Institutional Discrimination:Gender StratificationAugust 18, 2008by Russ Long Economic independence is a primary goal for many of the oppressed

in the United States. In American society work is thepreferred avenue people follow in pursuit of economic independence. Often, however, those most in need in society havethe greatest difficulty finding work (or at least work that offers adequate compensation). The material presented in thisarticle specifically targets women. Much of it, however, applies to economically disadvantaged minorities overall.An overarching theme in this article calls attention to a concept of institutional discrimination. Legal discrimination is,after all, illegal. Presumably, if one can document legal discrimination, one can remove such discrimination through thecourts or legislatures. Institutional discrimination, on the other hand, is much more insidious and, therefore, moredifficult to rectify. Institutional discrimination resides within the fabric of society. Harrington (1984) poetically calledinstitutional discrimination "structures of misery." Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:174) describe institutional discrimination as"the customary ways of doing things, prevailing attitudes and expectations, and accepted structural arrangements [that]works to the disadvantage [of the poor]." Institutional discrimination explains much inequality in gender (and race andethnicity) found in the workplace.The specifics of this article explore earnings discrimination, occupational distribution, the organization of work, and thecharacter of relationships within the family where, according to many, the essence of gender inequality resides.II. Earning DiscriminationA. Equal Pay for Equal Work?In 1980 women earned approximately 59 percent of every dollar earned by men (Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:253). This ratioimproves slightly during economic growth periods in the national economy. In 1990 the figure was 71 percent of every dollarearned by men (Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:253). Recessionary periods, on the other hand, are characterized by growing disparity in wages earned by men and women.Many, like Esping-Andersen (1990), argue that as the economy becomes more internationalized, the gender bias in earningsbegins to disappear. The logic here is that advanced capitalism requires the best person for the job despite gender (orrace and ethnicity). There is some evidence to support Esping-Andersen's claim. Women who work in internationallycompetitive industrial sectors do appear to earn salaries that are closer to those earned by men (see Long, 1993).Long (1995), however, disputes the claim that all women are experiencing greater parity with their male counterparts. Hugesalaries earned by women who have skills demanded by corporations that produce in the international arena maskcontinued (and perhaps growing) inequality experienced between men and women in the United States in the lower socialstrata.B. Differential AccessDifferential access means that men have greater access to the labor market than do women. Differential access does notexplain the entire

problem, however. Women earn less than men even on jobs where all other qualifications are heldconstant.1. Women Enter the Labor Market with Lower Paying JobsThree issues are dealt with regarding institutional discrimination. The first item notes that women enter the labor marketat different and lower paying levels than do men. Historically, men were doctors while women were nurses; men taught incollege while women taught in primary schools; men worked construction while women were secretaries; men worked in

the automobile and steel industries while women worked in apparels and textiles. In each of the above comparisons menare employed in sectors that pay higher wages and than women in the respective sectors.2. Women Enter the Labor Market Later than Men and Periodically Have to Leave.A second observation notes that women enter the labor market later than men and periodically have to leave. Theexplanation is obvious. Women enter the labor market later than men and periodically leave to have children. Childbearing is obviously a necessary social endeavor. The labor market and society overall would cease to function if women did notleave the labor market to have children. Unfortunately society does not compensate women for this activity (and otherdomestic concerns) and it penalizes them in the labor market.One has difficulty arguing that an employee who has longevity on a job deserves raises while one who has a "spotty" workrecord does not. On the other hand, it is not especially difficult to see the inherent inequity in a system that penalizeswomen for essentially doing a good job (domestically) in an activity that is absolutely indispensable socially.3. Women Earn Less Overtime Than MenA final observation revolves around the fact that women earn less overtime than do men. Overtime pay represents thedifference between having a good life and a marginal life for skilled and semiskilled workers. Industry and manufacturing provide overtime pay. These sectors hire primarily males. Service sector work, such as clerical work, does not pay overtimenearly as much as manufacturing. These sectors rely heavily on a female workforce.Differential access highlights the institution character of gender inequality. One can easily see the dynamics thatgenerate inequality. Solutions are difficult to pinpoint within the institution of work. One might argue that Americansplace too much emphasis on WORK as an avenue to prosperity. An analysis of Scandinavian social arrangements might bein order.III. Occupational DistributionThe kind of work an individual does often determines whether that individual (and his or her family) is wealthy or poor.The previous section, in part, explored inequities in wage-compensation associated with various kinds of work. Wages, of course, are only one benefit gained from employment. Other benefits include time-off (Gorz, 1984 argues that leisure is afundamental issue regarding work), health and retirement

