Lessloss Report 3

LESSLOSS RISK MITIGATION FOR EARTHQUAKES AND LANDSLIDES
LESSLOSS Report No. 2007/03
Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual
Editor
Massimo Forni
Reviewer
Polat Glkan
July, 2007
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ISBN: 978-88-6198-007-5
FOREWORD
Earthquake and landslide risk is a public safety issue that requires appropriate mitigation measures and means to protect citizens, property, infrastructure and the built cultural heritage. Mitigating this risk requires integrated and coordinated action that embraces a wide range of organisations and disciplines. For this reason, the LESSLOSS Integrated Project, funded by the European Commission under the auspices of its Sixth Framework Programme, is formulated by a large number of European Centres of excellence in earthquake and geotechnical engineering integrating in the traditional fields of engineers and earth scientists some expertise of social scientists, economists, urban planners and information technologists. The LESSLOSS project addresses natural disasters, risk and impact assessment, natural hazard monitoring, mapping and management strategies, improved disaster preparedness and mitigation, development of advanced methods for risk assessment, methods of appraising environmental quality and relevant pre-normative research. A major objective of the project is to describe current best practice and advance knowledge in each area investigated. Thus, LESSLOSS has produced, under the coordination of the Joint Research Centre, a series of Technical reports addressed to technical and scientific communities, national, regional and local public administrations, design offices, and civil protection agencies with the following titles: Lessloss-2007/01: Landslides: Mapping, Monitoring, Modelling and Stabilization Lessloss-2007/02: European Manual for in-situ Assessment of Important Existing Structures Lessloss-2007/03: Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual Lessloss-2007/04: Guidelines for Seismic Vulnerability Reduction in the Urban Environment Lessloss-2007/05: Guidelines for Displacement-based Design of Buildings and Bridges Lessloss-2007/06: Probabilistic Methods to Seismic Assessment of Existing Structures Lessloss-2007/07: Earthquake Disaster Scenario Predictions and Loss Modelling for Urban Areas Lessloss-2007/08: Prediction of Ground Motion and Loss Scenarios for Selected Infrastructure Systems in European Urban Environments
ABSTRACT
This report contains the Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems User Manual, which was prepared by all partners of Sub-Project 6 at the conclusion of the LESSLOSS Project. The aim of this User Manual is to provide potential Designers and End users of the antiseismic devices developed within Sub-Project 6 of the LESSLOSS project with practical tools to design structures incorporating such devices. The document contains a description of the main features and performance of the devices and instructions for their design, installation and maintenance. Comparisons among different types are also provided, so as to help the User to choose the most suitable device. The antiseismic devices developed in the framework of Sub-Project 6 are: 1. Low Stiffness Isolators (LSIs), particularly addressed to the seismic isolation of light structures like family houses; 2. Electroinductive Dampers (DECS), energy dissipators suitable for the seismic protection of large structures like bridges; 3. Steel Hysteretic elements coupled with flat sliders, addressed to the isolation of viaducts and bridges; 4. Sliding Isolation Pendulum, curved surface sliders for the protection of buildings and other structures. Devices 1 and 2 are developed by ALGA, Italy. Devices 3 and 4 are developed by MAURER Shne, Germany. All the devices have been subjected to severe qualification tests. Moreover, all of them have been tested on the ENEA shaking table in real seismic conditions using natural and synthetic acceleration time-histories implemented by ENEA. STAP and VINCI, design and construction companies, contributed to the optimization of the devices and the preparation of this document.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD................................................................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................................iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...........................................................................................................................v 1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................1 1.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................1
2. LOW STIFFNESS ISOLATORS ..........................................................................................................3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 DESCRIPTION .....................................................................................................................................3 MATERIALS AND DIMENSIONS ........................................................................................................5 SPECIFICATIONS .................................................................................................................................5 CALCULATION EXAMPLES ................................................................................................................6 TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROLS ...............................................................................................8 Testing.....................................................................................................................................8 Quality controls......................................................................................................................8
2.5.1 2.5.2 2.6
INSTALLATION, INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ......................................................................9 General....................................................................................................................................9 Installation ............................................................................................................................10 Maintenance..........................................................................................................................15
2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3
3. ELECTROINDUCTIVE DEVICES..................................................................................................19 3.1 DESCRIPTION ...................................................................................................................................19
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LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
MATERIALS AND DIMENSIONS ...................................................................................................... 20 SPECIFICATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 20 CALCULATION EXAMPLES.............................................................................................................. 20 TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROLS ............................................................................................. 21 Testing .................................................................................................................................. 21 Quality controls ................................................................................................................... 21
3.5.1 3.5.2 3.6
INSTALLATION, INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE .................................................................... 22 Installation............................................................................................................................ 22 Maintenance......................................................................................................................... 24
3.6.1 3.6.2
4. STEEL HYSTERETIC SYSTEMS..................................................................................................... 27 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 DESCRIPTION ................................................................................................................................... 27 MATERIALS AND DIMENSIONS ...................................................................................................... 31 SPECIFICATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 32 CALCULATION EXAMPLES.............................................................................................................. 33 TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROLS ............................................................................................. 39 Testing .................................................................................................................................. 39 Quality controls ................................................................................................................... 40
4.5.1 4.5.2 4.6
INSTALLATION, INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE .................................................................... 41 General ................................................................................................................................. 41 Type Designation Plate on each Bearing ......................................................................... 41 Unloading, Transportation and Storage ........................................................................... 41 Installation............................................................................................................................ 42 Maintenance......................................................................................................................... 43
4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5
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5. SLIDING ISOLATION PENDULUM .............................................................................................45 5.1 5.2 DESCRIPTION ...................................................................................................................................45 MATERIALS AND DIMENSIONS ......................................................................................................49 Concave Plates, Housing and Lens ...................................................................................49 Concave Sliding Surface......................................................................................................50 Bearing Liner ........................................................................................................................50 Other Materials ....................................................................................................................51
5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.3 5.4 5.5
SPECIFICATIONS ...............................................................................................................................51 CALCULATION EXAMPLES ..............................................................................................................51 TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROLS .............................................................................................58 Testing...................................................................................................................................58 Quality controls....................................................................................................................58
5.5.1 5.5.2 5.6
INSTALLATION, INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ....................................................................59 Type Designation Plate on each Bearing..........................................................................59 Unloading, Transportation and Storage............................................................................60 Installation of SIP bearings ................................................................................................61 Maintenance..........................................................................................................................65
5.6.1 5.6.2 5.6.3 5.6.4
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................................67
1.INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION The current earthquake codes for conventionally protected structures, though they prevent collapse, allow even severe damage under strong earthquakes. In fact, the seismic resistance of the conventionally protected structures relies on their capacity to undergo significant inelastic deformations in strong earthquakes, namely on their ductility. Moreover, the conventional techniques provide no protection to the contents of a building or to secondary structural features. The prevention of earthquake damage to contents such as sensitive equipment is vital for hospitals and other critical facilities like museums [Pinho, 2004]. Passive control systems of seismic vibrations are innovative techniques which are worldwide considered to be already fully mature for providing mitigation of seismic damage for civil structures and components or equipment and have proven to be reliable and cost-effective for bridges and viaducts, civil buildings, cultural heritage and critical facilities. This Manual presents the most common passive control systems, which are the seismic isolation and the energy dissipation. Seismic isolation (SI) provides a method for protecting not only the structures but also the non-structural members and the structure contents, by means of a considerable reduction of the seismic loads transmitted through the foundations into the superstructure. The horizontal stiffness of the SI system has to be sufficiently low as to make the fundamental response frequency of the structure well below the frequency range of the ground motion; the SI systems must also possess sufficient damping capability, in order to limit the horizontal displacement to an acceptable value. For buildings the SI system is usually installed at the base or at the first floor, while for bridges and viaducts it is usually installed at pier top. Energy dissipation (ED) consists in the use of special devices, which attract on themselves and dissipate there a large amount of the seismic energy: for buildings they are
installed at the base (usually in conjunction with SI devices) or, more frequently, inside them between positions subjected to significant relative displacements; for bridges and viaducts they are installed (similar to the isolators) at pier top or, more frequently, between deck and abutments. ED systems may be used in most cases where SI is not applicable, e.g. for retrofits of buildings that are not provided with sufficiently large gaps, construction of high rise buildings, components which require small lateral displacements, soft soils, etc. Several types of seismic isolators and energy dissipators have been developed, both inside and outside Europe. As regard isolators, the High Damping Rubber Bearings (HDRBs) can very often provide a simple and economical isolation system, as they combine the required low stiffness and displacement capacity with a sufficiently large level of damping. The high-to-medium stiffness HDRBs presently available on the European and non-European markets are excellent for a wide variety of applications, but there exist several circumstances where their use is technically difficult, if not impossible. These circumstances include, for instance, light structures, like small buildings or electrical equipment, which are quite important potential markets for SI. Furthermore, the performance of presently available ED devices may be considerably improved from both the technical and economical points of view. Finally, other innovative ED devices, based on different physical phenomena, can be developed. Hence the main objectives of Sub-Project 6 were: the development of innovative low stiffness isolators (LSIs) to be used in civil applications characterized by light structures (residential houses) or for light industrial equipment; the development of innovative electro-inductive devices (DECS) to be used in civil applications characterized by heavy structures (bridges and viaducts); the evaluation of the benefits, as well as ascertaining the limitations, of two important types of devices actually available on the market: sliders coupled with hysteretic elements and Sliding Isolation Pendulum (SIP) systems.
2. LOW STIFFNESS ISOLATORS

