13 - Chapter13

Bridge Design Manual - 2002
Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis
13 APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS

13.1 GENERAL This chapter describes methods of analysis suitable for the design and evaluation of bridges and is limited to the modeling of structures and the determination of force effects. Other methods of analysis that are based on documented material characteristics and that satisfy equilibrium and compatibility (see Chapter 3: Load Requirements, section 3.10: Load Fatigue) may also be used. In general, bridge structrures are to be analyzed elastically. However, this chapter permits the inelastic analysis or redistribution of force effects in some continuous beam superstructures. It specifies inelastic analysis for compressive members behaving ineleastically and as an alternative for extreme event limit states. If the span length of a superstructure with torsionally stiff closed cross-sections exceeds 2.5 times its width, the superstructure shall be idealized as a single steel spine within a concrete beam. Segments of horizontally curved superstructures with torsionally stiff closed sections whose central angle subtended by a curved span or portion thereof is less than 12 shall be analyzed as if the segment were straight. 13.2 NOTATIONS The following notation shall apply to this chapter: A = Area of concrete (mm2) A = area of cross-section (mm2) Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member as shown in Figure 13-5 (mm2) Ao = area enclosed by centerlines of elements (mm2) Aps = area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown in Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under investigation (mm2) As = area of non-prestressed reinforcing steel on flexural tension side of member, as shown in Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under investigation (mm2) b = width of plate element (mm) bv = effective web width taken as the minimum web width within depth dv (mm) C = continuity factor, 1.0 for simply supported and 0.8 for continuous spans dv = effective shear depth (mm) D = stiffness ratio: Dx/Dy Dx = flexural rigidity in direction of main bars (N-mm2/mm) Dy = flexural rigidity perpendicular to the main bars (N-mm2/mm) E = equivalent width (mm)
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 13-1
EB = modulus of elasticity of beam material (MPa) ED = modulus of elasticity of deck material (MPa) e = eccentricity of a design truck or a design lane load from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders (mm) eg = distance between the centers of gravity of the basic beam and deck (mm) fpe = effective stress after losses (MPa) fpo = stress in prestressing steel when the stress in the surrounding concrete is 0.0 (MPa) h = depth of deck (mm) I = moment of inertia of beam (mm4) Ip = polar moment of inertia (mm4) Is = moment of inertia of the equivalent strip (mm4) J = St. Venant's torsional inertia (mm4) K = effective length factor Kg = longitudinal stiffness parameter Ks = strip stiffness lt = tire length along direction of traffic (mm) L = span of beam (mm) L1 = modified span length taken of the actual span or 18,000 (mm) +M = positive moment (Nmm/mm) -M = negative moment (Nmm/mm) Mu = factored moment (Nmm) Nb = number of beams, stringers or girders NL = number of design lanes Nu = factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (N) p = tire pressure taken as 0.86 MPa R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes s = length of a side element (mm) sx = crack spacing parameter S = spacing of supporting components (mm) S = span length (mm) t = thickness of plate-like element (mm) ts = deck slab thickness (mm) V = shear stress on concrete Vu = factored shear force (N) W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm) W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be of the actual width or 18,000 mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm) X = distance from load to point of support (mm) x = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to each girder (mm) Xext = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to the exterior girder (mm) x = strain in reinforcement = skew angle (DEG) = resistance factor for shear specified in Table 9-7.
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Ethiopian Roads Authority
13.3 DECKS 13.3.1 GENERAL An approximate method of analysis in which the deck is subdivided into strips perpendicular to the supporting components shall be considered acceptable for decks other than fully filled and partially filled grids, for which the provisions of section Live Load Distribution on Fully and Partially Filled Grids, below, shall apply. Where the strip method is used, the extreme positive moment in any deck panel between girders shall be taken to apply to all positive moment regions. Similarly, the extreme negative moment over any beam or girder shall be taken to apply to all negative moment regions. In determining the strip widths, the effects of flexure in the secondary direction and of torsion on the distribution of internal force effects are accounted for to obtain flexural force effects approximating those that would be provided by a more refined method of analysis. Depending on the type of deck, modeling and design in the secondary direction may utilize one of the following approximations: Secondary strip designed in a manner like the primary strip, with all the limit states applicable; Resistance requirements in the secondary direction determined as a percent of that in the primary one as specified in the traditional approach for reinforced concrete slabs (as in Ref. 1); or Minimum structural and/or geometry requirements specified for the secondary direction independent of actual force effects, as is the case for most wood decks.
The approximate strip model for decks is based on rectangular layouts. While skew generally tends to decrease extreme force effects, it produces negative moments at corners, torsional moments in the end zones, substantial redistribution of reaction forces, and a number of other structural phenomena that should be considered in the design. 13.3.2 APPLICABILITY The use of design aids such as computer software for decks containing prefabricated elements shall be permitted in lieu of analysis if the performance of the deck is documented and supported by sufficient technical evidence. The Designer shall be responsible for the accuracy and implementation of any design aids used. For slab bridges and concrete slabs spanning more than 4.6 m and with span primarily in the direction parallel to traffic, the provisions of section 13.5: Equivalent Strip Widths for SlabType Bridges, shall apply.
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13.3.3 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT INTERIOR STRIPS The Width of the equivalent strip of a deck shall be taken as specified in Table 13-1. Where decks span primarily in the direction parallel to traffic, strips supporting an axle load shall not be taken to be greater than 1.0 m for open grids, and not greater than 3.0 m for all other decks where multilane loading is being investigated. For deck overhangs, where applicable, the provisions of section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Deck Overhang Load shall be used in lieu of the strip width specified in Table 13-1 for deck overhangs. The equivalent strips for decks that span primarily in the transverse direction shall not be subject to width limits. Values provided for equivalent strip widths and strength requirements in the secondary direction are based on past experience. Practical experience and future research work may lead to refinement. To get the load per unit width of the equivalent strip, divide the total load on one design traffic lane by the calculated strip width.
TYPE OF DECK Concrete: Cast-in-place
DIRECTION OF PRIMARY STRIP RELATIVE TO TRAFFIC Overhang Either Parallel or Perpendicular
WIDTH OF PRIMARY STRIP (mm) 1140 + 0.833X +M: 660 + 0.55S -M: 1220 + 0.25S +M: 660 + 0.55S -M: 1220 + 0.25S
