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Materials Science and Engineering A xxx (2005) xxxxxx
Characterization of reinforced concrete beams strengthened by steel
reinforced polymer and grout (SRP and SRG) composites
3
4
B. Barton
a
, E. Wobbe
b
, L.R. Dharani
a,
, P. Silva
b
, V. Birman
c
, A. Nanni
b
,
T. Alkhrdaji
d
, J. Thomas
d
, G. Tunis
e
5
6
a
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Missouri at Rolla, Rolla, MO 65409-0050, USA 7
b
Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Missouri at Rolla, Rolla, MO 65409-0030, USA 8
c
Engineering Education Center, University of Missouri at Rolla, One University Building, St. Louis, MO 63121, USA 9
d
Structural Group, 7455 New Ridge Road, Suite T, Hanover, MD 21076, USA 10
e
Hardwire, LLC, 1000 Quinn Avenue, Pocomoke City, MD 21851, USA 11
Received in revised form 16 May 2005
12
Abstract 13
The use of externally bonded steel reinforced polymer (SRP) and steel reinforced grout (SRG) is a promising new technology for increasing
exural, compressive, and shear capacities of reinforced concrete (RC) members. The exural performance of RCbeams with externally bonded SRP
and SRG has been investigated experimentally using four-point bending. The material constants for single-ply SRP and SRG were experimentally
determined from coupon tensile tests and torsion tests. Analytical models based on the rst-order and higher-order shear deformation theories have
been developed to predict the behavior of the retrotted RC beams. Comparisons between the analytical models and the experimental results show
a good correlation for the midspan deection until the reinforcing steel reaches the plastic region.
14
15
16
17
18
19
2005 Published by Elsevier B.V. 20
Keywords: Composites; Steel reinforced polymer; Steel reinforced grout; Reinforced concrete; Shear deformation 21
22
1. Introduction 23
Problems associated with increases in load, structural degra- 24
dation, or even structures reaching their life cycle in civil infras- 25
tructure have prompted the search for low-cost retrotting mate- 26
rials and methods. Among the materials that are currently inves- 27
tigated are steel reinforced polymer (SRP) and steel reinforced 28
grout (SRG). These materials are composed of high strength 29
steel cords (readily available from the tire industry) embedded 30
in a polymeric resin or cementitious grout. SRP and SRG can 31
be applied using a wet lay-up technique similar to that of carbon 32
or glass ber reinforced polymers (FRP). Based on preliminary 33
testing, SRP and SRG have shown great potential for strength- 34
ening RC beams. 35
Two analytical models of the analysis of SRP or SRG 36
strengthened reinforced concrete beams are presented in this 37
paper. Because typical reinforced concrete (RC) beams are thick 38