2.1 DESCRIPTION Regular High Damping Rubber Bearings (HDRBs) are formed by alternate vulcanized rubber layers and steel plates, bonded together by use of chemical compounds. They are usually placed between the structure and its foundations. Their features provide high stiffness in the vertical direction (to support the dead load) and low stiffness in the transverse direction (which minimizes amplification of ground acceleration, by leading, however, to large horizontal displacements during strong earthquakes). During the seismic attack, the isolated structure oscillates at the isolation frequency f (usually chosen close to 0,5 Hz), which is given by Equation (2.1),
f = 1 / 2 K h / M
(2.1)
where Kh is the total horizontal stiffness of the isolation system and M is the total mass of the isolated structure. The horizontal stiffness (Kh) of a single HDRB is given by the following correlation:
K h = GA / t
(2.2)
where G is the shear modulus of the rubber, A is the cross-section of the isolator and t is the total thickness of the rubber. The cross-section of the HDRB is proportional to the dead load to be supported while the total height of the rubber is proportional to the design displacement, which strongly depends on the seismicity of the site. Heavy structures are equipped, in general, with isolators with large cross-sections: they are stable under the design vertical load, even at large deformations (Figure 2.1). On the contrary, light structures need low cross-sections; in this case the isolator could be much too slender and could become instable in the deformation range of interest (Figure 2.2). Paradoxically, the seismic isolation of a light structure like a small house is more difficult than that of a heavy one like a nuclear reactor, referring to the same seismicity of the site.
Figure 2.1. View of a HDRB 250 mm diameter and 72 mm rubber height which supports 800 kN vertical load up to 300% shear strain. A seismic isolator with high cross-section is stable and can support the dead load up to very high horizontal deformations.
Figure 2.2. A light structure like a statue requires a low cross-section isolator which could became instable. To avoid the roll-over of the isolator, a particular configuration called MULTISTAGE is necessary. In Italy, several statues, like the Riace Bronzes, are isolated using this system.
One of the aims of the LESSLOSS Project was the development of a seismic isolator characterized by a very low horizontal stiffness to be used for the isolation of light structures like family houses. This goal was reached with the development of a regular HDRB with a huge central hole (Figure 2.3). This geometrical solution reduces the crosssection area and consequently the horizontal stiffness of the isolator, providing at the same time sufficient stability at large deformations.
Figure 2.3. Finite element model of a Low Stiffness Isolator.
2.2 MATERIALS AND DIMENSIONS The low stiffness isolators are usually made with regular soft rubber compounds, with a G modulus equal to 0.4-0.5 MPa. Dimensions and sizes are those of the regular HDRBs, typically 500 mm diameter and 150 mm rubber height. 2.3 SPECIFICATIONS The low stiffness isolators are similar to the high damping rubber isolators so the design rules given by international design codes have to be applied. The codes describe the way to design, verify and test the isolators and how to design the structures where the devices are to be installed. The principal standards for the design of base isolated structures are:

AASHTO - Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design; EN 1998-1 - Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance; prEN 15129 - Anti-seismic devices, CEN;
Only for Italy: Ordinanza 3274 - Primi elementi in materia di criteri generali per la classificazione sismica del territorio nazionale e di normative tecniche per le costruzioni in zona sismica.
2.4 CALCULATION EXAMPLES The design of the low stiffness isolators follows the same rules and procedures of a regular isolator. In the following an example of the calculation of a low stiffness isolator system is shown. The design data are taken from the small building design example shown in LessLoss Deliverable Report D33 [2006] where a single floor isolated family house has been considered. The main data for the isolation system design are the following: total mass of the structure in seismic load condition = 472 ton; target isolation period = 2.58 sec; total isolation system stiffness = 2796 kN/m; number of isolators = 16; single isolator stiffness = 174,8 kN/m; single isolator vertical load in seismic condition = 300 kN; isolator device equivalent damping = 10%; isolation system design displacement = 160 mm.
Using the previous design data the calculation checks of a suitable isolators system are shown in Table 2.1. In this example the checks are done using the new Italian code for the design of structures subjected to earthquakes. According to the code the isolators displacement must be amplified by the factor 1.2 for the checks so in this example the isolator is checked for a displacement equal to 192 mm.
Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual Table 2.1. Calculation checks of a low stiffness isolators system
2.5 TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROLS 2.5.1 Testing The low stiffness isolators work as the well known rubber isolators, each test program follows the international standard applied for the design or can be eventually defined for the specific project. In any case the types of test are the following: 1. compression test in order to evaluate the capacity of the low stiffness isolator to sustain the design static maximum vertical load. The test is performed applying the design vertical load by defined load steps and the vertical displacement is measured in order to evaluate the device vertical stiffness; 2. horizontal test performed by applying the vertical load in the seismic load condition and applying the horizontal displacement by defined displacement steps in order to calculate the horizontal stiffness; the load is applying at least for three cycles; 3. rubber-steel adherence test where the isolator horizontal displacement is amplified in order to reach the rubber deformation tan = 2.5 to verify the capacity of the isolator to sustain a very heavy horizontal displacement with no rubber cracks or failure in the connection between rubber and steel plates; 4. dynamic test applying the horizontal displacement in order to evaluate the damping of the low stiffness isolators. 2.5.2 Quality controls The quality production control is applied to the raw materials of the low stiffness isolators and to the final product. For the raw materials the quality control is applied by using ad hoc ALGA internal procedure to check conformity of the materials to the reference standards. For the steel parts the following checks are performed: chemical analysis; yield strength; tensile strength; elongation at break.
For the rubber compound the main checks are: - hardness; - tensile strength; - elongation at break;
density; compression set; hardness changes due to accelerated ageing; tensile change after accelerated ageing; elongation at break after accelerated ageing; ozone resistance test; bond test; G modulus test.
On the manufactured low stiffness isolators the main final checks are: - dimensional checks; - visual inspection of corrosion protection and thickness check; - functional tests such as vertical stiffness test, horizontal stiffness test (G modulus), bonding steel-rubber test. 2.6 INSTALLATION, INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 2.6.1 General The philosophy of the recent design codes requires that the design and construction of a new structure must consider as a primary target the efficiency and the maintenance of the construction along its life time; in order to satisfy the previous requirements each structural component must have a maintenance plan. For the structure where seismic isolators can be used (buildings, infrastructures) the most suitable criteria for maintaining the functionality is the planned maintenance that follows the structure behaviour during its life in order to detect the factors that can cause primary damages and to plan with an adequate time the retrofit tools to obtain the maximum benefit with the minimum financial costs. To prepare in advance a general retrofit plan can be very difficult due to the need of considering the variation of the structure conditions during its life. The maintenance plan, in fact, must be managed as a consequence of the inspection results considering also the velocity of degradation. For the previous reason it seems not significant to make inspection plans with a time prevision longer that 20 years. Due to the fact that the control inspections start with the service functioning, the first inspection is required during the final construction inspection. In the first inspection one must analyze the structure recording photo, comments to define a clear initial status of
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the structure and of the seismic isolation system; it represents the reference status for the future inspection controls. These will be characterized by a detailed analysis and a comparison with the initial status to detect possible changes that could affect the seismic isolation system response. The present section defines the criteria and the procedures to censure an adequate control and maintenance of the high damping rubber isolators manufactured by Alga S.p.A. 2.6.2 Installation Delivery and temporary storage. All the bearings are dispatched assembled and ready for installation, with the main characteristics marked on an aluminium label. If the bearings are not installed immediately after their arrival on site, the final user has to make sure that they are properly stored, i.e., protected against dirt, humidity and any other damage whatsoever. Inspection before installation. In order to preclude any mix-up of the bearings all the data written on the aluminium label shall be checked and compared with the ones showed in the shop drawings. Furthermore, before installation, parallelism of bearings plates has also to be checked. Casting of the substructures. Substructures shall reach the exact level to suit the thickness of the bearing so that the superstructure will be at the specified level after completion. An advisable procedure is to cast substructures leaving void spaces in the concrete substructure in the positions foreseen for the anchors. These void spaces should allow suitable tolerance for positioning of the bearing. Advised to create these void spaces are for instance some pieces of corrugated steel sheathing, the same used for posttensioning tendons with a 10 to 15 cm diameter.
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isolator with lower
anchor bars
substructure
void to place the anchor bar
Figure 2.4. Schematic view of casting of substructure in view of positioning a Low Stiffness Isolator.
Bearing positioning. Exact level will be reached by means of three or more steel (or wood, or concrete) wedge-shaped spacers. Care shall be taken so that the maximum deviation from the horizontal plan does not exceed 0.001 radians. A wood formwork surrounding the bearings base plate and with top level higher than plate bottom by 10 mm at least, shall be made. A wood formwork, surrounding the bearings base plate and with top level higher than plate bottom by 10 mm at least, shall be made. At this point, the bearing may be grouted on the substructure; to this end, advised material is a non-shrink, quick setting cement mortar. If the wedges used to hold the bearing in its correct position are made of different material from concrete, they shall be removed after sufficient hardening of the mortar and then voids shall be filled by the same mortar pad. If the thickness of the quick setting cement mortar exceeds 40 mm, a suitable reinforcement shall be provided. Note that top level of cement mortar shall not exceed bottom level of the bearing, in order to avoid bearings embedding, with consequent problems for future removal.
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isolator placed at the final level mortar to grout the isolator and anchor bars
Figure 2.5. Schematic view of bearing positioning to place a Low Stiffness Isolator.
Figure 2.6. View of a Low Stiffness Isolator installed on the substructure.
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Casting of the superstructure - cast in situ superstructure Superstructure formwork shall be tightly arranged around the top plate perimeter and scaled with adhesive tape to prevent leakage of concrete during casting. Formwork will also be arranged in such a way that the bearing will not protrude into superstructure (taking into account also the estimated settlement of scaffolding during pouring), as this would make the bearing replacement very difficult or even impossible. Be sure that the total height of the bearing is kept equal to that shown on the shop drawing during the superstructure casting. Any welding work as well as mounting and cutting-off of auxiliary structures for bearings, are not admissible except when carried out by Alga S.p.A. erectors or by any other specialist working on Alga S.p.A. instructions. Upon completion of such works, the bearings must be cleaned of dirt and the coat of paint is to be repaired, where necessary.
Figure 2.7. LSI installed on the substructure with the formwork and reinforcement for casting the superstructure already placed
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Casting of the superstructure - prefabricated superstructure As the bearings have top anchorages, the prefabricated structure shall have void rooms suitable for those ones, the beam shall be supported on the bearings or by other methods agreed by the Engineer. At this point, a rubber seal (with its injection and leakage pipes) shall be placed all around the upper plate of the bearing, to cover the air gap between the same bearing and the superstructure; then high strength mortar shall be cast filling up the gap and the void rooms in the superstructure. When the mortar has achieved sufficient strength to transmit the weight of the bearings, the temporary supports shall then be removed. In case of steel superstructure a suitable counter plate with threaded holes to fix the isolators anchor bolts must be provided and once the steel beams have been placed on the bearings the anchor bolts must be screwed. Upon completion of such works, the bearings must be cleaned of dirt and the coat of paint is to be repaired, where necessary.
Figure 2.8. Example of a LSI installed on the top of a column of a steel superstructure
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2.6.3 Maintenance General requirements and control frequency. The state of functioning and conservation of the isolators should be checked by a visual inspection made by a qualified inspector with adequate experience on these devices, with a frequency at least equal to the one to be done on the principal structure. It is recommended, in any case, to perform the first inspection within the first year after installation and to repeat every five years Table 2.2. Should the inspector verify some critical condition that he/she is not able to completely evaluate or recommend suitable repairs, the assistance of an expert before completing the inspection must be required. In this case contact the Alga S.p.A. Technical Director of Technical Design Office Manager.
Table 2.2. Frequency of inspections of isolators
INSPECTION FREQUENCY
MAINTEINANCE INSPECTION
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency of the inspection [years]