Cast-in-place with stay-inplace concrete formwork Wood: Spike-laminated Continuous decks or interconnected panels - Non-interconnected panels
Either Parallel or Perpendicular
Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular
2.0h + 760 4.0h + 1020 2.0h + 760 2.0h +1020 Plank Width
Planks S = spacing of supporting components (mm) h = depth of deck (mm) +M = positive moment -M = negative moment X = distance from load to point of support (mm)
Table 13-1 Equivalent Strips for Different Types of Decks
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13.3.4 WIDTH OF EQUIVALENT STRIPS AT EDGES OF SLABS For the purpose of design, the notional edge beam shall be taken as a reduced deck strip width specified herein, plus any additional integral local thickening or similar protrudence acting as a stiffener to the deck. Edge beams shall be assumed to support one line of wheels and, where appropriate, a tributary portion of the design lane load. Longitudinal Edges: Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective width of a strip, with or without an edge beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance between the edge of the deck and the inside face of the barrier, plus 300 mm, plus one-half of the strip width, specified in either section Width of Equivalent Interior Strips above, or section 13.5: Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges, as appropriate. The effective width shall not exceed either the full strip width or 1800 mm. Transverse Edges: The effective width of a strip, with or without an edge beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance between the transverse edge of the deck and the centerline of the first line of support for the deck, usually taken as a girder web, plus one-half of the width of strip as specified in section 13.5: Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges. The effective width shall not exceed the full strip width specified in section 13.5: Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges. 13.3.5 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary direction exceeds 1.5 times the spacing in the primary direction, all of the wheel loads shall be considered to be applied to the primary strip, and the provisions specified in the traditional approach shall be applied to the secondary direction. If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary direction is less than 1.5 times the spacing in the primary direction, the deck shall be modeled as a system of intersecting strips. The width of the equivalent strips in both directions shall be taken as specified in Table 13-1. Each wheel load shall be distributed between two intersecting strips. The distribution shall be determined as the ratio between the stiffness of the strip and the sum of stiffnesses of the intersecting strips. In the absence of more precise calculations, the strip stiffness, ks, shall be estimated as:
ks = E * Is S3
(13.1)
where: Is = moment of inertia of the equivalent strip (mm4) S = spacing of supporting components (mm) 13.3.6 CALCULATION OF FORCE EFFECTS The strips shall be treated as continuous beams or simply supported beams, as appropriate.
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Span length shall be taken as the center-to-center distance between the supporting components. For the purpose of determining force effects in the strip, the supporting components shall be assumed to be infinitely rigid. The wheel loads shall be modeled as concentrated loads or as patch loads whose length along the span shall be the length of the tire contact area, as specified in section 3.8 Gravity Loads: Tire Contact Area, plus the depth of the deck. The strips should be analyzed by classical beam theory. The design section for negative moments and shear forces, where investigated, shall be taken as follows: For monolithic construction and concrete box beams at the face of the supporting component; For steel and wood beams: one-quarter the flange width from the centerline of support; For precast I-shaped and T-shaped concrete beams: one-third the flange width, but not exceeding 380 mm from the centerline of support. For the purpose of this chapter, each web of a steel or concrete box beam shall be treated as a separate supporting component. For short-spans, the force effects calculated using the footprint could be significantly lower, and more realistic, than force effects calculated using concentrated loads. Past practice has been not to check shear in typical decks. A design section for shear is provided for use in nontraditional situations. It is not the intent to investigate shear in every deck. 13.3.7 CROSS-SECTIONAL FRAME ACTION Where decks are an integral part of Box or Cellular cross-sections, flexural and/or torsional stiffnesses of supporting components of the cross-section, i.e., the webs and bottom flange, are likely to cause significant force effects in the deck. Those components shall be included in the analysis of the deck. If the length of a frame segment is modeled as the width of an equivalent strip, provisions of above sections Width of Equivalent Interior Strips, Distribution of Wheel Loads, and Calculation of Force Effects, shall be used. The model used is essentially a transverse segmental strip, in which flexural continuity provided by the webs and bottom flange is included. Such modeling is restricted to closed cross-sections only. In open-framed structures, a degree of transverse frame action also exists, but it can be determined only by complex, refined analysis. In normal beam-slab superstructures, cross-sectional frame action may safely be neglected. If the slab is supported by box beams or is integrated into a cellular cross-section, the effects
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of frame action could be considerable. Such action usually decreases positive moments, but may increase negative moments resulting in cracking of the deck. For larger structures, a three-dimensional analysis shall be appropriate. For smaller structures, the analysis could be restricted to a segment of the bridge whose length is the width of an equivalent strip. Extreme force effects shall be calculated by combining the: Longitudinal response of the superstructure approximated by classical beam theory, and Transverse flexural response modeled as a cross-sectional frame. 13.3.8 LIVE LOAD DISTRIBUTION ON FULLY FILLED AND PARTIALLY FILLED GRIDS Moments in Nmm/mm of grid due to live load in filled and partially filled grids shall be determined as: Main bars transverse to traffic: M = C lt p D0.25 [42.3 * ln(0.039S) - 74] Main bars parallel to direction of traffic
M = Cp[8060D 0.29 ln(0.039S) 10200D0.46 ] lt 200
(13.2)
(13.3)
where: S = C = lt = p = D = Dx = Dy =
span length (mm), 500 mm < S < 10 000 mm in Equation 13.2, and 500 mm < S < 5000 mm in Equation 13.3 continuity factor, 1.0 for simply supported and 0.8 for continuous spans tire length, along direction of traffic, as specified in section 3.8 Gravity Loads: Tire Contact Area (mm) tire pressure taken as 0.86 MPa Dx/Dy flexural rigidity in direction of main bars (N-mm2/mm) flexural rigidity perpendicular to the main bars (N-mm2/mm)
Where test results are not available, the stiffness ratio, D, shall be taken as: For fully filled grids with at least 38mm monolithic overfill ........................................2.0 For all other fully filled grids.........................................................................................2.5 For partially filled grids with at least 38 mm monolithic overfill .................................8.0 For all other partially filled grids .................................................................................10.0 The moment equations have been derived from orthotropic plate theory and stiffness ratios obtained in full-scale laboratory tests of filled and partially filled grids based on a 500 mm wide, 200 mm long tire contact area. Moments resulting from these equations compare well with full-scale test results and finite difference and finite element solutions. The tire contact area, specified in section 3.8 Gravity Loads: Tire Contact Area, factored for the Strength I Load Combination, is a 510 mm by 385 mm rectangle, therefore Equations 13.2 and 13.3 are expected to produce conservative results.