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 573 341 6504; fax: +1 573 341 4607.
E-mail address: dharani@umr.edu (L.R. Dharani).
specimens, the effects of shear cannot be neglected when deter- 39
mining the beams response to various loading [1]. The rst 40
analytical model is based on the rst-order shear deformation 41
theory (FSDT), otherwise known as the HenckyMindlin plate 42
theory [2,3]. The second model is based on a higher-order shear 43
deformation theory (HSDT) [4,5]. Plasticity of the internal rein- 44
forcing steel affects the laminate extensional, coupling, and 45
bending stiffnesses. The analytical response predicted by the 46
models of RCbeams externally strengthened with SRP and SRG 47
subjected to four-point bending was compared to the experimen- 48
tal data. The results shown in the paper illustrate that standard 49
theories of shear-deformable composite laminates are applica- 50
ble to the analysis of the response of SRP and SRGstrengthened 51
RC beams. 52
2. Experimental procedure 53
2.1. RC beams 54
In order to investigate the response of RC beams with exter- 55
nally applied SRP and SRG, four 243.8 cm27.9 cm20.3 cm 56
1 0921-5093/$ see front matter 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V.
2 doi:10.1016/j.msea.2005.08.151
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2 B. Barton et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A xxx (2005) xxxxxx
Fig. 1. Steel reinforcement: (a) steel tape, (b) 3X2 cord and (c) 3SX cord.
(8 ft 11 in. 8 in.) beams were cast with two #5 (15.9 mm) 57
bars of internal tensile reinforcement and two #3 (9.5 mm) rein- 58
forcing bars on the compression side of the beam. The tension 59
face of eachbeamwhere the SRP/SRGmaterial was tobe applied 60
was mechanically roughened with a surface preparation grinder, 61
swept clean, and then vacuumed so that all remaining particles 62
were removed in order to obtain a proper bond. 63
The steel fabric used in the SRP and SRG was composed 64
of unidirectional high strength steel cords with a scrim backing 65
to maintain spacing and alignment (Fig. 1(a)). The steel fab- 66
ric was cut into 203.2 cm15.2 cm (80 in. 6 in.) sheets to be 67
applied to the tension side of the beams. The width was rec- 68
ommended by the manufacturer to ensure that proper bonding 69
occurs along the edge of the laminate. The Hardwire
TM
(Hard- 70
wire, LLC, Pocomoke City, MD) high-density cord (23 cords 71
per inch) type 3X2 (Fig. 1(b)) was applied to specimens SRP-1 72
and SRP-2 using Sikadur 330 (Sika Corporation, Lyndhurst, NJ) 73
epoxy resin. As for specimens SRG-1 and SRG-2, SikaTop 121 74
(Sika Corporation, Lyndhurst, NJ) cementitious grout was used 75
to apply the medium density (12 cords per inch) 3SX cord type 76
(Fig. 1(c)). The medium density allows for the cement to pass 77
through in order to create a stronger bond, and the cord geome- 78
try allows for better adhesion and mechanical lock between the 79
grout and the steel cords [6]. Specimens SRP-1 and SRG-1 con- 80
sisted of one ply of the material, while specimens SRP-2 and 81
SRG-2 consisted of two plies. 82
Each of the four specimens were loaded in a four-point 83
arrangement with a constant moment region of 71.1 cm (28 in.), 84
and tested as a simply supported member with a span length 85
of 213.4 cm (84 in.) (Fig. 2) [7]. During the testing of each 86
beam, the midspan deection, as well as the deections under 87
the point loads, was measured using a linear variable displace- 88
ment transducer (LVDT). LVDTs were also used to determine if 89
any settlement occurred at the supports. The load was measured 90
using a 445 kN(100 kip) load cell. All data fromthe load cell and 91
LVDTs was recorded through a data acquisition systemat a scan 92
rate of 3 Hz. During testing, loading was periodically paused in 93
order to identify and mark crack formations and growth. 94
2.2. Coupon testing 95
Six concrete cylinders were cast according to ASTM stan- 96
dards and tested to determine the compressive strength at 28 97
days and at the time of testing. The yield strength of the internal 98
reinforcing steel,
ys
, was determined by performing a stan- 99
dard coupon tension test on three specimens, which produced 100
an average strength of 436 MPa (63 ksi). 101
Tensile specimens were used to determine the material prop- 102
erties of the SRP and SRG lamina. Several specimen geome- 103
tries were tried including strips, tabbed stripsas suggested by 104
ASTMD3039, and dog bone shaped specimens. Unidirectional 105
longitudinal strips failed in the grips of the testing machines, 106
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of RC beam test setup.