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Principal inspection Normal inspection
X X
X * X
Normal inspection. It is strongly recommended to do a normal inspection each five years; the checks to be performed for a normal maintenance plan are shown in Table 2.2. In any case the normal inspection procedure is here shown and the following properties must be checked: a) sufficient capacity of moving into the structure near the isolation devices to reach each device; b) absence of macroscopic and visible defects: rubber external cracking; positions, parallelism and planarity not correct; unexpected movements and/or deformation; c) condition of conservation and cleanness of the area surrounding the devices and in particular of the fixing tools to the structure; d) conservation of the anti-corrosion protection system; e) absence of visible defects of the structural parts around the device.
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The results of the inspection must be registered and stored. The inspection report will be eventually completed with drawings and photos of the inspected parts. In case of visible defects or damages that could affect the functionality of the isolators, further checks will be performed as described in the next paragraph. Principal inspection. The principal inspections will be performed at time intervals less frequent that the normal ones and normally substitute one of the normal. It is suggested to perform a principal inspection after a seismic event or each ten years after installation. The normal inspection has the aim of obtaining a detailed documentation of the status of the isolators in order to ensure that the devices are continuing to guarantee their response according to the design requirements. The first inspection must be performed within the first year of installation of the devices and the construction must be analysed in detail to describe the initial condition by comments, drawings and photos in order to define a reference document that will be the base for the future inspections. The principal inspection will include all the items required in the normal inspection but it must be performed with a more detailed control. The items of particular importance that for each device must be checked are the following. The recovered measurements calculated for the same load condition will be compared with the design values as a function of the age of the structure. In case the devices show significant rotations and displacements they must be calculated in order to check the device functioning. The regularity of the vertical deformation of the rubber layers will be checked according to the scheme shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9. Schematic view of vertical deformation of the rubber layers
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The absence of macroscopic cracking of the rubber will be checked and the ones that go into the rubber cover layers of 5 mm must be carefully investigated. For each principal inspection it is suggested to remove one isolator and test it in a laboratory to acquire the variation in time of the main properties under service loads. Control results. According to the inspection results one of the following procedures should be adopted: A) positive result: no action to be taken. B) irregular displacement and/or rotations, or small rubber cracks with dept lower than 5 mm, or damages to the corrosion protection of the steel parts: additional checks and measurements to be performed and repair of the corrosion protection. In case after the additional inspection the damages are worse than before, it is recommended to contact Alga S.p.A. before starting the procedure described in the item C. C) structural damages to the device or to its components: repair and/or replacement of the device or parts of it, local or general repair of the corrosion protection, etc. It is recommended in any case to contact immediately the Technical Direction of Alga S.p.A. before starting any device repair or substitution. Control frequency plan In case that during the periodic control inspections the inspector notice damages that need exceptional maintenance contact the Technical Director of Alga S.p.A. Technical Design Office Manager before starting any operation on the devices. The exceptional maintenance and eventual substitution of the devices is required in case that important damages that affect the device functioning are noticed. Due to the different situations that could occur for an exceptional maintenance it is not possible to develop a general procedure but each situation must be carefully studied by the structural engineer and Alga S.p.A. technicians in order to guarantee the functioning of the isolation system and also to avoid any significant damages to the structure.
3. ELECTROINDUCTIVE DEVICES
3.1 DESCRIPTION The principle of operation of the Electro-Inductive Devices (DECS) is based on the generation of electrical power from vibration power, using the motion caused by external excitations due to earthquakes as primary energy source at the device mechanical input, in order to limit and damp the motion. The devices, in fact, must be located on structures and connected between two points in relative movement during the earthquake excitation. Due to these movements, the apparatus develops electric energy (as in the electrical generators), subsequently dissipated into heat. The basic device scheme of a non-active device includes a part equipped with permanent magnets, in order to create a magnetic field, and another part, in relative motion with respect to the previous one, containing the induced electric circuit and, in case, connected to an external circuit: the selection of which parts are fixed or moveable depends on design choices, nature of the device, level of power to be dissipated. The use of permanent magnets, instead of a current excitation system, is preferable because of its simplicity, security and ready availability of the magnetic field and the consequent higher reliability features. The dissipation level depends on the relative velocity of the electric circuit as regards to the magnetic field. Being the response of devices related to the operating linear velocity v, the electro-inductive dissipators can be compared with the viscous dampers; for both the devices the response law can be expressed by the following equation: F=Cv (3.1)
where: F represents the response force, C and suitable constants to model the device behaviour. When the velocity is small, the reaction force of the devices is negligible: this is fundamental to allow the slow movements of the structures (for example, thermal
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expansion or contraction); on the contrary, when the motion is fast, the response increases and the dissipation effect is required. Compared to standard dampers, the electro-inductive devices require very low maintenance (limited to the anchorage to the structure), no ageing effects, no limitation on cycle life and low scattering on the response. The operating velocity range definition is the basic requirement for the electro-inductive devices design; for seismic applications, a reasonable average reference value for the earthquake velocity is approximately equal to vref = 0.5 m/s. 3.2 MATERIALS AND DIMENSIONS The materials used for the DECS manufacturing are: - hot rolled structural steel type S355JR according to EN10025; - steel 100Cr6 for roller bearing; - permanent ferrous magnets. 3.3 SPECIFICATIONS The DECS devices are designed to meet the international design codes. The principal standard for the design of structures are:

AASHTO - Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design; EN 1998-1 - Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance; prEN 15129 - Anti-seismic devices, CEN; Only for Italy: Ordinanza 3274 - Primi elementi in materia di criteri generali per la classificazione sismica del territorio nazionale e di normative tecniche per le costruzioni in zona sismica.
The codes describe the way to design, verify and test the devices and how to design the structures where the devices are placed. 3.4 CALCULATION EXAMPLES The calculation of the DECS device has to be performed by a non linear dynamic analysis that can be summarized in the following steps: - model the device as a damper in a finite element code;
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- select the parameter C adopting a device design velocity; - perform the dynamic analysis and check the device response; - if the response is suitable and the dampers have an optimal dissipation, the design is completed; if not, modify the parameter C in order to increase the device reaction. 3.5 TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROLS 3.5.1 Testing The DECS devices response is similar to the hydraulic dampers and so the tests to be applied can be obtained by the ones of the hydraulic devices. The types of tests are the following: 1. slow motion test in order to evaluate the friction reaction force of the DECS; 2. dynamic fast tests at different velocity values in order to evaluate the response curve of the device; 3. sustained load test with at least 10 cycle at maximum velocity in order to verify the stability of the device under severe motion and energy dissipation condition. 3.5.2 Quality controls The quality production control is applied to the raw materials and to the final product. For the raw materials, the quality control is applied by using ad hoc ALGA internal procedure to check conformity of the materials to the reference standards. For the steel parts, the following checks are performed: chemical analysis; yield strength; tensile strength; elongation at break.
For the magnets the main checks are: - the magnetic field intensity; - the dimensions. On the manufactured DECS, the main final checks are: - dimensional checks; - visual inspection of the corrosion protection and thickness check;
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- functional tests such as checking of the allowable stroke and slow motion checking in order to verify the DECS functioning. 3.6 INSTALLATION, INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 3.6.1 Installation Delivery and temporary storage. All the bearings are dispatched assembled and ready for installation, with the main characteristics marked on an aluminium label. If the bearings are not installed immediately after their arrival on site, the final user has to make sure that they are properly stored, i.e. protected against dirt, humidity and any other damage whatsoever. Inspection before installation. In order to preclude any mix-up of the bearings all the data written on the aluminium label shall be checked and compared with the ones showed in the shop drawings. Furthermore, before installation, parallelism of bearings plates has also to be checked. DECS installation. The DECS device is normally located between two parts of the structure where relative motion can occur such as: deck and abutment wall and/or pier cap and deck. In order to install the DECS, suitable anchorages must be inserted in the structure. If a steel deck is used, the DECS anchorages are bolted to the steel beam at one side and fixed to the pier cap or abutment by anchorages into concrete. If a concrete deck is used, the DECS anchorages are provided by anchorages to be grouted into concrete. If the concrete deck is cast in situ, the DECS anchorages are directly grouted during deck pouring. If the deck is precasted, the anchorages must be inserted in the beam deck formwork. Once the anchorages are fixed to the structure, the DECS device must be installed by inserting the connection pins that fix the DECS to its anchorages. The pin connection guarantees the future replacement and allows the DECS to react as a truss (only axis force) with no negative bending effects. The DECS installation phases for a device placed between abutment and deck is shown below.
23
Phase 1 Device positioning near the final position
Phase 2 Device positioning in the final position
Phase 3 Insertion of the connections
24
Phase 4 Device final position
For future replacement the sequence starts from the last phase to the first. 3.6.2 Maintenance General requirements and control frequency. The DECS state of functioning and conservation will be checked by a visual inspection made by a qualified inspector with adequate experience on these devices with a frequency at least equal to the one principal structure. It is recommended in any case to perform the first inspection within the first year after installation and to repeat every five years Table 3.1. If the inspector verifies some critical condition that he/she is not able to completely evaluate or recommend suitable repairs, the assistance of an expert before completing the inspection must be required. In this case contact the Alga S.p.A. Technical Director of Technical Design Office Manager.
Table 3.1. Frequency of inspections of devices
INSPECTION FREQUENCY
MAINTEINANCE INSPECTION
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency of the inspection [years]

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Principal inspection Normal inspection
X X
X * X
25
Normal inspection. It is strongly recommended to do a normal inspection each five years; the following properties must be checked: a) sufficient capacity of moving into the structure near the devices to reach each device; b) absence of macroscopic and visible defects: unexpected movements and/or deformation; c) condition of conservation and cleanness of the area surrounding the devices and in particular of the fixing tools to the structure; d) conservation of the anti corrosion protection system; e) absence of visible defects of the structural parts around the device. The results of the inspection must be registered and stored. The inspection report will be eventually completed with drawings and photos of the inspected parts. In case of visible defects or damages that could affect the functionality of the DECS, further checks should be performed by Alga S.p.A. Technician. Control results. According to the inspection results, one of the following procedures should be adopted: A) positive result: no action to be taken. B) irregular displacement and/or rotations or limited corrosion of the steel parts: additional checks and measurements to be performed and repair of the corrosion protection. In case after the additional inspection the damages are worse than before, it is recommended to contact Alga S.p.A. before starting the procedure described in the item C. C) structural damages to the device or to its components: repair and/or replacement of the device or parts of it, local or general repair of the corrosion protection, etc. It is recommended in any case to contact immediately the Technical Direction of Alga S.p.A. before starting any device repair or substitution. Control frequency plan The exceptional maintenance and eventual substitution of the devices is required in case that important damages that affect the device functioning are noticed. Due to the different situations that could occur for an exceptional maintenance, it is not possible to develop a general procedure but each situation must be studied carefully by the structural engineer and Alga S.p.A. technicians in order to guarantee the functioning of isolation system and also to avoid any significant damages to the structure.
4. STEEL HYSTERETIC SYSTEMS