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For on-the-road tire loads greater than those indicated by the design truck, the factored tire pressure should not be taken to be greater than 0.86 MPa, unless supported by conditionspecific data, which includes the tire contact area. 13.3.9 INELASTIC ANALYSIS The inelastic finite element analysis or yield line analysis shall not be used unless otherwise permitted by ERA. 13.4 BEAM-SLAB BRIDGES 13.4.1 APPLICATION For beam spacing exceeding the range of applicability as specified in Tables 13-3 through 13-9, the live load on each beam shall be the reaction of the loaded lanes based on the lever rule unless specified otherwise herein. The lever rule involves summing moments about one support to find the reaction at another support by assuming that the supported component is hinged at interior supports. When using the lever rule on a three-girder bridge, the notional model should be taken as shown in Figure 13-1. Moments should be taken about the assumed, or notional, hinge in the deck over the middle girder to find the reaction on the exterior girder.
Figure 13-1 Notional Model for Applying Lever Rule to Three-Girder Bridges
The provisions of section 3.8: Gravity Load: Multiple Presence of Live Load specify that multiple presence factors shall not be used with the approximate load assignment methods other than statical moment or lever arm methods because these factors are already incorporated in the distribution factors. Bridges not meeting the requirements of this chapter shall be analyzed as specified in Chapter 12: Detail Design of Bridges and Structures. The distribution of live load, specified in the two following sections of this subchapter, shall be used for girders, beams, and stringers, other than multiple steel box beams with concrete decks that meet the following conditions and any other conditions identified in tables of distribution factors as specified herein:
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Width of deck is constant; Number of beams is not less than four, unless otherwise specified; Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness; Unless otherwise specified, the roadway part of the overhang, de, does not exceed 0.9m; Curvature in plan is less than the limit specified in section 13.1: General above; and Cross-section is consistent with one of the cross-sections shown in Table 13-2.
Where moderate deviations from a constant deck width or parallel beams exist, the equations in the tables of distribution factors shall be used in conjunction with a suitable value for beam spacing. In Strength Load Combination II, applying a distribution factor procedure to a loading involving a heavy permit load can be overly conservative unless lane-by-lane distribution factors are available. Use of a refined method of analysis will circumvent this situation. Additional requirements for multiple steel box girders with concrete decks shall be as specified in section Interior Beams with Concrete Decks, below. Where bridges meet the conditions specified herein, permanent loads of and on the deck shall be distributed uniformly among the beams and/or stringers. Live load distribution factors, specified herein, shall be used for permit and rating vehicles whose overall width is comparable to the width of the design truck. Unless otherwise stated, the stiffness parameters for area, moments of inertia and torsional stiffness used herein and indicated in the following text shall be taken as those of the crosssection to which traffic will be applied, i.e., usually the composite section. The longitudinal stiffness parameter, Kg, shall be taken as: Kg =n (I + A eg2) in which: n = EB / ED (13.4)
where: EB ED I= eg A
=modulus of elasticity of beam material (MPa) = modulus of elasticity of deck material (MPa) moment of inertia of beam (mm4) = distance between the centers of gravity of the basic beam and deck (mm) = Area of concrete (mm2)
The parameters A and I in Equation 13.4 shall be taken as those of the non-composite beam. The bridge types indicated in Tables 13-3 through 13-9, with reference to Figure 13-1, shall be taken as representative of the type of bridge to which each approximate equation applies. Except as permitted by Chapter 2: General Requirements, regardless of the method of analysis used, i.e., approximate or refined, exterior girders of multi-beam bridges shall not have less resistance than an interior beam.
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Most of the equations for distribution factors were derived for constant deck width and parallel beams. Past designs with moderate exceptions to these two assumptions have performed well when the "S/D" distribution factors were used. While the distribution factors specified herein are more representative of actual bridge behavior, common sense indicates that some exceptions are still possible, especially if the parameter "S" is chosen with prudent judgment. In lieu of more refined information, the St. Venant torsional inertia, J, shall be determined as: For thin-walled open beam: J 1/3 bt3 For stocky open sections, e.g., prestressed I-beams, etc., and solid sections: J A4 / 40 Ip For closed thin-walled shapes: (13.6) (13.5)
4Ao 2 J s t
where: b t A Ip Ao s = = = = = = width of plate element (mm) thickness of plate-like element (mm) area of cross-section (mm2) polar moment of inertia (mm4) area enclosed by centerlines of elements (mm2) length of a side element (mm)
(13.7)
Equation 13.6 has been shown to substantially underestimate the torsional stiffness of some concrete I-beams (a more accurate, but more complex, approximation can be found in Ref. 2). For beams with variable moment of inertia, Kg shall be based on average properties. In some cases, the lower limit of deck slab thickness, ts shown in the range of applicability column in Tables 13-3 through 13-9 is less than 180 mm. The research used to develop the equation in those tables reflects the range of slab thickness shown. Table 13-2 below describes how the term L (length) shall be determined for use in the live load distribution factor equations given below. In the rare occasion when the continuous span arrangement is such that an interior span does not have any positive uniform load moment, i.e., no uniform load points of contraflexure, the region of negative moment near the interior supports would be increased to the centerline of
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the span, and the L used in determining the live load distribution factors would be the average of the two adjacent spans.
Force Effect
L (mm)
Positive Moment Negative Moment Near interior supports of continuous spans from point of contraflexure to point of contraflexure under a uniform load on all spans Negative Moment Other than near interior supports of continuous spans Shear Exterior Reaction Interior Reaction of Continuous Span
The length of the span for which moment is being calculated The average length of the two adjacent spans
The length of the span for which moment is being calculated The length of the span for which shear is being calculated The length of the exterior span The average length of the two adjacent spans
Table 13-2 L for Use in Live Load Distribution Factor Equations 13.4.2 INTERIOR BEAMS WITH CONCRETE DECKS