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B. Barton et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A xxx (2005) xxxxxx 3
Fig. 3. SRP tensile specimen.
while tabbed strips prematurely failed at the tablamina inter- 107
face. Finally, the dog bone shaped geometry shown in Fig. 3 108
was chosen for the experimental study. In order to assure con- 109
sistency and reduce stress concentrations in specimens, a mold 110
was machined and used to produce the tensile specimens. The 111
overall length of the specimens was 25 cm(10 in.) and the width 112
of the gage section was 2.5 cm (1 in.). The specimens were sub- 113
jected to uniaxial tension at a rate of 0.025 cm/min (0.01 in./min) 114
and the stressstrain response was recorded via strain gages and 115
veried via an extensometer at a scan rate of 10 Hz. This speci- 116
mengeometryproducedrepeatable results andfailure inthe gage 117
section for both the longitudinal (E
1
and
12
) and transverse (E
2
118
and
21
) directions. 119
The method of determining the in-plane shear response 120
described in ASTM D 3518 could not be applied to SRP since it 121
requires a minimum of 16 plies (the average thickness of a SRP 122
lamina is on the order of 0.25 cm (0.10 in.)). Therefore, hollow 123
cylindrical tubes were constructed with the cords oriented along 124
the longitudinal axis (Fig. 4) [8]. Circular end plugs with a cen- 125
tral threaded hole were machined for each end of the cylindrical 126
tube. To ensure proper alignment, the plugs were screwed on to a 127
single piece of threaded rod and adhered to the inside of the tubes 128
using Sikadur 330. Upon curing of the epoxy, the threaded rod 129
was removed and a threaded stud was screwed into each of the 130
end plugs. The specimen was then tested in pure torsion. Strain 131
gage rosettes were used to determine the stressstrain behavior, 132
and in turn, the shear modulus (G
12
=G
13
). Because of the dif- 133
Fig. 4. SRP torsion specimen.
culty in constructing hollow cylindrical tubes of SRG, the shear 134
modulus was estimated using the inverse rule of mixtures. 135
3. Analytical models 136
When the FSDTand HSDTare applied to laminate structures, 137
it is typically assumed the individual lamina thicknesses are con- 138
stant through the width. In order to accommodate this assump- 139
tion, a smeared beam model of the RC beam is introduced 140
replacing the actual cross-section (Fig. 5). The cross-section of 141
the original beam has been smeared into ve layers of the same 142
width with the compression steel neglected. The thickness of 143
each layer is determined by maintaining the same cross-sectional 144
area as the material had in the original beam. Since the beam is 145
not symmetric about the middle surface, coupling exists between 146
the moments and in-plane forces. 147
Each layer is assumed linear-elastic, with the exception of the 148
steel layer which is assumed linear-elastic up to the yield stress 149
and then perfectly plastic after yielding. The tensile strength of 150
concrete is neglected. The concrete and steel layers are treated as 151
homogeneous isotropic materials characterized by two indepen- 152
dent elastic constants, while the SRP/SRG layer is treated as a 153
specially orthotropic material characterized by ve independent 154
elastic constants. 155
The models are used to predict the response of a RC beam 156
reinforced with externally bonded SRP/SRGin four-point bend- 157
ing (Fig. 6). Due to the symmetry of both the beamand the load- 158
ing it is only necessary to model half of the beam (0 x L/2). 159
3.1. First-order shear deformation theory (FSDT) based 160
model 161
The FSDT model is based upon the following displacement 162
eld [2] (standard notations are used throughout the paper): 163
u(x, y, z) = u
0
(x, y) +z
x
(x, y)
v(x, y, z) = v
0
(x, y) +z
y
(x, y)
w(x, y, z) = w
0
(x, y)
(1) 164
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4 B. Barton et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A xxx (2005) xxxxxx
Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the cross-section of the modeled beam: (a) actual and (b) smeared cross-sections.
where u, v, and w are the displacement components in the x, y, 165
and z directions, respectively; u
0
, v
0
, and w
0
the displacements 166
of a point (x, y) on the midplane;
x
and
y
are the rotations of 167
a normal to midplane about the y and x axes, respectively. 168
Assuming symmetry about the xz plane, deection and 169
slopes inthe y-directionwill be symmetric andnegligible. There- 170
fore, the problem is two-dimensional. The in-plane stress resul- 171
tant, N
x
, the transverse shear stress resultant, Q
x
, and resultant 172
bending moment, M
x
, at x can be evaluated as 173
N
x
=
_
h/2
h/2