4.1 DESCRIPTION
Steel Hysteretic Dampers (SHD) preferably serve as base isolation in bridge construction. They are installed in the bridge bearings area as devices independent from the bearing itself, which means they do not participate in the damping of loads from the superstructure. The dampers are arranged in a way that if necessary they can possibly be replaced with a new unit after an earthquake. Due to the steel hysteretic dampers, the total bridge bearing becomes a fixed one. Hence, the dissipation device has to be designed considering the degrees of freedom of the bearing. During a severe earthquake the steel elements undergo a plastic deformation. The superstructure shifts on the sliding bearings activating the sliding friction. The plastic deformation of the coupling elements produces the necessary energy dissipation. The different damper forms are shown as examples in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Steel-hysteretic dampers with crescent moon/pin/U-clamps
28
The chosen coupling elements are predominantly those forms that are subjected to bending and/or shear strain, so that the entire volume extensively and uniformly plasticises. All other parts including joints and fastenings must not plastically deform, stresses must remain in the elastic region. The coupled arrangement shown in the sketch in Figure 4.2 consists of parallel triangular plates with constant thicknesses that are exposed to a bending force F. The bending moment M(x) is linearly variable, while the shear force Q is constant:
x M ( x ) = Fl 1 l
Q = F = const
(4.1) (4.2)
The triangular shape results in a constant curvature over the height of each plate, since the bending stress is constant and thereby an extensively uniform plasticisation occurs. It has to be considered that the short plate stumps at the top are subjected to large shear stress. The material has to possess distinctive stable flow behaviour.
Figure 4.2. Bending/shear stress in a triangular element
A precise dynamic seismic analysis of a complex structure, e.g. a bridge including superstructure, piers, abutments, different forms of bearings and integrated steel
29
hysteretic dampers with high grade non-linear behaviour, can be executed only by means of sophisticated design software, which, however, might be too expensive. In this case an assessment based on the secant stiffness procedure is recommended, in particular because it provides a quick overview. The supporting frame is assumed as an elastic structure. The curved hysteretic gradient of the steel hysteretic dampers is replaced by a bilinear gradient. The gradient depends on the type of element as schematically shown in the force displacement diagrams as illustrated in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3. Different plastic hysteretic loops (schematic)
Figure 4.4 shows the hysteretic loops of a triangular element with linear growing displacement amplitudes from one cycle to the next cycle.
Figure 4.4. Hysteresis of a plasticizing steel-hysteretic element
The parameters ke, kp, Fp and yp characterise the bilinear behaviour. The values can be drawn from measurements, as it is demonstrated in Figure 4.4 (b,c,d). It can be seen that the dissipated energy is somewhat overestimated, which should be adjusted by correction factors depending on the solidity of the material.
30
Satisfactory plastic ductility particularly during the violent phase of an earthquake is the main requirement for the functionality of a steel hysteretic damper. Alternating plasticisation must not lead to short-time fatigue and thereof to brittle failure. As indicated in Figure 4.5, mild steel is able to withstand high plastic energy dissipation for a certain period of time. The number of acceptable cycles strongly depends on the deformation amplitude.
Figure 4.5. Resistant energy dissipation amplitude at low cycle fatigue
It is therefore essential to know the dissipation amplitudes particularly at critical locations of the device to check functionality and reliability. Time history analyses with several natural or artificial acceleration diagrams are necessary for a realistic determination of functionality and reliability. One of the main objectives of the Lessloss Project was to evaluate the benefits and to determine the limits of sliders coupled with steel-hysteretic elements. The specific objective of sub-task 2.2a_2.1 was to study the effects of different types of steel hysteretic elements on the response of the structure. The influence of the elastic/post-elastic stiffness ratio, which is the most representative parameter of this class of devices, was particularly examined. For the calibration of the model developed by ENEA, the characterization tests with the SHD devices were carried out at the University of Armed Forces in Munich.
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4.2 MATERIALS AND DIMENSIONS
The steel-hysteretic dampers are designed for a high fatigue resistance and for operation at high levels of plastic strain. This is achieved by using high-ductility mild steels. In the scope of the LessLoss Project different types of steel were tested. The steelhysteretic devices and the bearing parts were composed of structural steel grade S355J2G3 acc. 10025 with minimum tensile strength as specified in Table 4.1. Material certification is according to EN 10204, 3.1. B.
Table 4.1 Nominal values of yield and tensile strength in MPa (according to Table 3.1, EC3 1-1, conform to EN 10025)
Thickness (mm) Steel fy (MPa) Fe 510 345 t 40mm fu (MPa) 490 40mm < t 100mm fy (MPa) 315 fu (MPa) 490
Maurer Shne designed and manufactured 37 steelhysteretic elements for characterisation tests at the University of Armed Forces and shake table tests at ENEA. Figure 4.6 shows the shape of the devices and the dimensions are listed in Table 4.2.
Figure 4.6. Model of a triangular plate device - geometric definition and element deformation
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Table 4.2 Geometrical data of triangular plate elements
Element # 7 13 17
L [mm] 250 190 190
b [mm] 70 100 70
c [mm] 50 50 70
t [mm] 40 14 35
smax [mm] 60 96 36
Figure 4.7 shows an example of the so-called TR-element no. 7 (triangular plate with half moon head).
Figure 4.7. TR-Element 7 with half moon head
4.3 SPECIFICATIONS
The standards for the design of base isolated structures are:

AASHTO - Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design; EN 1998-1 - Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance; prEN 15129 - Anti-seismic devices, CEN.
33
Standards for the design of sliding bearings and isolators:

ETA-06/0131 Maurer MSM Spherical Bearing; EN 1337-2:2004; EN 1337-7:2004.
The codes describe the way to design, verify and test the devices and how to design the structures, in which the devices shall be placed.
4.4 CALCULATION EXAMPLES
The effect of a base isolation with SHD is shown with a simple example. The calculation model of the structures with solid foundation is shown in Figure 4.8. a), while in Figure 4.8. b) it is enlarged by a base isolation. The model presents a realistic building. Mass mG and spring constant kG are kinetically equivalent to the real properties of the building. Self-damping capacity exists and corresponds (with =0.025) to the behaviour of common structures. The structure is analysed without and with base isolation.
Steel Hysteretic devices SHD
Figure 4.8. Example a) SDOF with rigid clamping b) DDOF with interconnected base isolation
The system is analysed according to the response spectrum procedure. The response spectrum Se shown in Figure 4.9 (following Eurocode 8) is taken as excitation input. The spectrum is not a reference spectrum Sd and the behaviour value q is not included.
34
Figure 4.9. Elastic acceleration response spectrum
Structure without base isolation
Starting from the following system parameters:

m G = 1,4 10 6 kg and kG = 85 10 6 N / m , the natural vibration behaviour is then determined:
G =
fG =
kG = 7,79s 1 , mG
G = 1, 24 Hz , 2
1 = 0,81s . fG
TG =
The damping coefficient follows: d G = 2 m G G G = 5,5 10 5 N /( m / s ) The acceleration value is taken from the spectrum for the natural vibration period T = 0,81 s:
35
S e ( T = 0,81s ) =
3,795 = 4 ,685 m / s 0,81
Multiplied by mass mG the appertaining inertia force results as follows:

F = 1,4 10 6 4 ,685 = 6,559 10 6 N = 6559kN The lateral elastic deflection with kG is: u= 6,559 10 6 = 0,077m 85 10 6
Structure with base isolation
A base plate with mass mB supported on the base isolation is added. Figure 4.8. b) applies for the base isolation: m G = 1,4 10 6 kg ; kG = 85 10 6 N / m
m B = 0,1 10 6 kg ; kB = kqui
The system in question is dual, which means that two natural mode shapes exist: 5. Self generated form 1 (Mode shape): both masses swing in the same direction with a natural period T1. 6. Self generated form 2 (Mode shape): the masses swing in opposite direction with a natural period T2. Natural oscillation form 1 is dominant and therefore normative. 25 pieces of steel hysteretic devices type 7 with the following properties are used:
ke = 5226 N/mm = 5,226 10 6 N / m k p = 154,5 N/mm = 0,154 10 6 N / m F p = 51,3kN = 51300 N u p = 9,8 mm = 0,0098m
36
Figure 4.10. Bilinear Hysteretic definition SHD
kqui is calculated for selected -values:
kqui =
Fp + k p ( y yp) y
y 0,0098 ) 51300 + 0,154 10 6 ( y
The damping ratio qui is calculated using the assumed -values and the elastic displacement up:
qui =
u p ) 2 ( 49790 ) ( u 0,0098 ) 2 ( F p k p u p ) (u = 2 2 kqui u kqui u
The conversion factor is calculated:
qui =
0,10 0,05 + qui
and finally the spectral acceleration Se as well as the displacement Su:
S e ( Tqui , qui ) = qui S e ( Tqui ,0,05 ) ,