The live load flexural moment for interior beams with concrete decks shall be determined by applying the lane fraction specified in Table 13-3. Applicable cross-sections are depicted in Figure 13-2. For preliminary design, the terms Kg/(L ts3) and I/J shall be taken as 1.0. For concrete beams, other than box beams, used in multi-beam decks with shear keys: Deep, rigid end diaphragms shall be provided to ensure proper load distribution, and If the stem spacing of stemmed beams is less than 1.2 m or more than 3.0 m, a refined analysis shall be used. For multiple steel box girders with a concrete deck, the live load flexural moment shall be determined using the distribution factor specified in Table 13-3. When the spacing of the box girders varies along the length of the bridge, the value of NL shall be determined, as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Number of Lanes, using the width, W, taken at midspan. The results of analytical and model studies of simple span multiple box section bridges (Ref. 3) showed that folded plate theory could be used to analyze the behavior of bridges of this type.
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Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures
Multiple presence factors, specified in Table 3-4, are not applied because the multiple factors in past editions of the Standard Specifications were considered in the development of the equation in Table 13-3 for multiple steel box girders. The lateral load distribution obtained for simple spans is also considered applicable to continuous structures.
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Type of Beams
Applicable Cross-section from Figure 13-2 l
Distribution Factors
Range of Applicability
Concrete Deck on Wood Beams Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, or Partially Filled Grid on Steel or Concrete Beams; Concrete T-Beams, T-and Double TSections
One Design Lane Loaded: S/3700 Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: S/3000 a, e, k and also One Design Lane Loaded: i, j if sufficiently 0.06 + S 0.4 S 0.3 Kg 0.1 connected to 4300 L Lts3 act as a unit Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: 0.075 + S 4300
0.6
S 1800 1100 S4900 110 ts 300 6000L73000 Nb 4
S L
0.2
Kg Lts3
0.1
Multicell Concrete Box Beam
Use lesser of the values obtained from the equation above with Nb = 3 or the lever rule One Design Lane Loaded: 1.75 + S 300 0.35 1 0.45 1100 L Nc Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: 13 Nc
0.3
Nb = 3 2100S4000 18 000 L 73000 Nc 3 If Nc>8 Nc=8 use
S 430
1 L
0.25
Steel Grids on Steel Beams
One Design Lane Loaded: S/2300 If tg < 100 mm S/3050 If tg 100 mm Two or More Design Lanes Loaded: S/2400 If tg < 100 mm S/3050 If tg 100 mm
S 1800 mm
S 3200 mm
Table 13-3 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam
The bridges considered in the development of the equations had interior end diaphragms only, i.e., no interior diaphragms within the spans, and no exterior diaphragms anywhere between boxes. If interior or exterior diaphragms are provided within the span, the transverse load distribution characteristics of the bridge will be improved to some degree. This improvement can be evaluated, if desired, using any method of analysis that satisfies the requirements of equilibrium and compatibility and uses stress-strain relationships for the proposed materials.
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13.4.3 EXTERIOR BEAMS
The live load flexural moment for exterior beams shall be determined by applying the lane fraction, g, specified in Table 13-4.
Type of Superstructure Wood Deck on Wood or Steel Beam Concrete Deck on Wood Beams Concrete Deck, filled Grid, or Partially Filled Grid on Steel or Concrete Beams: Concrete T-Beams. T and Double T Sections Applicable Crosssection from Figure 13-2 a, l L a, e, k and also i, j if sufficiently connected to act as a unit One Design Lane Loaded Lever Rule Lever Rule Lever Rule Two or More Design Lanes Loaded Lever Rule Lever Rule g = e ginterior e = 0.77 + de 2800 Use lesser of the values obtained from the equation above with Nb = 3 or the lever rule Range of Applicability N/A N/A -300 de 1700
Nb = 3
Table 13-4 Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior Longitudinal Beams
The distance, de, shall be taken as positive if the exterior web is inboard of the interior face of the traffic railing and negative if it is outboard of the curb or traffic barrier. In beam-slab bridge cross-sections with diaphragms or cross-frames, the distribution factor for the exterior beam shall not be taken to be less than that which would be obtained by assuming that the cross-section deflects and rotates as a rigid cross-section. The provisions of section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Multiple Presence of Live Load shall apply. This additional investigation is required because the distribution factor for girders in a multigirder cross-section, Types "a" and "e" in Figure 13-2, was determined without consideration of diaphragm or cross-frames. The recommended procedure is an interim provision until research provides a better solution. The procedure outlined in this section is the same as the conventional approximation for loads on piles.
R= NL + Nb 2 Nb x NL Xext e
(13.8)
where: R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes
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NL = number of loaded lanes under consideration Nb = number of beams or girders e = eccentricity of a design truck or a design lane load from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders (mm) x = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to each girder (mm) Xext = horizontal distance from the center of gravity of the pattern of girders to the exterior girder (mm)
13.4.4 SKEWED BRIDGES
When the line supports are skewed and the difference between skew angles of two adjacent lines of supports does not exceed 10, the bending moment in the beams shall be reduced in accordance with Table 13-5.
Applicable Cross-section from Figure 13-2 Any Number of Design Lanes Loaded 1 c1 (tan )1.5 a, e and k c1 = 0.25 kg 0.25 S Lt3s L o If < 30 then c1 = 0.0 If > 60o use = 60o
0.5
Type of Superstructure Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, or Partially Filled Grid on Steel or Concrete Beams, Concrete TBeams, T or Double T Sections
Range of Applicability 30o 60o 1100 S 4900 6000 L 73 000 Nb 4
Table 13-5 Reduction of Load Distribution Factors for Moment in Longitudinal Beams on Skewed Supports
Accepted reduction factors are not currently available for cases not covered in Table 13-5.
13.4.5 FLEXURAL MOMENTS AND SHEAR IN TRANSVERSE FLOORBEAMS
If the deck is supported directly by transverse floorbeams, the floorbeams shall be designed for loads determined in accordance with Table 13-6. The fractions provided in Table 13-6 shall be used in conjunction with the 145 kN design axle load alone. For spacings of floorbeams outside the given ranges of applicability, all of the design live loads shall be considered, and the lever rule shall be used. Type of Deck Plank Concrete Fraction of Wheel Load to Each Floor-Beam S / 1200 S / 1800 Range of Applicability N/A S 1800
Table 13-6 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Transverse Beams for Moment and Shear
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13.4.6 INTERIOR BEAMS
The live load shear for interior beams shall be determined by applying the lane fractions specified in Table 13-7. For interior beam types not listed in Table 13-7, lateral distribution of the wheel or axle adjacent to the end of span shall be that produced by use of the lever rule. For preliminary design, the term I/J shall be taken as 1.0. For concrete box beams used in multi-beam decks, if the values of I or J do not comply with the limitations in Table 13-7, the distribution factor for shear shall be taken as that for moment.
Type of Superstructure Applicable Cross-section from Figure 13-2 l a, e, k and also i, j if sufficiently connected to act as a unit d S 2900
0.6
One Design Lane Loaded
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded Lever Rule 0.2 + S - S 2.0 3600 10700
Range of Applicability
Concrete Deck on Wood Beams Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, or Partially Filled Grid on Steel or Concrete Beams: Concrete T-Beams. T and Double T Sections Multi-cell Concrete Box Beams, Box Sections
Lever Rule
N/A 1100 S 4900 6000 L 73000 110 ts 300 4x109 kg 3x1012 Nb 4 Nb = 3 1800 S 4900 6000 L 73000 890 d 2800 Nc 3
0.36 +
S 7600
Lever Rule d L
0.1
Lever Rule S 0.9 d 2200 L