benefits, and longevity (to mention a few).At this point exploring the general structure of work is beneficial. Often minorities are tracked into jobs that do notprovide compensation at a level that allows economic independence. An observation that one might draw is that there areentire categories of jobs that have similar characteristics.A. The Split-labor marketWorker's finds themselves employed in one of two great segments in the capitalist economy. These segments havedifferent characteristics, fulfill different roles in the economy, and provide different rewards for the laborer (Eitzen andBaca-Zinn, 1994:441-443).1. The Primary SectorThe primary sector is composed of large, bureaucratic organizations with relatively stable production and sales. Jobswithin this sector require advanced skills, provide relatively high levels of wage compensation, include good working conditions, and are characterized by stable employment.a. Upper TierWomen are moving into professional areas, but their proportion in professional areas is still quite low. There has alsodeveloped a split in the professional circles that see some professional jobs becoming routinized. Much of the employee'sautonomy is taken out of these "professional" jobs. Structural change occurs within the world system also which hasimpact on women Within the primary sector are two sub tiers. Characteristics of the jobs in the upper-tier are highly educated employeeswho work at jobs that require creativity and initiative. Upward mobility is likely.b. Lower TierIn the lower-tier one finds white-collar clerical or blue-collar skilled and semiskilled people. Limited mobility characterizesemployment in the lower-tier, but jobs are relatively secure and have union advocacy.2. The Secondary SectorThe secondary market is composed of marginal firms where product demand is unstable. Poor working conditionscharacterize the work place. Secondary sector employment provides low wages, few opportunities for advancement, andlittle job security. Secondary sector employment requires little education or skills. People get locked into these positionsbecause they do not have skills. Many account for the low levels of benefits and security found in the secondary marketby blaming the person occupying such positions. Many accuse secondary sector workers of having poor work histories.Often, however, the poor work history is a result of unemployment related to the production of marginal products.Workers in the secondary market are subject to harsh working conditions and oppressive discipline from management.Both conditions are related to the fact that there are no unions.Minorities (ethnic, racial, and gender) tend to work in the secondary sector. This, in part, explains wage and salaryinequities.B. Structural Change in the Job Market: Pink Collar WorEitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:252) note that in 1940 only 20% of women of working age were in the job market. By 1991 thisfigure had risen to 57 percent. Greater participation in the labor force does not, however, translate into empowerment(Staudt, 1987) because often they are forced into what Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:252) call "pink-collar" professions. Asthe

capitalist economy is transformed from a manufacturing economy into an advanced service economy, there is greaterneed for clerical and service sector jobs and women generally fill these jobs.Pink-collar refers to jobs generated in the clerical and service sector. They generally employ women, but many men do thiskind of work as well. "Pink-collar" positions generally offer low wages compared with employment in manufacturing.IV. The Organization of Work and InequalityEconomic independence is ultimately enhanced for some because their job allows them to experience a great deal of upward mobility. Some individuals do not experience UPWARD mobility. Their jobs are dead-end jobs. On the other hand,some jobs have slots that allow some people to experience upward mobility, but the manner in which promotions aregranted is biased. This section addresses blocked opportunities and "old boy" networks.A. The Power of Organizational Position: Blocked OpportunitiesMajority groups always develop justifications to explain the inequalities they impose on minority groups. Often religious orbiological explanations are involved. Biology might be used to explain stereotypical perceptions that "men are moreambitious, task-oriented, and work involved." Perhaps god my even be invoked to explain why women are "seen as lessmotivated, less committed, and more oriented toward work based social relationships than to work itself."Obviously we live in the 1990s and educated people recognize such clichs' as trash. There is, however, the possibility thatthe expected behavior exists at a sufficient level to perpetuate the stereotype -- a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy. In thework force, male bosses in secretarial pools might see enough "socializing" to fulfill their expectations that womensocialize too much. While that boss might conjure up religion or biology, the behavior he is seeing might be related to"pressures" which emanate from the organizational position his secretaries occupy.Blocked opportunities refer to structural barriers that minorities encounter that prevent their advancement in anorganization. People who have their opportunities blocked(despite their demographic characteristics) limit theiraspirations. Instead of defining themselves through the work they perform, they seek satisfaction in activities outside work, dream of escape, and create sociable peer groups in which inter personal relationships become more important thanthe specific job they are hired to perform. The key point is that the characteristics of work (that block opportunity)determine the characteristics of the employee.B. Old Boy NetworksOld-boy networks refer to the informal social relationships that occur within any large organization. They may not havediscriminatory intentions, but their actions amount to discrimination in that minorities are ultimately excluded fromparticipation in the organization. While the term "old-boy" implies a male dominated organization, the gender referencemight be misplaced. Old-boy simply refers to those individuals who have a historic relationship with an organization whooccupies positions of power within the

