An Introduction to Lighting

By John Fetters Understanding lighting basics can help the new energy manager develop a successful lighting management plan An estimated 40 percent of a commercial building's electrical energy is used for lighting. Although several programs have provided incentives for improving lighting efficiency, many building lighting systems have not yet been upgraded. If energy-efficient lighting systems were to be installed in these buildings, energy use and costs could be reduced dramatically and productivity increased. Efficient building lighting systems use less energy than the systems in place in many of the nation's offices, plants, schools, municipal buildings, and stores. New energy-efficient lighting systems also provide better lighting quality, improving the working environment. Worker productivity often increases because of the improvements in visibility and environment brought about by new well-designed energy-efficient lighting systems. Facilities managers trying to understand and evaluate lighting systems must be familiar with fundamental concepts about lighting, including: quantity quality lamp technologies ballast technologies luminaires controls maintenance

Quantity of Light
Total light, or luminance, from a light source is measured in lumens. The quantity of light that falls on a work surface, called illuminance, is measured in lux or footcandles. The lux (lx) equals 1 lumen per sq. meter and the footcandle (fc) equals one lumen per sq. ft. The divider 10.76 provides a good way to convert from lux to footcandles. A light meter can be used to measure the illuminance, but it does not measure the energy used to produce that light, nor does it describe the quality of the light. Quantity measurements are important. We know from experience that it takes more light to see small objects and tasks of low contrast than larger, higher contrast tasks. Also, as our eyes age, they require more light. How much light is required to illuminate workspaces or to perform tasks? The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) provides light level (illuminance) recommendations. The new IESNA Lighting Handbook, 9th edition, contains the latest illuminance recommendations, which are intended to prevent under-lighting and over-lighting. Over-lighting wastes energy and reduces lighting quality. Quality of Light Lighting quality includes a number of lighting parameters that are highly subjective and not easily quantified, including veiling reflections, glare, color, and flicker. Controlling these parameters effectively is essential to creating lighting that meets the needs and expectations of people working in a space, making them comfortable and more productive. Veiling reflections detract from lighting quality by reducing contrast, which obscures task details. Veiling reflections are most noticeable from luminaires (fixtures) located in front of and above the viewing task.

Glare is the sensation produced by brightness (luminance within the visual field) sufficiently greater than the brightness to which the eye is adapted to cause a loss of visual performance. Discomfort glare in building interiors is annoying and diminishes lighting quality by interfering with employee productivity more than with visual performance. Glare can be controlled by controlling the light level and by blocking the direct view of bare lamps. Louvers such as those in deep-cell parabolic luminaires or low-glare acrylic lenses that reduce surface brightness at high viewing angles may be used. The use of indirect lighting is the best way to reduce glare in office interiors and is recommended in electronic offices.

Lamp color also affects lighting quality. Occupant preferences are the best guide for lamp color. Many recommendations regarding combinations of lamp color temperature and illuminance are now obsolete. However, we do know that when lamps of higher color rendering are used, illuminance may be lowered to achieve equivalent brightness. This effect has been noticed by occupants who may complain that the new high CRI T8 lamps are too bright. Lamp flicker also reduces lighting quality. Flicker comes from fluorescent lamps operated on magnetic ballasts. The lamps turn on and off 120 times a second, and may produce distraction, eyestrain, nausea, and headaches. Flicker is especially noticeable at high light levels, such as industrial inspection lighting. Electronic ballasts that operate fluorescent lamps at high frequency reduce flicker to an imperceptible level. Visual Comfort Probability (VCP) is a rating of lighting systems that is expressed as a percentage of people who, when viewing from a specified location and in a specified direction, will find the lighting system acceptable in terms of discomfort glare. The IESNA minimum recommendation for electronic offices is 80. Values of VCP are found in luminaire manufacturers' catalogs in the photometric information.

It is also important to balance lighting for visual performance and visual comfort. The IESNA Lighting Handbook contains recommendations for uniformity between the visual task and background. Also overly diffuse and overly directional lighting should be avoided.