0.1
Table 13-7 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams 13.4.7 EXTERIOR BEAMS
The live load shear for exterior beams shall be determined by applying the lane fractions specified in Table 13-8. For cases not addressed in Table 13-7 and Table 13-8, the live load distribution to exterior beams shall be determined by using the lever rule. The parameter de shall be taken as positive if the exterior web is inboard of the curb or traffic barrier and negative if it is outboard. The additional provisions for exterior beams in beam-slab bridges with cross-frames or diaphragms, specified in Exterior Beams, above, shall apply.
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Bridge Design Manual - 2002 Type of Superstructure Applicable Cross-section from Figure 13-2 a, l a, e, k and also i, j if sufficiently connected to act as a unit d One Design Lane Loaded Lever Rule Lever Rule
Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis Two or More Design Lanes Loaded Lever Rule g = e ginterior = 0.6 + de . 3000 Lever Rule g = e ginterior = 0.64 + de . 3800 Lever Rule Range of Applicability
Wood Deck on Wood or steel Beams Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, or Partially Filled Grid on Steel or Concrete Beams; Concrete T-Beams, Tand Double T-Beams Multi-cell Concrete Box Beams, Box Sections Steel Grid Deck on Steel Beams
N/A -300 de 1700
Nb = 3 -600 de 1500
Lever Rule
Lever Rule
N/A
Table 13-8 - Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams 13.4.8 SKEWED BRIDGES Shear in the exterior beam at the obtuse corner of the bridge shall be adjusted when the line of support is skewed. The value of the correction factor shall be obtained from Table 13-9. It is applied to the lane fraction specified in Table 13-7 for interior beams and in Table 13-8 for exterior beams.
In determining the end shear in multi-beam bridges, the skew correction at the obtuse corner shall be applied to all the beams.
Type of Superstructure Applicable Correction Factor Cross-section from Figure 13-2 a, e, k and also 0.3 i, j if Lts 3 sufficiently 1.0 + 0.20 Kg tan connected to act as unit d 1.0 + 0.25 + L tan 70d Range of Applicability 0o 60o 1100 S 4900 6000 L 73 000 Nb 4 0o 60o 1800 S 4000 6000 L 73 000 900 d 2700 Nc 3
Concrete Deck, Filled Grid, or Partially Filled Grid on Steel or Concrete Beams; Concrete T-Beams, T- and Double T Section ulti-cell Concrete Box Beams, Box sections
Table 13-9 - Correction Factors for Load Distribution Factors for Support Shear of the Obtuse Corner
Page 13-17
Verifiable correction factors are not available for cases not covered in Table 13-9. The equal treatment of all beams in a multi-beam bridge is conservative regarding positive reaction and shear. However, it, is not necessarily conservative regarding uplift in the case of large skew and short exterior spans of continuous beams. A supplementary investigation of uplift should be considered using the correction factor from Table 13-9, i.e., the terms other than 1.0, taken as negative for the exterior beam at the acute corner. In Equation 13.8, the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple presence effect. 13.5 EQUIVALENT STRIP WIDTHS FOR SLAB-TYPE BRIDGES This chapter shall be applied to the types of cross-sections shown schematically in Figure 132 and culverts under less than 600 mm of fill. For the purpose of this chapter, cast-in-place voided slab bridges shall be considered as slab bridges. The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with one lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as: E = 250 + 0.42 L1W1 (13.9)
The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more than one lane loaded shall be determined as:
E = 2100 + 0.12 L1W1 W NL
(13.10)
where: E = equivalent width (mm) L1 = modified span length taken of the actual span or 18,000 (mm) W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be of the actual width or 18,000 mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm) W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm) NL = number of design lanes as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads/Number of Lanes For skewed bridges, the longitudinal force effects shall be reduced by the factor r: r = 1.05 - 0.25 tan 1.00 where: = skew angle (DEG) (13.11)
Page 13-18
13.6 EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR, K Equations for the compressive resistance of columns and moment magnification factors for beam-columns include a factor, K, which is used to modify the length according to the restraint at the ends of the column against rotation and translation. Physical column lengths shall be multiplied by an effectivelength factor, K, representing the ratio of the effective length of an idealized pin-end column to the actual length of a column with various other end conditions. For the compression members in triangulated trusses, trusses, and frames, K shall be taken as: For bolted or welded end connections at both ends: K = 0.750 For pinned connections at both ends: K = 0.875 13.7 SHEAR SECTIONAL DESIGN MODEL
13.7.1 GENERAL
The resistance of members in shear or in shear combined with torsion shall be determined by satisfying the conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains and by using experimentally verified stress-strain relationships for reinforcement and for diagonally cracked concrete.
13.7.2 DETERMINATION OF AND
Simplified Procedure for Non-Prestressed Sections For non-prestressed concrete sections not subjected to axial tension and containing at least the minimum amount of transverse reinforcement specified or having an overall depth of < 400 mm, the following values shall be used: = 2.0 = 45o With taken as 2.0 and as 45o, the expressions for shear strength become essentially identical to those traditionally used for evaluating shear resistance. Recent large-scale experiments (Ref. 4), however, have demonstrated that these traditional expressions can be seriously unconservative for large members not containing transverse reinforcement.
13.7.3 GENERAL PROCEDURE
For sections containing transverse reinforcement, the values of and shall be as specified in Figure 13-3 and Table 13-10, and for sections not containing transverse reinforcement these values shall be as specified in Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11. In using these tables or figures:
Page 13-19
The shear stress on the concrete shall be determined as: V= Vu Vp bvdv (13.12)
The strain in the reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member shall be determined as:
x = Mu / dv + 0.5 Nu + 0.5Vu cot Apsfpo 0.002 EsAs + EpAps
(13.13)
If the value of x, calculated from Equation 13.13, is negative, it shall be multiplied by the factor, F taken as:
F = EsAs + EpAps EcAc + EsAs + EpAps
(13.14)
Where: = resistance factor for shear specified in Table 9-7. Ac = area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member as shown in Figure 13-5 below (mm2) Aps = area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown in Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under investigation (mm2) Nu = factored axial force taken as positive if tensile (N) Vu = factored shear force (N) As = area of non-prestressed reinforcing steel on flexural tension side of member, as shown in Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under investigation (mm2) Mu = factored moment (Nmm) fpo = stress in prestressing steel when the stress in the surrounding concrete is 0.0 (MPa) The flexural tension side of the member should be taken as the half-depth containing the flexural tension zone, as illustrated in Figure 13-5. The crack spacing parameter sx, used in Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11, shall be taken as the lesser of either dv or the maximum distance between layers of longitudinal crack control reinforcement. The area of the reinforcement in each layer shall be 0.003 bv sx. In the general procedure, and are found from Figure 13-3 and Table 13-10 or Figure 13-4 and Table 13-11. In these figures and tables, and are given as functions of the strain x the shear stress V and the crack spacing parameter sx.
Page 13-20
Figure13-3 Values of and for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement
Page 13-21
Figure 13-4 Values of and for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement

Page 13-22 Ethiopian Roads Authority
v f c <=0.05 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15 0.175 0.2 0.225 0.25
-0.2 27.0 6.78 27.0 6.78 23.5 6.50 20.0 2.71 22.0 2.66 23.5 2.59 25.0 2.55 26.5 2.45 28.0 2.36
-0.15 27.0 6.17 27.0 6.17 23.5 5.87 21.0 2.71 22.5 2.61 24.0 2.58 25.5 2.49 27.0 2.44 28.5 2.36
-0.1 27.0 5.63 27.0 5.63 23.5 5.31 22.0 2.71 23.5 2.61 25.0 2.54 26.5 2.48 27.5 2.43 29.0 2.32
0 27.0 4.88 27.0 4.88 23.5 3.26 23.5 2.60 25.0 2.55 26.5 2.50 27.5 2.45 29.0 2.37 30.0 2.30
0.125 27.0 3.99 27.0 3.65 24.0 2.61 26.0 2.57 27.0 2.50 28.0 2.41 29.0 2.37 30.5 2.33 31.0 2.28
x *1000 0.25 28.5 3.49 27.5 3.01 26.5 2.54 28.0 2.50 29.0 2.45 30.0 2.39 31.0 2.33 32.0 2.27 32.0 2.01
0.5 29.0 2.51 30.0 2.47 30.5 2.41 31.5 2.37 32.0 2.28 32.5 2.20 33.0 2.10 33.0 1.92 33.0 1.64
0.75 33.0 2.37 33.5 2.33 34.0 2.28 34.0 2.18 34.0 2.06 34.0 1.95 34.0 1.82 34.0 1.67 34.0 1.52
1 36.0 2.23 36.0 2.16 36.0 2.09 36.0 2.01 36.0 1.93 35.0 1.74 34.5 1.58 34.5 1.43 35.5 1.40
1.5 41.0 1.95 40.0 1.90 38.0 1.72 37.0 1.60 36.5 1.50 35.5 1.35 35.0 1.21 36.5 1.18 38.5 1.30
2 43.0 1.72 42.0 1.65 39.0 1.45 38.0 1.35 37.0 1.24 36.0 1.11 36.0 1.00 39.0 1.14 41.5 1.25
Table 13-10 Values of and for Sections with Transverse Reinforcement

