How do workers learn in their work?

Introduction: workplaces sites for learning

It is generally assumed that people come to work to work. If the company, organisation or institution thinks that is the case, then it has greatly undervalued its workforce and the purpose of work. In a smart workforce, thinking employees come to work to continue to learn as they engage in their jobs, earn their salaries and contribute to the companys performance. By working as an individual or operating in a work-team employees use their worksite as a context for learning to live better. The workplace is but one of the places in which people learn in their lives. Other sites may include their homes, the sporting eld, the local shopping centre or an educational institution. They constitute the life-worlds of the employees in which each person functions, thinks, decides and learns. Supercially, these different activity sites appear different. After all, what people do at work is different from what they do relaxing at home, playing sport, doing the shopping or studying in a library. Isnt it? A closer examination will reveal that if people are actively engaged in each of these situations, they will be: thinking consciously about different activities or events; making intentional decisions during the activity or event and reecting on the quality of these decisions; deciding what to do next; and, hopefully, learning from these experiences. All of the experiences that people have in their daily living, including paid employment, offer a context for learning. The extent to which people maximise their learning in these different contexts varies with the individuals priorities and the extent to which businesses or organisations seek to separate or integrate work, community and private life. Where such integration is attempted, workers are encouraged to become fully immersed in the organisations goals, visions and practices (Smith, 1995). As Gee et al. (1997, p. 7) note, these workers are asked to invest their hearts, minds, and bodies fully in their work. They are asked to think and act critically, reectively and creatively. By being alert and active, these people are invariably learning in their work.
This paper was presented originally at the Smart Workforce Seminar, Sydney/Brisbane, 15-19 September 1997.

Rod Gerber

The author Rod Gerber is Dean of the Faculty of Education, Health & Professional Studies at the University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia. Abstract It is often assumed by management in different workplaces that the people who work there acquire their training before they take up a job or that they are trained in their job. Learning is a lifelong process that should be embraced by all workers. Increasing interest is being placed on companies as learning organisations in which the employees collectively contribute to the improvement of the workplace enterprise. However, modest attention has been paid to the ways by which people learn in their work. This article indicates, based on considerable worksite research, that how people learn in their work is a complex process characterised by a range of variations. Management in different worksites needs to understand the diversity of approaches by workers to learning in their jobs and offer opportunities for such activities to be continuous, reective, individualised and/or collective. A more effective workforce will result if the workers can maximise learning in their work.

The Learning Organization Volume 5 Number 4 1998 pp. 168175 MCB University Press ISSN 0969-6474

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The experience of adult learning

Learning is a process that pervades peoples lives. From childhood through adolescence and adulthood, people change as they learn. Members of our workforces are either middle to late adolescents or adults. Researchers and theorists have made distinctions between the ways by which adolescents experience learning and the different forms of adult learning. For example, studies into the ways that adolescents learn that have been completed from an experiential perspective (Marton et al., 1993; Saljo, 1979) revealed that learning was experienced as: increasing ones knowledge; memorising and reproducing what has been learned in examinations; acquiring facts, procedures, which can be retained or utilised in practice; understanding what is learned by integrating it into their own worlds by comparing and contrasting, i.e., abstraction of meaning; seeing what is learned from different perspectives in ones life-world; and changing as a person. In these six conceptions of learning, the rst three focus on learning as mainly reproducing what is learned while the second three focus on learning as seeking meaning, i.e., the rst three conceptions focus on the tasks of learning and the second three conceptions focus on what these tasks signify (Marton and Booth, 1997, p. 40). On the other hand, adults have been shown to learn through: formal education that is organised by professional educators, where there is a dened curriculum or programme, and which often leads to a qualication or credential, e.g., a degree or diploma in engineering or health science; non-formal education in which some sort of systematic instruction is provided on an infrequent basis, e.g., attending a professional development seminar on improving occupational health and safety practices in ones workplace; informal education in which people learn from their experiences, e.g., learning how to improve ones communication skills through working on a team that builds portable housing accommodation; and incidental learning that occurs as the result of everyday learning in situations that are