organization. Women can occupy these positions, but often men are the controlling force in many firms.Demographic characteristics of informal associations within corporations may inadvertently (or overtly) limit minorityaccess to higher positions within the organization. Many decisions concerning company policy (in terms of hiring and firing)occur in these "oldboy" networks. Imagine, for example, the informal gathering at the health spa at 6:30 in the morning before work. Obviously women would not "fit in" here. Or suppose the old-boys gather at the local bar Friday evenings todiscuss business or to tell gender specific jokes.Again, it would not be too far-fetched to think of a scenario where the "old-boys" would argue that women might beuncomfortable in the barroom setting. They might even convince themselves that they would do a potential femaleemployee a favor by not subjecting her to that environment. Despite the patronizing position, one might hypothesize thatmany a minority has been excluded from companies as the organization hierarchy engages in precisely these kinds of arguments and justifications for not hiring minorities.V. Inequality within the FamilyThe status of women within the family parallels the position that they hold in the job markets. Women, however, earn nomoney for the jobs that they perform in terms of housework and child rearing, although these jobs are necessary for thesurvival of the family. Despite the importance of such work, it is not viewed as prestigious in terms of wage compensation.The status of men, as wage earners outside the home, helps establish his highly valued position within the family becausewomen do not have access to resources outside the home. The position of women in the labor market adds to theirdependence experienced within the family.Gender inequality is historically related to the subordinate position of women within the family in terms of rule making andcontrol of resources (e.g., money). This relationship is continued within the labor market where historically men havesecured vested positions by making the rules (controlling management and labor) and by receiving unequal (greater)rewards. (Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:443)The reader should be aware that the kinds of relationships discussed above characterize most majority/minorityrelationships. The dominant partner in any social relationship can maintain power via a combination of control overdecision making processes, control of wealth, and one might add control over ideology that superimposes a justification ontop of unequal relationships.Special Education Needs: Top Nine Assistive Technology Products for Special Needs Kidsby Debbie Marsh, DisaboomSpecial education needs can be hard to fill when you have special needs kids. So many other tasks fill your day that finding the right educational technology can go to the bottom of your list.

Weve gathered together some products that will assist special needs kids in learning a variety of skills that will transfer tothe classroom. Several of these

are equally beneficial for normal-ability kids, so siblings can benefit as well. A variety of subjects are covered, including social skills.1. ATKidSystems recently introduced Learning for Children software designed for the preschool set. In addition to the18 educational activities, this software gathers data while the child is playing the games so that performance can beevaluated. Auditory, hand-to-eye coordination, and verbal comprehension skills are among those targeted for childrenthree to five years old.In addition, the same companys flagship product, Cosmos Learning Systems, compatible with MAC and Windows, issuitable for all children ages two to eight, whether they are special needs kids or not. Parents will find the softwarebenefits physical, occupational and speech/language development.2. Special education keyboarding programs for physically disabled, learning disabled, dyslexic and visually impairedstudents at every grade level are the specialty at the Teachers Institute for Special Education. Their typing programs aredesigned to increase speed and skill at keyboard typing, with the added benefit of better spelling and reading skills.They will make a custom-designed keyboard for specific needs, such as a one-handed user who is also blind or dyslexic. Adaily lesson plan is available which addresses special-needs kids.3. Math proficiency and music team up at Rock N Go. Their award-winning software for special education needscombines fun, hip music with mathematics in a program that is especially useful for special needs kids with attentiondeficit disorder (ADD), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, dyslexia and dyscalculia.The products are designed to be stimulating and fun, while enhancing audio, visual, small motor and tactile learning domains. Ten music genres are covered with a CD an workbook. Check out the audio sample on their site.4. A seven-step gradual discrete method for teaching reading is offered by Compu Thera. Its especially useful forspecial needs kids with autism, Down syndrome, ADHD and those who are visual learners who have trouble learning justby observation

Weve gathered together some products that will assist special needs kids in learning a variety of skills that will transfer tothe classroom. Several of these are equally beneficial for normal-ability kids, so siblings can benefit as well. A variety of subjects are covered, including social skills.1. ATKidSystems recently introduced Learning for Children software designed for the preschool set. In addition to the18 educational activities, this software gathers data while the child is playing the games so that performance can beevaluated. Auditory, hand-to-eye coordination, and verbal comprehension skills are among those targeted for childrenthree to five years old.In addition, the same companys flagship product, Cosmos Learning Systems, compatible with MAC and Windows, issuitable for all children ages two to eight, whether they are special needs kids or not. Parents will find the softwarebenefits physical,

occupational and speech/language development.2. Special education keyboarding programs for physically disabled, learning disabled, dyslexic and visually impairedstudents at every grade level are the specialty at the Teachers Institute for Special Education. Their typing programs aredesigned to increase speed and skill at keyboard typing, with the added benefit of better spelling and reading skills.They will make a custom-designed keyboard for specific needs, such as a one-handed user who is also blind or dyslexic. Adaily lesson plan is available which addresses special-needs kids.3. Math proficiency and music team up at Rock N Go. Their award-winning software for special education needscombines fun, hip music with mathematics in a program that is especially useful for special needs kids with attentiondeficit disorder (ADD), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, dyslexia and dyscalculia.The products are designed to be stimulating and fun, while enhancing audio, visual, small motor and tactile learning domains. Ten music genres are covered with a CD an workbook. Check out the audio sample on their site.4. A seven-step gradual discrete method for teaching reading is offered by Compu Thera. Its especially useful forspecial needs kids with autism, Down syndrome, ADHD and those who are visual learners who have trouble learning justby observation