x * 1000 0.5 31.0 3.19 37.0 2.83 40.0 2.59 45.0 2.26 53.0 1.82 62.0 1.35 71.0 0.90
sx <=130 250 380 630 1270 2500 5000
-0.2 26.0 6.90 27.0 6.77 27.0 6.57 28.0 6.24 31.0 5.62 35.0 4.78 42.0 3.83
-0.1 26.0 5.70 28.0 5.53 30.0 5.42 31.0 5.36 33.0 5.24 35.0 4.78 42.0 3.83
0 27.0 4.94 30.0 4.65 32.0 4.47 35.0 4.19 38.0 3.83 42.0 3.47 47.0 3.11
0.25 29.0 3.78 34.0 3.45 37.0 3.21 41.0 2.85 48.0 2.39 55.0 1.88 64.0 1.39
0.75 33.0 2.82 39.0 2.46 43.0 2.23 48.0 1.92 57.0 1.50 66.0 1.06 74.0 0.66
1 34.0 2.56 40.0 2.19 45.0 1.98 51.0 1.69 59.0 1.27 69.0 0.87 77.0 0.53
1.5 36.0 2.19 43.0 1.87 48.0 1.65 54.0 1.40 63.0 1.00 72.0 0.65 80.0 0.37
2 38.0 1.93 45.0 1.65 50.0 1.45 57.0 1.18 66.0 0.83 75.0 0.52 82.0 0.28
Table 13-11 - Values of and for Sections without Transverse Reinforcement
Page 13-23
Figure 13-5 Illustration of Ac
The strain, x, is used as an indicator of the longitudinal stiffness of the section and of the magnitude of the moment, axial force, and prestressing force. Sections that contain large percentages of longitudinal reinforcement, are prestressed, or are subjected to small moments, will have low values of x. For many prestressed sections, it will be found that x is close to 0.0. Such sections will have small web deformations, and hence, high values of Vc. In determining x at a particular section, it is conservative to take Mu as the highest factored moment that will occur at that section, rather than a moment coincident with Vu. In calculating x, the stress fpo can be conservatively taken as the effective stress after losses. fpe. Alternatively, fpo can be taken as:
fpo = fpe + fpcEp Ec
(13.15)
It could be argued that the term Vu in Equation 13.13 should be more accurately written as Vu -0.5 Vs Vp. However, the concept of using x as a parameter is innately imprecise enough to allow the simplification of using only Vu. Note that in calculating x it is necessary to make an estimate for cot. As it is conservative to overestimate x, it is best to use a low value of in determining x. Because x is a function of in Equation 13-13, and is related to x in Tables 13-10 and 1311 or Figures 13-3 and 13-4, an iterative solution is required. A flow chart for shear design is shown in Figure 13-6, which indicates the iterative solution for using and x. The values of and are based on calculating the stresses that can be transmitted across diagonally cracked concrete. As the cracks become wider, the stress that can be transmitted decreases. For members containing transverse reinforcement, it is assumed that the diagonal cracks will be spaced about 300 mm apart. For members without transverse reinforcement, the spacing of diagonal cracks inclined at to the longitudinal reinforcement is assumed to be sx/sin. Hence, deeper members having larger values of sx are assumed to have more widely spaced cracks and, hence, cannot transmit such high shear stresses as shown in Figure 13-7, which provides some guidance in the determination of the parameter sx.
Page 13-24 Ethiopian Roads Authority
Start
Assume Value of Calculate (and F if necessary)
Calculate Effective Shear Depth, d v