related to a persons professional or workplace activities, e.g., improving teamwork skills by watching two football teams play in a weekend xture or nding ones way to a little-known suburban area by trial-anderror (Foley, 1995, p. xiv). This classication of adult learning focuses on the type of learning rather than the experience of learning by adults, i.e., the act of learning is not related to the learners and the context in which they learn. Therefore, it is less useful when focusing on people learning in their work. A part of this relational orientation to adult learning is demonstrated by Larsson (1996, p. 9) in his explanation of adult learning as being related to changing the patterns adults are caught in. He indicates that adults enter educational situations with a set of existing interpretations and skills which will be changed if adult education occurs. Such change may include: learning new knowledge and developing new skills; developing new interests; learning a new kind of working life that is more challenging and provides access to more of ones talents as a worker; enhancing ones self-condence; and acquiring knowledge that is not available in ones everyday world (pp. 10-11). Such learning should be judged by its capacity to change the conditions for learning in everyday context. Larsson declares that:
A good adult education, must not only have the qualities of challenging everyday interpretations, be relevant and have a genuine meaning for the students it must be aware that all those interpretations that are communicated in the educational discourse must be subordinated to the judgement of specic cases in everyday life (1996, p.16).

Experience-based learning
The concept of experience-based learning is often assumed when referring to workplace learning. According to Boud et al. (1993), it is based on the following assumptions: experience is the foundation of, and the stimulus for, learning; learners actively construct their own experience; learning is a holistic process; learning is socially and culturally constructed; and learning is inuenced by the socio-emotional context in which it occurs.

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Consequently, such learning involves the whole person (i.e. his or her intellect, feelings and senses) in the learning process, recognises the worth of all of the persons relevant life experiences to workplace learning, and continually involves reection on ones earlier experiences in order to add to and transform them into deeper understandings. It involves deciding if the activity that leads to learning has been purpose-built to do so, if it has been facilitated by some other person, e.g., a workplace mentor, or whether the learning outcomes are to be assessed or not. Workplace trainers or educators place considerable importance on the concept of experience-based learning through their emphasis on competency-based training. Outcomes are achieved in such learning by workers literally completing a task or a set of tasks to demonstrate their competence and consequently their learning. Generally, experience-based learning has been dissected by the expert researcher and theorist instead of being considered from the perspective of the workers who have had the actual experiences.

regard to their workplace and seek to develop it in a constructive, supportive environment. Senge (1990, p. 206) describes this shared vision as:
a force in peoples hearts, a force of impressive power At its simplest level, a shared vision is the answer to the question, What do we want to create? A vision is truly shared when you and I have a similar picture and are committed to one another having it, not just to each of us, individually, having it Shared vision is vital for the learning organisation because it provides the focus and energy for learning.

Workers learning in a learning organisation

Workers do not learn in a vacuum. The context in which they learn is central to the potential for their success in learning if it can be termed a learning organisation. Senge (1990, p. 3) stated that such an organisation was one:
... where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together.

In such organisations, all employees commit themselves to its goals and simultaneously develop their capacity to learn. In doing so, they continually enhance their capacity to create what they want to create in terms of the nature of their workplace environment as a learning environment. The culture of the group of employees, i.e., the way that the group behaves, in a worksite needs to reect a dynamic capacity for learning and creation. Unfortunately, in many worksites the involvement of staff in the culture of the organisation tends to be static rather than dynamic. What is required is for employees in particular worksites to develop a shared vision in

Therefore, while individuals each engage in learning in their work, in a learning organisation it is the collective benets that are important rather than the individual ones. The focus is not on the development of competence in the workplace activities of each individual employee. Rather, it is on the concept of collective competence of the whole workforce. A part of this collective view of learning in organisations is that the learning which occurs is adaptive (Senge, 1990, p. 206). Here, the emphasis is on learning producing changes in the workplace so that new directions are accepted by the employees and they can cope with new pressures in their jobs. In addition, these learning organisations must be able to expand their existing capabilities and learn new concepts. Through such continuous improvement, meaningful change can take root (Bostingl, 1992). This concept of a worksite as a learning organisation may be extended further by reecting on the best organisational structure for its promotion. Such a structure should be participatory, collegial, organic in its continual development, consensual in its decision making, emancipatory in its actions, with employees not being fearful to make decisions and so consider themselves partners in the decision-making process. Leaders in such organisations play pivotal roles as designers, teachers and stewards of the learning process. This dynamic process of a learning organisation naturally involves continuous evaluation of its processes through questioning and relating the experience to previous learning. Therefore, the employees in a learning organisation are active, thinking people who are not afraid to make mistakes and who act intentionally in their normal work practices which naturally involves learning in their work.

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How do people learn in their work?

