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Konstruktiver Ingenieurbau TUHH 2007-8

Tall Buildings for the 21st Century
Stuart Alexander, WSP Group
Tall Buildings for the 21st Century
Contents:
Drivers
Enablers
Technical Challenges
The 21st Century
Chicago
Frankfurt
Tall Buildings for the 21st Century
Drivers:
Prestige - nations, cities, people
Profit - developers, operators
Population growth, move to cities
Luxury living, fine views
Sustainability - energy, transport, waste
Drivers - Prestige
Petronas Towers,
Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
2
Drivers - Profit
Canary
Wharf,
London
(West
India
Quay
on left)
Beetham Hilton Hotel,
Manchester
Tallest UK building outside
London
49 storeys, 171 m
Hilton hotel + residential
Concrete core (80 MPa max)
Post-tensioned floors
Winner CTBUH best tall building
of 2006
Drivers - Profit
View of Frankfurt
Drivers - Luxury living
Hong Kong
Drivers - Move to cities
Commerzbank, Frankfurt
Drivers -
Sustainability
3
Drivers - Sustainability
Hearst Tower, New York
- Existing building and
streetscape retained
- High LEED score
Tall Buildings for the 21st Century
Enablers:
Materials - high performance
Vertical transportation - twin lifts
Wind tunnel modelling
Construction techniques
Computers - visualisation, analysis
Trump World Tower
Worlds tallest residential building
All concrete
72 storeys, 262 m high
Floor plan 44 x 23.5 m
Slenderness ratio 11:1
Concrete up to 100 N/mm
2
Reinforcement up to 550 N/mm
2
,
size 63 mm (Dywidag)
Tuned mass damper at roof level
Enablers - Materials
Plan levels 23-56
`Belt at levels 22 and roof
Space savings through omission of a shaft
Conventional
System
TW!N system
with destination
selection control
Comparison
Double-Decker
system
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Enablers - twin lifts
- Cars travel independently
on same rails in same shaft
- Fewer shafts required
- Increased capacity
- Faster journey times
- Operated by destination
selection control
Enablers - Wind tunnel modelling
- Force
balance
method
- Aerolastic
method
4
Enablers -
Construction techniques
Jump form construction
Slipform construction
Tall Buildings for the 21st Century
Technical challenges:
Structural safety - Ronan Point, 9/11
Two responses to 9/11
Fire
Earthquake
Comfort
Shortening
Ronan
Point,
London
Ronan
Point,
London
Ronan Point, London
Completed March 1968
Large panel prefabricated system
22 storeys over insitu podium
Explosion of coal gas 16 May 1968 on floor 18
Leak from cooker supply (defective nut)
Explosive gas-air mixture formed below ceiling
Ignited by match 5.45 am
Blew out gable wall panels (3 no)
Progressive collapse of corner
4 dead
5
- Glazing/cladding blew out at
<2 kN/m
2
- Maximum pressure in hallway
80 kN/m
2
(fuse box cover)
- Three biscuit tins 20-60 kN/m
2
- Pressure on party wall
average 34 kN/m
2
- Pressure on gable wall 34-41
kN/m
2
, average 20 kN/m
2
Explosion (deflagration)
Conclusions and recommendations
1. Ronan Point was a typical gas explosion
2. Explosions occur in UK at 3.5/M dwellings/year
3. Most are due to faulty equipment (ignition easy)
4. Risk in life of a tower block = 1 in 50
5. There are other potential causes (eg impact)
6. Need to prevent `local damage from whatever
cause from triggering progressive collapse
7. Amend the Building Regulations
8. Large panel systems can be modified and
continue to be used
World Trade Centre - North and South Towers
Typical floor plan
gross 4,000 m gross 4,000 m
offices 2,900 m offices 2,900 m
core 1,100 m core 1,100 m
nett/gross = 72% nett/gross = 72%
Areas per floor
Each tower 319,000 m
2
Each tower 319,000 m
2
Building data
Built 1966-73 Built 1966-73
Core
24 m x 42 m
47 no box columns
Dry lining construction
Core
24 m x 42 m
47 no box columns
Dry lining construction
External wall
load bearing and
wind resisting
External wall
load bearing and
wind resisting
Structural design
External columns
450 x 450 box section