Eq. 12.35 and 12.36
Eq. 13.13 and 13.14
No Calculate Vertical Component of P/S, Vp
Find and from Table 13-11 or Figure 13-2
Was Assumed Correct ? Calculate Shear Stress in concrete, v and v/fc

Table 13-10
Yes Calculate Vc and Vs

Eq. 12.28 and 12.29
If Aps or As Not Fully Developed, Calculate Effective Areas
End
Figure 13-6 Flow Chart for Shear Design 13.7.4 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
For sections not subjected to torsion, longitudinal reinforcement shall be proportioned so that at each section Equation 13.16 is satisfied:
Mu 0.5Nu Vu Asfy + Apsfps + + 0.5Vs Vp cot dv
(13.16)
where: Aps = area of prestressing steel on the flexural tension side of the member, shown in Figure 13-5, reduced for any lack of full development at the section under investigation (mm2) = resistance factors as appropriate for moment, shear, and axial resistance
Page 13-25
Figure 13-7 Guide to the Selection of Sx
Shear causes tension in the longitudinal reinforcement. For a given shear, this tension becomes larger as becomes smaller and as Vc becomes larger. The tension in the longitudinal reinforcement caused by the shear force can be, visualized from a free body diagram such as that shown in Figure 13-8.
Page 13-26
Taking moments about Point 0 in Figure 13-8, assuming that the aggregate interlock force on the crack, which contributes to Vc, has a negligible moment about Point 0, and neglecting the small difference in location of Vu and Vp leads to the requirement for the tension force in the longitudinal reinforcement caused by shear. If the reaction force or the load at the maximum moment location introduces direct compression into the flexural compression face of the member, the area of longitudinal reinforcement on the flexural tension side of the member need not exceed the area required to resist the maximum moment acting alone. At maximum moment locations, the shear force changes sign, and hence the inclination of the diagonal compressive stresses changes.
Figure 13-8 Forces Assumed in Resistance Model Caused by Moment and Shear
REFERENCES
1. 2.
3. 4.
AASHTO Standard Specifications, 1988. Eby, C. C., J. M. Kulicki, C. N. Kostem, and M. A. Zellin. The Evaluation of St. Venant Torsional Constants for Prestressed Concrete I-Beams. Fritz Laboratory Report No. 400.12. Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1973. Johnston, S. B., and A. H. Mattock. Lateral Distribution of Load in Composite Box Girder Bridges. Highway Research Record No. 167, 1967. Shioya, T., M. Iguro, Y. Nojiri, H. Akiyama, and T. Okada. Shear Strength of Large Reinforced Concrete Beams. In Fracture Mechanics: Applications to Concrete. SP118. ACI, Detroit, Michigan, 1989.
Page 13-27

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13 - Chapter13

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Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

13 APPROXIMATE METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

TYPE OF DECK Concrete: Cast-in-place

DIRECTION OF PRIMARY STRIP RELATIVE TO TRAFFIC Overhang Either Parallel or Perpendicular

Either Parallel or Perpendicular

Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular

Table 13-1 Equivalent Strips for Different Types of Decks

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Applicable Cross-section from Figure 13-2 l

S 1800 1100 S4900 110 ts 300 6000L73000 Nb 4

Multicell Concrete Box Beam

Nb = 3 2100S4000 18 000 L 73000 Nc 3 If Nc>8 Nc=8 use

Steel Grids on Steel Beams

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

13.4.3 EXTERIOR BEAMS

where: R = reaction on exterior beam in terms of lanes

Ethiopian Roads Authority

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Range of Applicability 30o 60o 1100 S 4900 6000 L 73 000 Nb 4

Chapter 13 Approximate Methods of Analysis

Bridge Design Manual - 2002

13.4.6 INTERIOR BEAMS

One Design Lane Loaded

Lever Rule S 0.9 d 2200 L