Tqui S u (Tqui , qui ) = 2 S e ( Tqui , qui ) .
2
37
The results for five different -values are listed in Table 4.3. It becomes apparent that the sought result lies between 0,060 and 0,090m. An additional iteration delivers the solution u = 0,084 m.
Table 4.3 Values from iteration calculation
1 0,03 0,06 0,09 0,12 0,15 0,084 m 8 Se 2,73 2,18 1,91 3,47 3,24 1,95 m/s 2 T1 1,39 1,74 1,99 2,19 2,34 1,95 s 9 qui x Se 1,30 0,98 0,86 1,59 1,52 0,88 m/s 3 T2 0,17 0,19 0,19 0,19 0,20 0,19 s 10 Su 0,0635 0,0748 0,0861 0,1925 0,2108 0,0840 m 4 1 1,51 1,27 1,20 1,16 1,13 1,21 11 Su/ 2,12 1,25 0,96 1,60 1,41 1,00 5 2 -0,047 -0,056 -0,060 -0,062 -0,063 -0,059 6 qui 0,39 0,45 0,44 0,43 0,41 0,45 7 qui 0,48 0,45 0,45 0,46 0,47 0,45 -
Figure 4.11. Elastic acceleration response spectrum with spectral values from the calculation
38
The total structure is loaded with an inertial force of: FB = F = (1,4 10 6 + 0,1 10 6 ) 0,88 = 1,32 10 6 N (1.1) The structure without base plate (mG) carries a force of: FG = The associated displacement is: uG = 1, 232 10 6 = 0,0145m 85 10 6 1,4 1,32 10 6 = 1, 232 10 6 N 1,5
This static value is scaled with 1 = 1,21 (Table 4.3):
u G = 1, 21 0,0145 = 0,0175m
The total displacement of the structure mG is:
y G = 0,084 + 0,0175 = 0,102 m The comparison of the different systems for this example is shown in Figure 4.12.
0,102m
0,017
0,084
Figure 4.12. Max. oscillation without and with base isolation
39
The displacement of the SHD isolator can be calculated additionally using the following formula:
uB = FB 1,32 10 6 = = 0,071m kqui 1,87 10 7
The calculated displacement value Su delivers a conservative result of 0,084 m. It is reasonable to calculate with the iteration of FB /kqui. The oscillation with a period of T = 1,95 s corresponds to an Eigen angular frequency of =3,222 rad/s. The initial force is determined as follows: y G = 0,071 + 0,0145 = 0,086m FG = 1,4 10 6 3, 222 2 0,086 = 1, 243 10 6 N The example shows that the uG-values (movement of the structure) of the different concept lead to different results. uG without base isolation: uG with base isolation: 0,077 m 0,0175 m (= 0,23 = 23%)
The relative displacement of the structure is reduced by the base isolation to 1/5. Hence, the stress due to an earthquake is negligible.
4.5 TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROLS 4.5.1 Testing
Tests shall be carried out with the steel-hysteretic devices and samples of sliding elements to demonstrate the satisfying properties of the following general performance characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Load bearing capacity Horizontal displacement capacity Rotation capacity Isolation characteristics / Energy dissipation Wear resistance / Fatigue capacity
Each test program is according/complies with international standards applied for the design or, alternatively, should be defined for the specific project.
40
4.5.2 Quality controls
The quality production control is performed with the raw materials and the final product. MAURER bearings are designed according to European Technical Approval ETA06/0131 or EN 1337. MAURER is supervised by an independent third party the Material Testing Institute of University of Stuttgart. The internal quality control is supervised by control cards with details about dimensions, tolerances, design issues, applied materials and the numbers of the material certificates. The prototype testing is executed at independent Universities to prove the performance of the devices. Figure 4.13 shows an example of the hysteretic loops of the dynamic test of the SH element no. 17 with the material 1.0570 and the finite element model analysis of element no. 17 with the same material. Basically, it seems that the yielding stress of the device material is higher than the ones obtained in the tests of the material.
Device #17 - W0570
70
Test new Spring Spring mat. updated
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 0 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70
Force (kN)
-40
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
Displacement (mm)
Figure 4.13. Dynamic test TR 250 1.0570 with 60 mm displacement
41
4.6 INSTALLATION, INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 4.6.1 General
Detailed information is available in the European Standard EN 1337-11: Transport, storage and installation.
4.6.2 Type Designation Plate on each Bearing
All important data of the bearing are shown on the plate in Figure 4.14, which is located at the bearing top part edges.
SHS ... KN 66**** / 05-2007 no. 1 140 0 140 0
Figure 4.14. Type data plate
Description of the short cuts on the designation plate:

Type = Type of bearing or isolator (SHS = Steel Hysteretic Slider), O-NO = Order number and date of order, C-NO = internal sheet number and bearing number, LOC = Axis resp. location of bearing within the building structure, vx = Plus/minus movement in longitudinal direction, evx = Pre-adjustment in longitudinal direction, vy = Plus/minus movement in transversal direction, evy = Pre-adjustment in transversal direction.
4.6.3 Unloading, Transportation and Storage
The delivered steel-hysteretic sliders are precision-made components. Therefore, functionality can only be guaranteed if the devices are carefully treated. Sliding plate resp. bearing top part and lower bearing part are assembled parallel to each other in the workshop and safely fixed for transportation by means of assembly brackets. The assembly brackets are red marked and must be kept until the bearing is completely installed. This means the bolts of the brackets must not be loosened until the bearing is
42
located at the final position and is safely grouted to the superstructure or substructure respectively. Immediately upon receipt of the bearings at site, the bearings must be examined for transportation damages. In case of any damage, Maurer Shne shall be informed immediately in written form and the damage must be indicated in the shipping documents, too. Bearings, which cannot be installed in the structure immediately, should be stored in a suitable place, covered with well-ventilated tarpaulins, to protect them from damage and fouling with dirt.
4.6.4 Installation
The steel-hysteretic elements are located between two parts of the structure, where relative motion occur, e.g. between deck and abutment, or pier cap and deck. In order to install the steel-hysteretic elements suitable anchorage must be inserted in the structure. The steel-hysteretic elements shall be fixed to the structure by bolts to allow replacement in case of damage or fatigue. The anchorages are fixed to the structure with bolts. The bolt connection enables a future replacement.
Figure 4.15. Location of Steel-hysteretic devices in a structure
43
4.6.5 Maintenance
It is recommended to perform the first inspection after installation and to repeat the inspection every five years. Functionality and conservation of the steel-hysteretic elements shall be checked visually by a qualified, adequately experienced inspector. If the inspector finds a critical situation or a situation difficult to judge, it is recommended to require the assistance of an expert before completing the inspection. In this case contact Maurer Shne Munich. The five-yearly inspection shall be included in the maintenance program for the structure and shall check the following questions: a. Is there sufficient space left between the isolated structure and the abutment after an earthquake or other movements? b. Has the device itself sufficient capacity of movement? c. Has the device any macroscopic and visible defects resulting from unexpected movements, deformation, fatigue or corrosion? d. Is the conservation in good condition and are the device and its surrounding clean? e. Is the fixation to structure, e.g. bolts OK? The results of the inspection must be reported in a written form. The inspection report shall be eventually completed by drawings and photos of the inspected parts. In case of visible defects or damages that influence the functionality of the steel-hysteretic devices, a further inspection shall be performed by Maurer Shne. An exceptional maintenance and eventual substitution of the device is required if damages affecting the functionality of the device occur. Each situation must be studied carefully by a structural engineer and Maurer Shne technicians in order to guarantee the reliability of the isolation system and to avoid damages to the structure.
5. SLIDING ISOLATION PENDULUM

5.1 DESCRIPTION
The Sliding Isolation Pendulum Bearing (SIP) consists of a pivoting solid steel lens with a slider, which slides along a stainless steel spherically curved sliding surface (the concave plate) in bridge bearing quality. This lens is a double spherically shaped solid steel part, which matches the stainless steel concave curved sliding surface, and an opposing convex spherical surface, which allows its containment in a load bearing housing (the housing plate) while its free rotation (pivoting) is allowed. A self-lubricating bearing liner material called MSM is fixed to the sliding surface of the lens and to the housing. A environment rubber apron is provided around the bearing. The housing and concave plates are locked in with suitable temporary shipping and transportation restraints at the edges of the housing plates.
Concave sliding plate with stainless steel sheet
Lens MSM housing

Figure 5.1 Principle sketch of SIP
Radius
The Isolator Slider Material is MSM. The tolerance definition of the inner bearing components and detailed inner isolator geometry were developed by the supplier and are proprietary information protected by applicable law for the protection of intellectual property and patents. Therefore any information provided about these issues must be treated strictly confidentially.
46
Theoretical and mathematical description
The bearing types SIP are designed for friction values of = 3 up to 12%, acting at the specified design force level of the bearing. The design force level is the load during service and design limit state. The MAURER sliding isolation pendulum bearings are modeled according to the equations below.
Figure 5.2. Characteristic hysteretic loop of a spherical sliding isolator
Figure 5.3. Principle sketch of a spherical sliding isolator of SIP type
47
Equations for the design of SIP devices:
Horizontal resisting force:
FH =
W D + W (sgn v ) R
[5.1]
where W = WSLS = vertical load, = dynamic friction coefficient, D = horizontal displacement, v = horizontal displacement velocity, R = radius of curvature. Horizontal stiffness due to rise of mass:
KH = dFH W = dD R
[5.2]
The pendulum period results from:
T = 2
W W M , KH = , M= g R KH
T pendulum = 2
R g
[5.3]
Effective (peak-to-peak) stiffness:
K eff =
F Fmax Fmin W W = + = D 2D R D
R D g (D + R )
[5.4]
Effective period = Teff = 2
[5.5]
This equation shows that Teff is independent from mass W.
48
Effects of damping produced by friction between the sliding couple (stainless steel against sliding liner material) can be taken into account by means of the damping ratio eff , which is defined as:
eff =
area of hysteresis loop area of circumscribed rectangle
[5.6]
where area of the hysteretic loop = 4 W D
[5.7]
area of the circumscribed rectangle = 4 K eff D 2
[5.8]
eff is obtained by introducing [5.7], [5.8] and [5.4]:
eff =
D R+
R (D + R )
2
[5.9] 2R for D/R >> . D [5.10] [5.11]
eff 2 for D/R << , while eff

Radius relation to period: R =
g T 2 0, 25 T 2 ( 2 )2
Upward displacement depending on displacement V = R R 2 D 2 Static re-centring criterion: D/R > must be fulfilled Dynamic Self-centring capability must be fulfilled
[5.12]
Es 0, 25 Es
[5.13]
49
- ES is the reversible stored energy (elastic strain energy, potential energy and kinetic energy) Es = W R (1 cos d ) ; d the design angular displacement [5.14]
- EH is the energy dissipated by hysteretic deformation
Eh = W R cos d = W R sin d
0
[5.15]
5.2 MATERIALS AND DIMENSIONS
The materials shall conform to the standards specified herein.