x
dz M
x
=
_
h/2
h/2
z
x
dz 174
Q
x
=
_
h/2
h/2

zx
dz (2) 175
where h is the total height of the beam. Concrete layers being 176
incapable of carrying tensile loads, it is reasonable to assume 177
the internal reinforcing steel and SRP/SRG layers are sub- 178
jected to plane stress. Treating each layer as an orthotropic 179
lamina, the stresses in terms of engineering strains are 180
Fig. 6. Diagram of loading conguration.
given by 181
_

xy
_

_
=
_
_
_

Q
11

Q
12

Q
16

Q
21

Q
22

Q
26

Q
16

Q
26
2

Q
66
_

_
_

xy
_

_
(3) 182
where the

Q
ij
are the components of the transformed lamina 183
stiffness matrix. For isotropic materials,

Q
16
= 0 and

Q
66
= 184

Q
55
= G
12
(

Q
55
is the stiffness in the xz plane). When the x and 185
y axes coincide with the principal axes of a specially orthotropic 186
material,

Q
16
= 0. Inserting (3) into (2), and neglecting trans- 187
verse displacements (i.e.
y
0) yields the following formulas 188
for the stress resultants and stress couples 189
N
x
=
_
z
1
z
0

Q
11
csr
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz 190
+
_
z
3
z
2

Q
11
steel
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz 191
+
_
z
5
z
4

Q
11
SRP
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz 192
M
x
=
_
z
1
z
0
z

Q
11
csr
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz 193
+
_
z
3
z
2
z

Q
11
steel
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz 194
+
_
z
5
z
4
z

Q
11
SRP
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz 195
Q
x
=
_
z
1
z
0

Q
55
csr
_

x
+
w
0
x
_
dz 196
+
_
z
3
z
2

Q
55
steel
_

x
+
w
0
x
_
dz 197
+
_
z
5
z
4

Q
55
SRP
_

x
+
w
0
x
_
dz (4) 198
199
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B. Barton et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A xxx (2005) xxxxxx 5
where the subscript csr represents the compressive concrete 200
with shear reinforcement layer. Eq. (4) is written by assumption 201
that concrete cannot resist tensile stresses. 202
The equations of equilibrium become 203
_
A B
B D
__
u
0,x

x,x
_
=
_
N
x
M
x
_
A
55
_

x
+
w
0
x
_
= Q
x
204
(5) 205
where A, B, and D are the laminate extensional, coupling, and 206
bending stiffnesses, respectively, given by 207
A =

Q
11
csr
(z
1
z
0
) +

Q
11
steel
(z
3
z
2
) +

Q
11
SRP
(z
5
z
4
) 208
B =
1
2
[

Q
11
csr
(z
1
2
z
0
2
) +

Q
11
steel
(z
3
2
z
2
2
) 209
+

Q
11
SRP
(z
5
4
z
4
2
)] 210
D =
1
3
[

Q
11
csr
(z
1
3
z
0
3
) +

Q
11
steel
(z
3
3
z
2
3
) 211
+

Q
11
SRP
(z
5
3
z
4
3
)] 212
A
55
= k[

Q
55
csr
(z
1
z
0
) +

Q
55
steel
(z
3
z
2
) +

Q
55
SRP
(z
5
z
4
)] 213
(6) 214
215
In (6), k is the shear correction factor taken to be 5/6. Eq. (5) 216
can be solved in a closed-form by considering two sections of 217
the beam, i.e. section 1: (0 <x <b) where the moment increases 218
linearly {N
x
= 0, M
x
= Px/w
beam
, Q
x
= P/w
beam
} and sec- 219
tion 2: (b <x <L/2) where the moment is constant {N
x
= 220
0, M
x
= Pb/w
beam
, Q
x
= 0}, w
beam
, being the width of the 221
beam. Once u
0,x
and
x,x
have been evaluated, they can be inte- 222
grated with respect to x. Applying the boundary and junction 223
conditions: 224
w|
x=0
= 0 M
x
|
x=0
= 0 u
(1)

x=b
= u
(2)

x=b
225

x
(1)

x=b
=
x
(2)

x=b
w
(1)

x=b
= w
(2)

x=b
226

x
|
x=L/2
= 0 u
0
|
x=L/2
= 0 (7) 227
where the superscripts 1 or 2 represent the section, the closed- 228
form solution for the deection is given as 229
w
0
=
_

_
Px
w
beam
A
55

APx
3
+3APb(bL)x
6w
beam
(ADB
2
)
for 0 < x <b,
Pb
w
beam
A
55

APb
3
+3APb(L x)x
6w
beam
(ADB
2
)
for b < x<
L
2
230
(8) 231
where b is the distance from the support to the applied load. 232
The proceeding analysis was based on the assumption that 233
each layer is linear elastic. When the internal reinforcing steel 234
yields, Eq. (3) becomes invalid for this layer. Treating the inter- 235
nal steel as elastic perfectly plastic, upon the onset of yielding 236
the in-plane stress resultant and resultant bending moment of 237
Eq. (4) are replaced with
N
x
=
_
z
1
z
0