7.5-12.5 mm thick
1.02 m centres
4 x 59 = 236 total
Wind load
Taken on the perimeter
by integral frame
Spandrel panels
1.32 m deep,
tie columns together
Column cladding
Aluminium
Structural design
trough decking trough decking
ductwork ductwork
102 mm insitu lightweight concrete 102 mm insitu lightweight concrete
lattice girders
900 mm deep
2.04 m centres
lattice girders
900 mm deep
2.04 m centres
sprayed
mineral fibre
fire protecn
sprayed
mineral fibre
fire protecn
Floor construction
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Outrigger truss system at roof level
0846 North Tower struck
0903 South Tower struck
Impact
61.4 m
51.9 m
411 m
110 storeys
63.5 m
63.5 m Tower
Boeing 767
Weights:
Single tower 175,000 t
Boeing 767 125 t
Slenderness = 411/63.5 = 6.5
Sizes and weights
Total wind force 220 x 63.5 x 411 x 0.0098 = 56,000 kN
Wind pressure 220 kg/m
2
Mass of aircraft 125 t
Speed 470 (590) mph 260 m/s
Momentum 125 x 210 32,500 t m/s
Time to arrest 63.5/(0.5x210) 0.5 s
Force exerted 26,250/0.6 65,000 kN
Tower
Sway of tower
125 t
210 m/s
26,250 t m/s
WTC 1 WTC 2
0.6 s
44,000 kN
160 mm 160 mm
Force of impact
impact 83
rd
/92
nd
h=411m
impact
wind
ground
Bending moment
impact 83
rd
/92
nd
h=411m wind
impact
ground
Shear force
7
Max fuel capacity 77,150 kg
Max Range 10,440 km
Fuel remaining (estimated) 33,700 kg
Boston to Los Angeles 4,193 km
Boston
Los Angeles
New York
Boston to New York 306 km
Boeing 767
Fuel for flight + 45 min 35,950 kg
Aircraft fuel
Aircraft
2,900 m x 420 MJ/m =
1.2 TJ
(terajoules) One office floor
Total for aircraft 1.7 TJ
Aircraft contents 0.2 TJ estimated at
33,700 kg x 45 MJ/kg =
1.5 TJ
Fuel
But 30% consumed in fireballs
35% drained down shafts
Leaving 0.6 TJ to burn on office floors
Fire loads - office floor, aircraft
No explosion - conflagration not deflagration
Rapid temperature rise (up to 1200 C)
Fire on three floors simultaneously, otherwise
typical office fire
Fire protection dislodged? or missing?
Simulated office fire burned out in 60 min
Analysis of fire
Time North Tower South Tower
0846
struck at floors
94-98
struck at floors
78-84
0903
0959
building collapsed
56 minutes
1029
building collapsed
103 minutes
Analysis of failure
Safety - World Trade Center
Robust structure - both buildings withstood impact
Weak escape provision - 5 of 6 routes blocked
Unprepared management - fire fighters ineffective
Poor passive fire protection - buildings collapsed
UK Building Regulations
`The building shall be constructed so that in the
event of an accident it will not collapse to an
extent disproportionate to the cause
EN 1991-1-7 Accidental actions
`This Annex A (guidance for buildings) gives rules
and methods for designing buildings to sustain an
extent of localised failure from an unspecified
cause without disproportionate collapse
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Design approach
Prescriptive rules: horizontal and vertical ties
Prescriptive rules: key element (34 kN/m
2
)
No ties - gas explosion Copenhagen 1970s
Key element - Bogota car bomb 2003
Key elements
`Walking columns
- and stabilising slabs
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Design approach
Prescriptive rules: horizontal and vertical ties
Prescriptive rules: key element (34 kN/m
2
)
Robustness: alternative path by column removal
`Systematic risk assessment, taking into account
`all the normal hazards that may reasonably be
foreseen, together with any abnormal hazards
Robustness principles
Form - alternative load paths (`redundancy)
Strength - frame, members, connections
Ductility - deform at constant strength,
especially connections
Energy absorption - strength x ductility
Distribution of capacity - lateral stability
Resistance to fire
Resistance to corrosion
Risk assessment - hazards
- Aircraft impact
- Avalanche (snow)
- Cladding failure
- Construction error
- Crane load swinging or dropped
- Deflagration (gas explosion)
- Demolition error (eg nearby site)