5.2.1 Concave Plates, Housing and Lens
All bearing parts except bolts, liner and stainless steel sheets are composed of structural steel grade S355J2G3 acc. 10025 with minimum tensile strength as specified in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Nominal values of yield and tensile strength in MPa (according Table 3.1, EC3 1-1, conform to EN 10025)
Thickness (mm) Steel fy (MPa) Fe 510 S355 345 t 40mm fu (MPa) 490 40mm < t 100mm fy (MPa) 315 fu (MPa) 490
All parts shall conform to the dimensions of the drawings within the acceptable tolerance criteria set herein: Flatness requirement for the mechanical machining (lathing) of the concave and convex surfaces: the tolerance of flatness over the plan dimension (diameter D of concave or convex surface) must be equal or less than 0,0008 x D, Flatness requirement for the mechanical machining (milling) of the flat upper and lower bearing surface: the tolerance of flatness over the plan dimension (diagonal D of upper or lower bearing surface) must be equal or less than 0,0007 x D.
Steel plates certification and test certificate is according to EN 10204:3.1.B
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5.2.2 Concave Sliding Surface
All stainless steel used for the bearing construction is Stainless Steel approved for bridge bearings, EN 10088-2 1.4401+2B (X5CrNiMo17-12-2), EN 10088-2 1.4404+2B (X2CrNiMo17-12-2), or equivalent with test certification by EN 10204, with the following properties:
-
chemical composition: according to the above European Standard. min. tensile strength: 550 N/mm2; min. elongation: 40%. after surface treatment, the medium value of surface roughness Rz shall not exceed 3 m. the minimum thickness of stainless steel overlay shall be 2,5 mm after welding, grinding and polishing. the surface hardness shall be in the range of 150HV1 to 200 HV1 according to ISO 6507-2, and HB 187 max.
5.2.3 Bearing Liner
a.) The isolator liner used at all sliding interfaces (slider surface facing the concave plate and inside the housing plate facing the slider) is MSM and is an un-lubricated composite liner with minimum 200MPa compressive yield strength, and with composition and construction as required to satisfy the specified mechanical properties. MSM is patented and protected by MAURER SHNE. b.) The Supplier provides a certificate for chemical and micro organism resistance of the applied MSM liner material. c.) The finally installed isolator liner has to fulfill the friction requirement specified herein and has to be suitable to transmit the requested vertical and horizontal load range without damages. d.) Bearing liner bedded into recess according to EN1337-2: Bearing liner thickness of the solid liner disc shall be measured at each production isolator. The bearing liner sliding gap shall have a minimum thickness throughout its surface of 1 mm after compression by seismic design load. The admissible tolerance on thickness is 0,5/+1,3mm from 8 mm original thickness. e.) The wear of the isolators shall be tested on the prototype bearings in accordance to Section 1.6 of this specification. In addition long term wear tests have to be provided according to EN1337 on request.
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5.2.4 Other Materials
Perimeter protective seal: EPDM (Ethylene Propylene) or any other suitable material. Assembly brackets: S235JRG2, S355J2G3 according to EN 10025. Restraining Plates Connection Bolts: 8.8 quality according to ISO 898.
5.3 SPECIFICATIONS
Design rules given by international design codes have to be applied. The principal standards for the design of structure base isolation are:

AASHTO - Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design; EN 1998-1 - Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance; prEN 15129 - Anti-seismic devices, CEN. ETA-06/0131 Maurer MSM Spherical Bearing, EN 1337-2:2004 and EN 1337-7:2004.
The principal standards for the design of bearings and isolators are:
-
The codes describe the way to design, verify and test the isolators and how to design the structures, in which the devices are placed.
5.4 CALCULATION EXAMPLES
The effect of a base isolation is shown with a simple example. Figure 5.4a) shows the model of a structure with solid foundation and Figure 5.4b) a structure with base isolation. The model presents a real building. Mass mG and spring constant kG are coordinated that way as to kinetically equivalent replace it. Self-damping capacity exists and corresponds (with =0.025) to the behaviour of common structures. First of all the structure will be analysed without and with base isolation thereafter.
52
Sliding Isolation
Figure 5.4. Example a) SDOF with rigid clamping b) DDOF with interconnected base isolation
The system is analysed according to the response spectrum procedure. The response spectrum Se shown in Figure 5.5 (following Eurocode 8) is taken as excitation input. The spectrum is not a reference spectrum Sd and the behaviour value q is not included.
Figure 5.5 Elastic acceleration response spectrum
Structure without base isolation
Starting from the following system parameters:
53
m G = 1,4 10 6 kg ; kG = 85 10 6 N / m The natural vibration behaviour is determined:
G =
kG 1 = 7,79s 1 ; f G = G = 1, 24 Hz ; TG = = 0,81s mG 2 fG
The damping coefficient follows: d G = 2 m G G G = 5,5 10 5 N /( m / s ) Take the acceleration value from the spectrum for the natural vibration period T=0.81s: S e ( T = 0,81s ) = 3,795 = 4 ,685 m / s 0,81
Multiplied by mass mG the appertaining mass force results as follows: F = 1,4 10 6 4 ,685 = 6,559 10 6 N = 6559kN The lateral elastic deflection with kG is: u= 6,559 10 6 = 0,077m 85 10 6
Structure with base isolation
A base plate with mass mB supported on the base isolation will be arranged. Figure 5.4b) applies for the base isolation: m G = 1,4 10 6 kg ; kG = 85 10 6 N / m m B = 0,1 10 6 kg ; k B = kqui
The system in question is dual, which means there are two natural oscillation forms: 1. Self generated form 1, where both masses swing in one direction, self oscillation time T1. 2. Self generated form 2, where the masses swing in opposite direction, self oscillation time T2. Natural oscillation of form 1 is dominant and therefore normative.
54
The radius of curvature of the Sliding Isolation Pendulum bearings is chosen as r = 2500 mm = 2,5 m and the friction value = 0.06. kqui is calculated for selected -values, where G = ( mG + m B ) g is the total load transmitted via the isolation system: 1 0,06 1 kB = kqui = + G = + (1,4 10 6 + 0,1 10 6 ) 9,81 r u u 2 , 5 Table 5.2 shows the computation result for five u-values: =0,050; 0,075; 0,100; 0,125; 0,150 m. T1 and T2 are the natural periods of 1st and 2nd natural mode. 1 and 2 are the appertaining amplitudes, i.e. conditions of the amplitudes of m1 mG to the amplitude of m2 mB in the respective natural mode. A positive means a movement in the same direction of mG and mB, a negative means an opposite-one. The second natural mode is suppressed, i.e. T is set = T1. The spectral acceleration value Se is taken from the elastic response spectrum (Figure 5.6).
Table 5.2 Values from iteration calculation
Iteration
55
Figure 5.6. Elastic acceleration response spectrum with spectral values from the calculation
The damping ratio qui is calculated for the assumed - values:
qui =
+ r
0,06 + 0,06 2 ,5
The conversion factor is calculated:
qui =
0,10 0,05 + qui
and finally the spectral acceleration Se as well as the displacement Su S e ( Tqui , qui ) = qui S e ( Tqui ,0,05 ) Tqui S u ( Tqui , qui ) = 2 S e ( Tqui , qui )
2
56
The calculation for five -values is shown in table 4.2. The sought result is between 0,075 and 0,100m. A additional iteration deliver the solution u = 0,091 m. The total structure is loaded with an inertial force of: FB = F = (1,4 10 6 + 0,1 10 6 ) 0,814 = 1, 224 10 6 N The structure without base plate (mG) carries a force of: FG = 1,4 1, 221 10 6 = 1,140 10 6 N 1,5
The associated displacement is: uG = 1,140 10 6 = 0,0134 m 85 10 6
This static value is scaled with 1 = 1,171 (table 4.2): u G = 1,171 0,0134 = 0,0154 m The total displacement of the structure mG is: y G = 0,091 + 0,0154 = 0,107m The following comparison of the different systems is shown in Figure 5.7.
57
Figure 5.7. Max. Oscillation without and with base isolation
Alternatively, the displacement of the SIP isolator can be calculated using the following formula: uB = FB 1, 221 10 6 = = 0,078m kqui 15,59 10 6
The calculated displacement value Su delivers a conservative result of 0,091m. It is reasonable to calculate with the iteration of FB/kqui. The oscillation with a period of T = 2,10s complies with result to an Eigen angular frequency of =2,992 rad /s. The initial force is determined to: y G = 0,078 + 0,0134 = 0,0914 m FG = 1,4 10 6 2,992 2 0,0914 = 1,146 10 6 N The example shows that the uG-values (movement of the structure) according to different concept lead to different results. uG without base isolation: uG with base isolation: 0,077m
0,0154m (= 0,2 = 20%)
58
The relative displacement of the structure is reduced by the base isolation to 1/5. Hence, the stress due to an earthquake is negligible.
5.5 TESTING AND QUALITY CONTROLS 5.5.1 Testing
Tests shall be carried out on the Sliding Pendulum Isolator and samples of sliding elements to demonstrate the satisfying properties of the following general performance characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Load bearing capacity; Horizontal displacement capacity; Rotation capacity; Maximum frictional resistance to service movements; Isolation characteristics; Wear resistance of the friction material.
Each test program is according to international standards applied for the design or can be alternatively defined for the specific project.
5.5.2 Quality controls
The quality production control is performed with the raw materials and the final product. MAURER bearings are designed according to European Technical Approval ETA06/0131 or EN 1337. MAURER is supervised by an independent third party Material Testing Institute of University Stuttgart. The internal quality control is supervised by control cards with details about dimensions, tolerances, design issues, applied materials and the numbers of the material certificates. The prototype testing is executed at independent Universities to check the performance of the devices.
59
Figure 5.8. MAURER quality control
5.6 INSTALLATION, INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
Detailed information is available at the European Standard EN 1337-11 Transport, storage and installation.
5.6.1 Type Designation Plate on each Bearing
All important data of the bearing is shown on this plate, which is located at the bearing top part edges.
SIP ... KN 66**** / 05-2007 no. 1 140 0 140 0
Description of the short cuts on the designation plate:
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Type O-NO C-NO LOC vx evx vy e vy
= Type of bearing and service load, = Order number and date of order, = internal sheet number and bearing number, = Axis resp. location of bearing within the building structure, = Plus/minus movement in longitudinal direction, = Pre-adjustment in longitudinal direction, = Plus/minus movement in transversal direction, = Pre-adjustment in transversal direction.
5.6.2 Unloading, Transportation and Storage
The delivered SIP bearings are precision-made components. Functioning can only be guaranteed if they are carefully treated. Sliding plate resp. bearing top part and lower bearing part are assembled parallel to each other in the workshop and are safely fixed for transportation by means of securing assembly brackets. By all means position of the bearing parts must be kept until the bearing is completely installed. This means, the bolts of the securing devices must not be loosened until the bearings will be located in the final position and be safely grouted to the superstructure or substructure respectively. Immediately upon receipt of the bearings at site, they must be examined for transportation damages. In case of any damage being found, immediate notice should be given to MAURER in written form and must be indicated in the shipping documents respectively. Bearings, which cannot be installed in the structure immediately, should be stored in a suitable place, covered with well-ventilated tarpaulins, to protect them from damage and fouling with dirt.
61
5.6.3 Installation of SIP bearings
a) Preparation of bearing plinth
b) Setting and levelling of lower bearing anchor plate (flatness tolerance according to SIP design drawings) and inserting two 10-15mm diameter steel chains into the joint
62
c) Grouting of anchor plate within the curing time of the resin! See also additionally enclosed information about grouting procedure of bearing bottom plates. A suitable grout is e.g. PAGEL V1 (Company PAGEL; www.pagel.com). The grout joint has to be free of air bubbles!
d) After grout/resin has gained 50% of service hardness the bearing is placed by crane and bolted to the lower anchor plate by bolts of high strength grade 10.9.
63
e) Placing of upper anchor plate onto the bearing and bolting it to upper bearing plate
f) IMPORTANT: Protection of bearing against dirt and concrete before superstructure is cast onto the upper anchor plate
64
The dirt dust protection apron delivered together with the bearing is not suitable to protect the bearing from liquid concrete or any other liquids, therefore the responsible construction company has to provide additional rubber or plastic bearing protection aprons around the bearing itself to avoid any concrete at the bearing itself! g) Casting of superstructure onto the bearing
h) Removal of shuttering and rubber apron after the concrete is fully cured. Cleaning of bearing with warm water but without damaging the corrosion protection coating. IMPORTANT: Removal of the four red assembly bolts around the bearing, which fixed the bearing during transportation.
65
If the corrosion protection coating is damaged, it should be repaired to avoid corrosion. Also the bearings have to be free from grout to grant proper service. After installation a final inspection by MAURER staff shall be carried out.
5.6.4 Maintenance
Detailed informations are available at the European Standard EN 1337-10, Inspection and maintenance.
Reason for Bearing Maintenance
The SIP bearings are designed for a service life of at least 30 years in case of appropriate environmental conditions and without exceeding the seismic design earthquake. They are in general maintenance-free. Nevertheless, in case of unforeseen events or conditions, which do not comply with the design specifications of the contract or of the supplier (e.g. more severe earthquake, setting effects of the building substructure, working conditions of the SIP, etc.), the SIP might/could be damaged. If so, it has to be examined whether the damaged bearings are still ready for service or whether they have to be exchanged. However, regular visual inspections in combination with regular building inspections for instance every 5 years shall be carried out are recommended. Any other maintenance is not necessary. In case of serious damages of the bearing, a specialist of MAURER has to be called to determine if a bearing exchange is necessary.
Visual Bearing Inspection
A visual inspection includes the following procedure and measurements: 1. The concrete or mortar/resin at the upper or lower bearing anchor plate has got cracks. 2. The sliding gap of the sliding couple in primary and/or secondary sliding gap is less than 0,5mm.
> 0,5 mm > 0,5 mm
66
3. Deformation of upper and lower bearing part more than +/-1mm along one edge of the bearing.
Shall be less than +/-1 mm
Shall be less than 1 mm
4. Massive defects of the corrosion protection coating, which affects the sliding couple or even the load carrying capacity, resulting in steel plate bending. Contact to MAURER in case of detected significant visual damages MAURER SHNE GmbH & Co. KG Frankfurter Ring 193 80807 Munich Germany Tel.: +49 / 89 / 32394 341 Fax: +49 / 89 / 32394 306
REFERENCES
LessLoss Deliverable Report D33, [2006] Validation of LSIs analysis method and design procedure, Sub-Project 6, University of Pavia, Italy. Martelli, A., Forni M., Rinaldis D., et al. [2005] Development of innovative antiseismic systems in the framework of the LessLoss European Integrated Project, Proceedings of 9th World Seminar on Seismic Isolation, Energy Dissipation and Active Vibration Control of Structures, Kobe, Japan. Medeot, R., [2004], Re-centering capability evaluation of seismic isolation systems based on energy concepts, 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vancouver, Canada. Medeot, R., [2004], Steel Hysteretic Damper, Maurer Shne GmbH & Co.KG, Munich, Germany. Pinho, R., Calvi, G.M. [2004] LESSLOSS A European Integrated Project on Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Lanslides, IUSS Press, Pavia, Italy. Petersen, Ch., Beutler, H., Braun, Ch., Mangerig, I., [2005] Stahlbau Kalender 2005 Erdbebenschutzsysteme fr den Hoch und Brckenbau, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, Germany.

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LESSLOSS RISK MITIGATION FOR EARTHQUAKES AND LANDSLIDES

LESSLOSS Report No. 2007/03

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

prodotto e distribuito da: produced and distributed by:

2.5.1 2.5.2 2.6

2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3

3. ELECTROINDUCTIVE DEVICES..................................................................................................19 3.1 DESCRIPTION ...................................................................................................................................19

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

3.5.1 3.5.2 3.6

4.5.1 4.5.2 4.6

4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.3 5.4 5.5

5.5.1 5.5.2 5.6

5.6.1 5.6.2 5.6.3 5.6.4

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

2. LOW STIFFNESS ISOLATORS

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

Figure 2.3. Finite element model of a Low Stiffness Isolator.

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

isolator with lower

void to place the anchor bar

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Figure 2.6. View of a Low Stiffness Isolator installed on the substructure.

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

Frequency of the inspection [years]

Principal inspection Normal inspection

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Figure 2.9. Schematic view of vertical deformation of the rubber layers

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

Phase 1 Device positioning near the final position

Phase 2 Device positioning in the final position

Phase 3 Insertion of the connections

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Phase 4 Device final position

Frequency of the inspection [years]

Principal inspection Normal inspection

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

4. STEEL HYSTERETIC SYSTEMS

Figure 4.1 Steel-hysteretic dampers with crescent moon/pin/U-clamps

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Figure 4.2. Bending/shear stress in a triangular element

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

Figure 4.3. Different plastic hysteretic loops (schematic)

Figure 4.4. Hysteresis of a plasticizing steel-hysteretic element

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Figure 4.5. Resistant energy dissipation amplitude at low cycle fatigue

Innovative Anti-Seismic Systems Users Manual

4.2 MATERIALS AND DIMENSIONS

LESSLOSS Risk Mitigation for Earthquakes and Landslides

Table 4.2 Geometrical data of triangular plate elements