Q
11
csr
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz +
_
z
3
z
2

ys
dz 238
+
_
z
5
z
4

Q
11
SRP
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz 239
M
x
=
_
z
1
z
0
z

Q
11
csr
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz +
_
z
3
z
2
z
ys
dz 240
+
_
z
5
z
4
z

Q
11
SRP
(u
0,x
+z
x,x
) dz (9) 241
where
ys
is the yield stress of the internal reinforcing steel. 242
Introducing, 243
A
R
=

Q
11
csr
(z
1
z
0
) +

Q
11
SRP
(z
5
z
4
) 244
N
ys
=
ys
(z
3
z
2
) 245
B
R
=
1
2
[

Q
11
csr
(z
1
2
z
0
2
) +

Q
11
SRP
(z
5
2
z
4
2
)] 246
M
ys
=
1
2

ys
(z
3
2
z
2
2
) 247
D
R
=
1
3
[

Q
11
csr
(z
1
3
z
0
3
) +

Q
11
SRP
(z
5
3
z
4
3
)] (10) 248
the equations of equilibrium become, 249
_
A
R
B
R
B
R
D
R
__
u
0,x

x,x
_
+
_
N
ys
M
ys
_
=
_
N
x
M
x
_
(11) 250
where the loading terms on the right-hand side remain the same 251
as those used previously for the elastic case. 252
Since the steel layer does not yield along the entire length 253
of the beam at the same load, the neutral axis varies along the 254
length of the beam after the onset of yielding. Because of this 255
phenomenon, it is necessary to subdivide the beam along the 256
x-direction into smaller elements and evaluate the reduced stiff- 257
nesses for each element. The solution can then be obtained using 258
an iterative approach. 259
3.2. Higher-order shear deformation theory (HSDT) 260
based model 261
The HSDT model is based on the following displacement 262
eld [4]: 263
u(x, y, z) = u
0
(x, y) +z
x
(x, y) +z
3

x
(x, y)
v(x, y, z) = v
0
(x, y) +z
y
(x, y) +z
3

y
(x, y)
w(x, y, z) = w
0
(x, y)
(12) 264
The terms associated with z
2
are equal to zero as a result of 265
the requirement of zero shear stresses on the upper and lower 266
surfaces [4]. By imposing the boundary condition for the shear 267
strain,
xz
, to be zero on the outer surfaces, it can be shown that 268

x
=
_
4
3h
2
_
(
x
+w
,x
) (13) 269
The transverse shear stress resultant is given by 270
Q
x
= S
55
(
x
+w
,x
) (14) 271
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6 B. Barton et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A xxx (2005) xxxxxx
where 272
S
55
=
_
h/2
h/2
_
1
_
2z
h
_
2
_

Q
55
dz (15) 273
Since the transverse shear stress resultant is independent of 274
x in both sections 1 and 2 275
Q
x
x
= 0 (16) 276
so that 277

x,x
= w
,xx
(17) 278
Combining (17) with the equations of equilibrium results in 279
_
A B
B D
__
u
0,x
w
,xx
_
=
_
N
x
M
x
_
(18) 280
prior to the yielding of steel, and 281
_
A
R
B
R
B
R
D
R
__
u
0,x
w
,xx
_
+
_
N
ys
M
ys
_
=
_
N
x
M
x
_
(19) 282
subsequent to the steel yielding. The problemcan then be solved 283
following the same approach as that used for the FSDT. The 284
closed-form solution for the deection prior to the yielding of 285
the internal reinforcing steel is 286
w
0
=
_