The importance of understanding how people learn in their work is a recent phenomenon in professional and workplace learning. Studies of learning and experience in formal education have been extensive, e.g. Boot and Reynolds (1983), as have publications on adult learning, e.g. Foley (1995). The importance of learning strategies such as guided participation (Rogoff, 1990) have been emphasised, together with descriptions of how workers function in large companies in self-managed work teams (e.g. Hartz, 1996). However, it is worth considering whether these employees all learn in a similar way in their work or do they learn differently? One way to answer this question is to investigate how employees in different workplace contexts learn in their work, based on their descriptions of their own experiences. This approach to workplace learning was initially highlighted by Stefan Larsson (1993) when he recognised the potential for people in different work situations and types of work to learn differently. A range of studies followed this hypothesis to demonstrate its accuracy. These included: a study of how white-collar workers in the insurance industry, a government department, a library and a private educational institution learned in their work (Gerber et al., 1995); a study of how a vertical group of workers in a large manufacturing company learned their jobs (Gerber, in press); a study of how a group of work-based trainees learned in different work and external contexts (Gerber et al., 1997a); and a study of how experienced workers in a large company learned in their work (Gerber, et al., 1997b). A synthesis of the results of these studies reveals that from their personal experiences workers across a range of industries, organisations and institutions do report that they learn differently in their work. It is proposed that workers may use more than one way of learning in their work depending on the circumstances of the learning experience. However, eleven different ways by which workers learn can be reported. They are: (1) by making mistakes and learning not to repeat the mistake;

(2) through self-education on and off the job; (3) through practising ones personal values; (4) by applying theory and practising skills; (5) through solving problems; (6) through interacting with others; (7) through open lateral planning; (8) by being an advocate for colleagues; (9) through offering leadership to others; (10) through formal training; and (11) through practising quality assurance. This list is not constructed in any special order to emphasise the point that people in workplaces should value all of these ways of learning and not prize one or two. The workers in these different investigations certainly did not do so. The following explanations help to elaborate each of the above ways of learning in ones work.

1. Learning through making mistakes and not repeating them

People make mistakes in many facets of their lives as they engage in a learning process. The act of learning not from making mistakes, but from correcting them, remembering how the mistake was corrected and knowing when they encounter a similar situation not to make the same mistake again. Workers emphasised that some mistakes were inevitable in their jobs because they were learning by trial-anderror. As one worker in the building industry said:
If you make a mistake, ah, well, OK you make a mistake. You shouldnt have made it in the rst place, but in my opinion, you should make sure that you dont make the same mistake again.

The workers accepted that making mistakes is a serious matter, but they believed that most mistakes were not so serious as to cost people their jobs. As a result, these workers were willing to take risks and to think for themselves. As this building worker noted:
Thats right. Well, you know, theres an old concept people do learn by their mistakes. If they feel that they can make a mistake without being slapped on the wrist, then they will take risks. They will actually say, well if we try this, and really thats what we want them to do. Except, you are balancing that with a production requirement, output and customer needs.

The naturalness of making mistakes is emphasised, together with the realisation that

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correcting each mistake is a form of positive learning within the work context.

2. Learning through self-education on and off the job

The concept of self-education varies according to ones perspective and work situation. Broadly, it can refer to all types of self-initiated learning experiences that people undertake in their lives, including those implemented in their workplaces. It is important to understand that some skills learned in leisure activities, e.g. mechanical skills learned by xing ones car, may be useful in ones work when a machine breaks down, as one trainee in a paper manufacturing factory mentioned (Gerber et al., 1997a). In making such connections between their wider self-educational experiences, workers expected that there would be transfer of learning of these skills to their workplace activities. Self-education directly in ones work occurred through a variety of experiences including: reading books, manuals and technical reports; completing self-directed training modules; visiting exhibitions and reading during work breaks. These strategies, however, are only seen to be useful up to a point since the workers will only know if they know how to do a task described in a book by actually doing it. As one worker said:
I believe that up to a great degree actually, whether you learn it from a book unless you can apply it in practice, you either learn it or you dont. It [a book] might give you the theory, but it wont give you the practice of the thing. You have got to have certain skills which either youve got them or you havent.

behaviours by employees. However, the values that were mentioned explicitly which contributed to the workers learning included: using ones initiative, being strategic, being exible, acting responsibly, setting an example, questioning what you are doing, acting with caution and standing up for ones beliefs. As mentioned in his study across a vertical sample of occupations in a large manufacturing company, the author (Gerber, in press) found that the use of ones initiative is seen as an important way for knowing the ne details of a work activity. Through practising it, workers can help other workers learn more by helping them to understand a process, or additionally to stimulate more questions. As this worker stated:
So youve go to read the ne detail, read between the lines and .... thats when your own initiative comes in and you pass it out to them, or youve got to come back to the people and you have got to nd out more information.