- Design error
- Detonation (`blast from high
explosive)
- Earthquake
- Fire (cellulosic/hydrocarbon)
- Flood debris
- Floor load (excessive)
- Gale, hurricane or tornado
- Hailstones
- H-bomb, N-bomb
- Helicopter heavy landing
- Icebergs or ice floes
- Icicle fall
- Landslip
- Material fault
- Meteorite
- Mine workings
- Mortar bomb
- Mud slide
- Ponding
- Rock fall
- Scour
- Ship impact
- Services trench dug nearby
- Snow (and fall onto lower roof)
- Solution cavity
- Subsidence (settlement)
- Train impact
- Vehicle impact
- Volcanic ash or lava
- Wave, tsunami (37 no)
+ combinations of the above
Low-risk
high-consequence
events
Two International Finance Center,
Hong Kong
Under construction on 9/11 (at floor 30 of 88)
4 weeks intensive re-evaluation
Principal supports composite steel-concrete
columns c 2.5 x 1.5 m
Demonstrated resistant to impact of aero
engine
Continued construction as designed
Responses to 9/11
Responses to 9/11
Barclays Bank HQ,
Canary Wharf, London
Lease signed 1 Sep 2001
36 storeys
Concrete core
Composite steel frame
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Barclays Bank HQ, Canary Wharf, London
Central core walls increased from 300 to 400 mm thick
Two satellite cores redesigned from steel into concrete
Principal floor beams designed to span over a column removed
Floor slabs anchored into core walls
Four escape stairs well dispersed
Escape stairs widened by 200 mm
Fire resistance increased from 90 to 120 minutes
Fire protection to beams hydrocarbon grade
Laminated glass to prevent shards falling
Full public address installation, including escape routes
Three concrete cores
Non-linear analysis (material and geometric)
1 Failure of all uninjured
occupants to escape - and within
a reasonable time
2 Collapse of all (or a major part)
of the building (100 m
2
?)
3 Loss of contents remote from
source of fire
4 Disruption beyond occupants of
the building (rubble in streets,
traffic diverted)
5 Unpredictable danger to
firefighters
Challenges - Fire
What fire is disproportionate?
Torre Windsor, Madrid, 2004
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Design criteria:
1 Fully protected escape routes
2 Enough escape capacity to
evacuate all occupants within a
reasonable period
3 Rigorous compartmentation
and cladding protection
4 Expect fire to burn out and
subside (so model heating and
cooling phases)
5 Limit major damage to 3 floors
6 Apply fire engineering approach
Challenges - earthquake
Torre Mayor, Mexico City
Viscous dampers to control
movement
Challenges - Shortening
The problem:
- Load from each new floor causes elastic settlement
(eg 25th floor @ 4 m/storey settles over height 100 m)
- In concrete, creep under same load causes 2-3 times
additional shortening over 10+ years
- Concrete shrinks, causes additional shortening
- Complex time dependence of construction, creep,
shrinkage
Now add tilt and twist!
Challenges -
Shortening
Burj Tower, Dubai
- Concrete work
completed Sep 2007
- Worlds tallest free-
standing structure
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The 21st Century
Better understanding of motion and comfort
Innovative damping and control of shortening
High modulus concrete
Lifts for escape
Sustainable towers, green elements continuous, less glass
Construction techniques for non-vertical towers
Can draw = can build? Irregular shapes have just started!
Burj-al-Arab,
Dubai
The `Gherkin, London
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Turning Torso,
Malmo, Sweden
2006 fib Award
Leeds
London
Shard at London Bridge
Over London Bridge station,
London
15 main line platforms
2 underground lines
Large bus interchange
Combined heat, cooling and
power plant
1 MW cooling via radiator
Externally vented facade
Europes tallest
- 310 m
Mixed use
Public access
Viewing gallery at
level 65 - 224 m
Public piazza at
mid level
Access to station,
shops, caf, library .
Tall Buildings for
the 21st Century
stuart.alexander@wspgroup.com