_
Px
w
beam
S
55

APx
3
+3APb(b L)x
6w
beam
(ADB
2
)
for 0 < x<b,
Pb
w
beam
S
55

APb
3
+3APb(L x)x
6w
beam
(ADB
2
)
for b < x<
L
2
287
(20) 288
289
When the solution based on the FSDT (8) is compared with 290
that obtained using the HSDT (20), it can be seen that the only 291
difference in expressions for deection is related to the terms 292
A
55
and S
55
. 293
4. Numerical results and comparison with 294
experimental data 295
The properties of both SRP and SRG materials are summa- 296
rized in Table 1. 297
Notably, experimentally obtained values of the minor Pois- 298
sons ratio
21
for SRP and SRG are close to zero, with SRPs 299
being slightly negative. These values violate the equation that 300
Table 1
SRP and SRG lamina properties
SRP (
f
=16%) SRG (
f
=6.5%)
Longitudinal modulus, E
1
27.0 GPa (5160 ksi) 14.6 GPa (2120 ksi)
Transverse modulus, E
2
5.86 GPa (850 ksi) 3.45 GPa (500 ksi)
Shear modulus, G
12
and G
13
3.03 GPa (440 ksi) 2.07 GPa (300 ksi)
Major Poissons ratio,
12
0.32 0.35
Minor Poissons ratio,
21
0.026 0
Fig. 7. Midspan deection of SRP-1.
relates the Poissons ratios to the modulus of elasticity for 301
orthotropic materials [8], 302

12
E
1
=

21
E
2
(21) 303
A possible explanation to the difference between experimen- 304
tal and theoretical predictions for the minor Poisson ratio may 305
be related to cracking of SRP and SRG subject to straining in 306
the direction perpendicular to the reinforcements. Experimental 307
results in Table 1 are in agreement with other studies of cord 308
composites in which the minor Poissons ratio of such materials 309
was generally taken to be zero [9,10]. It should be noted that the 310
value of the minor Poisson ratio has little effect on the numerical 311
results obtained in this study. 312
The midspan deection versus load plots for the four beam 313
specimens are shown in Figs. 710. The experimental data from 314
all four tests exhibit a linear initial region corresponding to elas- 315
tic stresses in the reinforcing steel. Both the FSDT and HSDT 316
models correlate well to the experimental values of the midspan 317
deection within this region. 318
A clearly dened yield point exists in both beams reinforced 319
with SRP (SRP-1 and SRP-2), as can be seen in Figs. 7 and 8. 320
The models predict yielding at a lower load than that observed 321
in the experiments. It is likely that the difference in yield 322
points is due to the scatter in the experimental yield stress for 323
steel. 324
The two beams reinforced with SRG (SRG-1 and SRG-2), 325
also exhibit an initial linear region (Figs. 9 and 10) that was accu- 326
rately predicted by analytical models. The loaddisplacement 327
plots for RC beams reinforced with SRG, Figs. 9 and 10, show 328
small unloadingloading steps prior to yielding. This inconsis- 329
tency in the loaddisplacement behavior could be attributed to 330
interruptions of the tests to mark cracks or slight shifting of 331
the LVDT due to concrete and/or matrix cracking. This behav- 332
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Fig. 8. Midspan deection of SRP-2.
ior is not observed in the beams reinforced with SRP because 333
the epoxy matrix has a much higher elongation at break than 334
the cementitious grout, resulting in less matrix cracking and 335
shifting. 336
Considering that the internal reinforcing steel is treated as an 337
elastic perfectly plastic material, neglecting the effect of strain 338
hardening, the FSDT and HSDT results for midspan deection 339
under loads producing yielding are encouraging. With the excep- 340
tion of SRP-2, the predicted slope of the loaddeection curves 341
after yielding is in good agreement with that obtained experi- 342
Fig. 9. Midspan deection of SRG-1.
Fig. 10. Midspan deection of SRG-2.
mentally. The ultimate load capacity of the RC beams could not 343
be predicted by the two models since each of the four RC beams 344
failed due to delamination of the SRP/SRGfromthe beam. Bond 345
characterizationstudies are currentlybeingconductedtoaccount 346
for this mode of failure. 347
5. Conclusions 348
Effective test methods were developed to determine the mate- 349
rial properties of SRP/SRG lamina. The experimentally deter- 350
mined properties, summarized in Table 1, were employed in 351
analytical models based on the FSDT and HSDT to predict the 352
response of RC beams retrotted with SRP/SRG and subject 353
to four-point loading. Both the FSDT and HSDT models pro- 354
duced results that correlated well with experimental data for 355
the midspan deection of an RC beam reinforced with SRP or 356
SRG. The models performed particularly well in the linear elas- 357
tic regions of the beam deection. When the effects of plasticity 358
and cracking began to affect the response of the beams, the ade- 359
quately predicted the general trend of the deection. 360
Acknowledgements 361
The National Science Foundation (Grant #CMS-0301256) 362
and Structural Preservation Systems funded this work. Hardwire 363
LLC donated the steel tapes. 364
References 365
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