4. Learning by applying theory and practising skills

Employees who had completed some form of prevocational training found that they were regularly reecting on their theoretical understandings during their normal daily work routines. These workers were trying to develop, explicitly or implicitly, applications from their theoretical understandings in their work activities. This was especially so for workers who had prevocational training in TAFE colleges or universities. The connection between applying theory to learn in their work and the practising of particular skills is based on the workers understanding that applications of theory are achieved through the use of particular skills in an effective manner. One example to illustrate this point is that of the business graduate who applied her theoretical understanding of how a large company operated competitively using best practice and quality assurance procedures. She improved her understanding of her own companys situations by trying to apply the learned theory to the practical situation:
I always thought that I did not know what I learned in university, but I guess that I learned something. Accounting is one of the nuts-andbolts degrees.... I think the biggest thing I learned was from assignments looking at Australian businesses having to be the worlds best now with the globalising environment. I think that now I can see [my company] playing a leading role in that. So, its being able to

3. Learning through practising ones personal values

Workers incorporate their personal values in their learning experiences consciously and subconsciously. The challenge for workers is to do so consciously and intentionally. Since workers in most contexts come from a range of social, economic, cultural and educational backgrounds, it is probable that they will bring a wide range of personal values to their workplaces. How do these values contribute to these people learning in their work? These values may be used explicitly or implicitly in their work. General values of honesty, loyalty, punctuality and so on were subsumed implicitly in their workplace

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remember from uni and being able to see that come into practice. Its backed up by a whole range of different areas which I never knew about in life, like quality assurance and production ....

5. Learning by solving problems

Human curiosity is an important force underpinning behaviour in both the workplace and in everyday living. Therefore, when workers encounter large or small problems, their instinct is to try to solve them. These attempts vary in their success as many workers adopt a naturalistic approach to solving each problem. In such an approach, workers operating individually or in work-teams discuss alternatives for solving problems and attempt the most obvious solution. If that does not work then they try another approach until they succeed or they seek help to address the problem. This may occur because workers implement hunches and they often do not realise that bigger picture in which the problem occurs. As one worker indicated:
Problem solving is the main thing I believe you learn from a course. Coming back here in the workplace and applying it. Stopping people when theyve come up with the rst solution which sometimes annoys me, but people always have a solution to a problem thats wrong here. Unfortunately, they havent really analysed it. So, what Ive tried to do is get them to look at the bigger picture, analyse the whole picture rather than just this bit here....

then attempt to replicate their actions. This form of guided participation (Rogoff, 1990) may have been intended, i.e., the supervisor demonstrates an activity to an apprentice, or it may have been unintended, i.e., the worker noticed it happening and observed the activity accidentally. This is reected in the comments by one graphic design educator who said:
Over the shoulder of the operator, I saw him click on the image that he had scanned into the computer and press a button three times and I saw four images sitting there, and I thought, my God, how long has this been going on?. So I fell in love with the concept of not having to use an art camera and the wastage that goes with getting it wrong, getting it too right and the time thats involved in that (Gerber et al., 1995, p. 28).

All sorts of conversations result from workers interacting with other people in their workplace. The diversity of these sources and their variability defy classication, but collectively they represent a key, and often immediate, source of learning for workers.

7. Learning through open lateral planning

In this type of learning, employees demonstrate a use of intuition, instinct, networking skills and visualisation skills to plan for learning and adopting innovative approaches. Through such planning, workers: think of different ways to engage in learning; make different choices about how to learn; select different resources for the act of learning and reect on how they will know if they have learned anything. Therefore, the workers adopt an openness to learning in their jobs. Such openness does not happen accidentally and is based on the workers developing strong networks of key people to assist in the learning process. This openness is reected in the following comments by a librarian:
It is having an open mind. Trying to not take things for granted I guess because the moment that something gets taken for granted, people stop looking at it and they stop perceiving it and its trying to keep it raw enough for people to be aware of its consequences. Trying to not take things for granted (Gerber et al., 1995, p.30).

A very interesting aspect of solving work problems in teams is that more than individual competence is required to implement most solutions. Workers operate collectively in a team to produce an outcome which is the result of team-based decision making. The learning that occurs is something that touches the group members. It will be addressed in the conception that focuses on teamwork.

