserved in the Caucasus until at least the 6thcentury. If the lamellar type may find its origin in Central Asia or in the Far East, we must bear in mind that a similar kind existed in the Mediterranean world long before Late Antiquity (Kazanski1993, 59; 1995, 189-193).
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5 cm
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from Batajnica (Serbia), the only one deposited in a grave (Vinski 1954), testifies to the Empires influence on the Germanic elites. Others come from the last occupation layer of Iustinian Prima (Cariin Grad, Serbia), dated between the reign of JustinII and the abandonment of the city in 615. Novae (Svitov, Bulgaria), Selenca (Serbia) and Vodno (Markovi Kuli, Makedonia) have produced several more fragments (a complete bibliography can be found in Bavant 2008). Since the publication of the LepcisMagna (Libya) (Pirling 1974) and the Heraklea Lyncestis finds, the Byzantine origin of the Baldenheim type is widely admitted. The distribution map produced by Z. Vinski (1982, cf. 1984) shows a concentration of Baldenheim-type helmets in the western part of the Empire around Italy, but also their occurrence on sites with no known Germanic presence in the 5th-6thcenturies. Recent studies focus on the identification and localization of arm factories. M. Vogt (after Bhner 1993; 1994) argued for the existence of a western workshop, presumably in Ostrogothic Italy, but the publication of several fragments from Iustiniana Prima (Cariin Grad, Serbia) has invalidated this hypothesis. B.Bavant has demonstrated that all four arm factories identified by M.Vogt are Byzantine. Three of them could have been located in Constantinople or in area around the Sea of Marmara, in Nicomedia or Cyzicus. As for the fourth fabrica, the western group of M.Vogt, B.Bavant has suggested localizing it in Thessaloniki. The author explains the stability of the Baldenheim type by the cen tral ized control of production exercised by the comes sacrarum largitionum. The question of the production of the lamellar weapons is more complex. Their appearance in the Empire has traditionally been dated to the second half of the 6thcentury. Placed in the context of the confrontation with the Avars, lamellar armour was considered as a means of resisting the penetrating power of their three-winged arrowheads. However, the earliest lamellae discovered at the site of a military warehouse in Topraichioi (near Babadag, Romania; not yet published) come from an occupation layer dating from the second half of the 5thcentury, before the Avars arrival. What is more, the discovery of a large number of lamellae in fortifications far from the conflict zone indicates the production of this type of armour by Byzantine arms factories (Bavant, Ivanievi 2003; Bugarski 2006; Ivanievi, pehar 2006; Milinkovi1995 and 2002). Several lamellar armours found in Viminacium show that they were supplied to the Gepids, positioned in the front line against the Avars. However, a recent find of lamellar armour in Spartaria Carthago (Cartagena, Spain) along with early Byzantine pottery confirms its wide availability in the Byzantine army (VizcanoSanchez2008). Likewise, 7th-century lamellar armour was excavated in a Byzantine context in Crypta Balbi in Rome (Ricci2001, 400). None of these finds can be related to the Avars.
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in a grave at Snpetru-German (Romania) (Drner 1960; Garam 1992). While the discovery of a lamellar helmet and a segmental helmet along with a pierced coin of LeoI in Kerch (supra) suggested to P. Paulsen (1967, 133-138) the possibility of production of the famous lamellar armour from Niedersttzingen in a Pontic workshop, the growing body of evidence rather points to its manufacture within the Empire. The depiction of a horseman carrying lamellar armour and a segmental helmet on the Isola Rizza dish (Italy) confirms the wide spread of the lamellar type from Armenia to Germany and the Empires cultural impact on barbarian elites.
* * *
A critical analysis of theories on the origin and spread of early Byzantine segmental helmets and lamellar weapons reveals the important part played by the Ponto-Danubian area. It is the barbarian tribes who provided soldiers for the imperial army that became the main vectors in the spread of early Byzantine weapons in the Barbaricum from the Steppes to the Rhine. These weapons, produced by the imperial fabricae for the use of the imperial army, were considered as prestige goods by barbarian elites. They were diffused by the same trans-continental routes, including the Silk Road, the Rhine and the Danube, which promoted cultural transfers from East to West. It would only be fair, however, to recall a movement in the opposite direction: the study of shield bosses shows the spread of western Germanic weaponry into the Empire. If the Eastern Empire was fairly susceptible to the Caucasian and Oriental influences, the western Germanic peoples showed little receptiveness to a direct impact of a foreign culture. Only the elite and the foederati showed attachment to imperial prestige goods, to which they attributed a particular symbolic value in funeral offerings.
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