Children with autism, Asperger syndrome, PDD-NOS, nonverbal learning disorders and other special education needsmake perfect candidates for the videos, although all children can benefit from social skills reinforcement.9. Reading and math software for children with Asperger syndrome, highfunctioning autism and ADD/ADHD is thespecialty at Mangoon. The company starts with an individual assessment so reading and writing levels are targeted to yourchilds specific needs.Students go at their own pace, building confidence with fun and motivating games that use high-end graphics withengaging themes. The award-winning program is aligned to state and national standards and works great for special needskids.Why do people think that economic development depends on raising the social standing of women?Because every society has a limited amount of resources available to it. And this includes human resources.Women can either raise a lot of children. Or they can go to work and produce a lot of goods and services instead. Butthey can't do both at the same time.A big part of the reason why the standard of living has increased a lot in western countries is the fact that their birthrates have plummeted, while the number of women who joined the workforce has increased a lot. Women are producing goods and services instead of babies and caring for them until adulthood.But creating things instead of creating people is good only when there are too many people. And that apparently is not thecase in many European countries and Japan whose populations are shrinking now.Source:

http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index? qid=20090314204848AAa4DwPEducation Outside the Classroom (EOTC)Education Outside the Classroom (EOTC) is curriculum-based learning and teaching that extends out of the four walls of the classroom. Geraldine High School offers students a wide range of EOTC experiences that integrate with therequirements of the New Zealand Curriculum and enable them to link classroom and real-world experiences.Geraldine High School has a commitment to environmental education and the use of EOTC as a learning vehicle. Enabling students to appreciate and understand the processes and aesthetic qualities of the environment is an important part of the schools vision.Our school and community are blessed not only with abundant ecosystems of rivers, streams, native bush and mountains,but also with a thriving agricultural and outdoor education and tourism community. We are also fortunate in having majorcultural centres within reasonable driving distance and the school takes full advantage of the opportunities available.Wide Range of ActivitiesOur EOTC activities range from those held within the school grounds to residential camps, curriculum-based field trips,Outdoor Education activities and even overseas trips. While most academic areas have some outside of school activities

Agriculture, Sports, Biology and Outdoor Education have regular EOTC events throughout the year, and the school usesavailable local resources whenever possible.Year 7 students start their year with a day of adventure and bonding on the Challenge Ropes Course, and in 2010 spent aday rafting the quiet upper waters of the Rangitata. This experience, in some of the most spectacular scenery in NewZealand, helps students reinforce their new friendships and relationship with their homeroom teacher. In October theygo to camp at Wainui on Banks Peninsula, and students take part in many adventure based learning and experientialprogrammes.The Year 9 tenting camp at Peel Forest is based around the Peel Forest Outdoor Pursuits Centres EcoLodge. Learning opportunities abound: theres personal development, team work, studying and using sustainable practices in 30 acres of regenerating bush. Students also spend a day on GHSs Challenge Ropes Course, and participate in orienteering, firearmsafety and a day rafting on the spectacular Rangitata River.Agriculture and Gateway students spend many hours outside of the classroom learning within the working environment.Sports exchanges offer many challenges, not least in making contact with the students and cultures of other schools.Spelling bees, speech contests, theatre, choral (Colla Voce), art trips and maths competitions are only a small example of trips undertaken that offer a wealth of experience. Major overseas trips such as the Languages Department trip to NewCaledonia (2008), the 1

st XV Rugby trip to Australia (2010) and student exchanges around the world enhance the schoolsreputation for imaginatively enhancing experiential learning.A Focus on SafetyAs in all things, safety of our students is a major focus of our planning and management of events. The school has a welldeveloped EOTC Safety Management System that requires a structured process of safety planning, hazard identification,risk management, briefing and reviews. The school was successfully audited by Outdoors New Zealand in 2008 and wasawarded the Outdoors Mark as a result.EOTC has become part of Geraldine High Schools academic and social identity. Experiential education beyond the wallsof the classroom is valued and encouraged at this school, and its development as a vital and relevant academic process hasbeen recognised by our community.Source: http://geraldinehs.school.nz/activities/education-outside-the-classroom

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