6. Learning through interacting with others

Learning informality in their work was described frequently by employees in most jobs. Often, this occurred through interaction with workers, their colleagues, local experts and their managers. It requires workers to be alert to other members of the workforce who can be of assistance. Sometimes, such learning occurs when workers watch other more expert workers perform a difcult task and

8. Learning by being an advocate for colleagues

In most workplaces, some workers occupy roles which involve them acting as advocates for their colleagues. Examples of such 173

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advocacy include trade union representatives, occupation health and safety co-ordinators, spokespersons in times of dispute, or active team leaders. Generally, workers do not accept these roles deliberately to learn more about their work. However, having become involved in such roles, many workers report that they do a great deal of learning. For example, if a worker became involved as a member of an enterprise bargaining team, he or she would most likely learn how to: prepare an enterprise agreement; consult with work colleagues throughout the deliberations; negotiate on behalf of fellow workers and interpret the mission of the company. The value of such an experience is expressed by the following building worker:
I was rstly in the enterprise agreement before becoming union delegate on site here. Ive been a part of that from about the end of 93. We started with that and that was a rocky road. Thats certainly a big thing that Ive learned. Its not an easy task to do (Gerber, in press).

10. Learning through formal training

The idea in many companies and organisations is that the planned learning should occur through different forms of formal training. These may include: attending seminars outside of the workplace, completing self-directed learning modules that are available in the workplace, and involvement in formal on-site demonstrations of equipment and procedures. Some workers felt that through formal training they learned how to use different strategies including:
group learning: they will show one person how to use a new system, and that person shows someone else and those two will then show another two, four .... and so we are learning together as a group. simulation: .... we still meet every month or six weeks to talk about it and to have practice sessions of situations that could arise. (Gerber et al., 1995, p. 29)

Because these workers are representing other workers in industrial situations, they feel obligated to know the company rules and procedures thoroughly.

Workers made it quite clear that learning through formal training does have its place in their repertoire of ways of learning in their work, but it was less job-relevant and jobspecic than other less formal approaches.

9. Learning through offering leadership to others

A variation of the above form of learning occurs when workers take a leadership role either formally or informally in respect of fellow employees. Such a proactive role may involve the workers training colleagues in a structured, planned way; it may involve them mentoring less experienced colleagues on a regular basis in the workplace; or it may involve occasional explanations upon demand to different colleagues as the need arises. Such a conception is based on the belief that learning should be based on an active involvement in training:
By getting them involved in the training themselves, I think that you teach other people. It works. It makes them feel good about themselves (Gerber, et al., 1995, p. 29).

11. Learning through practising quality assurance

The idea of continuous improvement which underpins quality assurance is the basis of this conception of learning in the workplace. The widespread approach of measuring performance in companies and organisations, offering feedback to employees and then working out ways to improve this performance, has encouraged workers to reect on their own behaviours and practices in order to develop ways to improve their own performance. In some situations, incentives are offered as rewards for improvement. The place of feedback in this process as a catalyst for learning has been demonstrated in a university workplace (Gerber et al., in press). Here, careful feedback concerning the positive and negative aspects of the students assessment tasks both demonstrated how these responses would be improved and encouraged the students to improve their assessment-writing techniques. The importance of feedback is illustrated in this comment from a trainer of railway workers:
And then when I was doing my own instructional presentations, the other person was teaching me, and then we sat down, we evaluated that afterwards. It was a very good method (Gerber, et al., 1995, p. 31).

These sentiments may be extended to the actual preparation of training modules for others to use in self-directed training activities. Therefore, workers become trainers actually or virtually. The relationship between learning and training is, therefore, highlighted.

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Conclusion
These variations in workplace learning indicate that employees are inventive, sometimes followers, but most self-sufcient in their approaches to learning in their jobs. With such variations evident across a range of industries, the challenge exists for those managers entrusted with workplace training to look rst to their employees before they embark on comprehensive work training programmes. The experiences of their workers may be such that these training programmes do not promote learning in the ways that the workers prefer or enjoy. By understanding how the workers in their context learn, these managers may be able to develop programmes that are relevant to the workplace policy requirements and to the workers learning styles. Because workplace learning approaches have been shown to be such varying items, it could be most important for workers to choose to learn in the way(s) that suit themselves best. This adjusts the responsibility for learning away from the trainers and places it squarely on the shoulders of the workers. If the workers are going to be judged on their performance on specic knowledge and skills, then why shouldnt they have the responsibility for achieving the appropriate workplace outcomes in ways that they prefer? The concept of experiential, lifelong learning should not be overlooked when considering how people learn in their work. This holistic concept reminds all workplace educators that all workers develop and change as they learn both in their work and beyond in their everyday lives. Workplace learning is but a part of the overall learning that people do. The crucial thing to do is to recognise that this is the case rather than thinking that the workplace is somewhere distinctive and unrelated to each persons life-world.

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