Lamps
Lighting professionals use the term lamp to describe light sources commonly called light bulbs and tubes. Incandescent, fluorescent, and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps are the most common lamps used for building lighting systems. Before detailing these three major lamp types, it is beneficial to understand lamp characteristics that are common to all lamps. Common lamp characteristics and definitions Luminous efficacy (LPW): The efficiency of a light source, calculated by dividing the light output (in lumens) by the power input (in watts). The higher the LPW, the more efficient the light source. Average rated life: The rated life of a lamp is the value, in hours, at which half of a large group of that lamp fails under standard test conditions. Any particular lamp or group of lamps may vary from the published rated life. For fluorescent and HID lamps, the average rated lamp life is affected by the burn cycle (the average time that a lamp is on before it is turned off). Lamp lumen depreciation: Light sources lose their ability to produce light over time due to age. Lamp lumen depreciation (LLD) represents the percent of initial lumens remaining at 40 percent of rated life. LLD can be calculated by dividing the design (mean) lumens by the initial lumen rating. For example, for a 32 watt T8 lamp that has an initial rating of 2,900 lumens and a design lumen rating of 2,610, LLD=0.90 (2,610/2,900 = 0.90). This means that the T8 lamp will retain 90 percent of its initial light output after 40 percent of its average rated life. Lumen depreciation is affected by the ballast used, line-voltage tolerances, and burn cycle.

Color temperature (CCT): The color temperature of a lamp is described in terms of its lighted appearance to the eye-whether it appears "warm" or "cool." CCT is measured on a Kelvin scale, ranging from 1,500 K (which appears red-orange) to 9,000 K, which appears blue. Light sources lie somewhere between these two, with those of higher color temperature (4,100 K) appearing "cool" and those of lower color temperature (3100 K) being "warm." Color rendering index (CRI): Color rendition describes the effect a light source has on the appearance of colored objects. The higher the CRI, the less distortion of the object's color by the lamp's light. The maximum CRI is 100. A CRI of 100 indicates that there is no color shift as compared to a reference source, and the lower the CRI, the more pronounced the shift. CRI values should only be compared between lamps of similar color temperature.

Incandescent lampsThe incandescent lamp is what most of us grew up with in our homes. They are inexpensive and available in hundreds of sizes, shapes, and wattages and are easily dimmed. However, they are very inefficient-as low as 8 LPW, have short lamp life, and add heat to buildings. Incandescent lamps are voltage sensitive. Lamp life, lumen output, and wattage depend on the applied voltage. Higher voltage-rated lamps (usually 130 volt) may be used for lighting circuits with higher than normal voltage or for those who desire to decrease re-lampings. When 130-volt lamps are used on 120-volt circuits, lumen output will be lower and life will be longer. Tungsten-halogen lamps are more efficient than standard incandescent lamps. A halogen fill gas combines with the tungsten molecules that boil off the filament. The resulting halogen cycle increases the LPW, produces whiter light and longer life, and lowers LLD. Fluorescent lampsThe fluorescent lamp is the most commonly used lamp type in commercial applications. Fluorescent lamps generate light when ultraviolet energy (UV) from a mercury arc strikes a fluorescent phosphor on the inside surface of the tube. The tube contains mercury vapor at low pressure and a small amount of inert gas. Characteristics of fluorescent lamps are long life (12,000 to 22,000 hours), high efficacy (75 to 90 LPW), and excellent color rendering, especially with the newer rare-earth (RE) lamps. Fluorescent lamps are, however, temperature sensitive and their rated lamp life is dependent upon the hours per start. A ballast is required to start and operate fluorescent lamps. Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs)CFL is the generic name for a family of single-ended fluorescent lamps of folded or bridged tube design with high CRI and long life (10,000 hours). Originally designed as preheat lamps, with the starter built into the base, there are now rapid-start versions available. CFLs are often used as alternatives to incandescent lighting. High-intensity lamps (HIDs)HID lamps are electric arc discharge lamps that operate under high pressure and generate their light directly from an arc. The arc is contained in a small arc tube that is enclosed in a larger outer glass bulb. Common HID lamp types are mercury vapor, metal halide, and high-pressure sodium lamps. Most HID lamps do not operate instantly-they require time to strike and, when power is removed, longer to cool down and restrike. The National Electric Code (NEC) requires a backup lighting system for HID lighting for public safety. Advantages include high lumen ratings and long life. HID lamps also require a ballast.

The mercury vapor (MV) lamp is the oldest HID source and is now considered obsolete. The disadvantages of MV lamps include very low color rendition, high lumen depreciation, and high mercury content. Metal halide (MH) lamps replace MV lamps, which they closely resemble. In the MH lamp, the arc tube contains, in addition to mercury, additives called metal halides. The metal halides provide a brighter, whiter light by improving both lumen and color performance. It is important for safe operation that MH systems be turned off at least 15 minutes every week. Facilities managers must also group re-lamp before end of rated life, and operate them in the correct position and on matching ballasts. Recent advances in MH include pulse-start lamps that provide better color consistency, longer life, and higher efficacy-in excess of 100 LPW. Applications include commercial lighting interiors and lighting building facades. High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps have a characteristic yellow color, high efficacy-60 to 140 LPW, and longer life than other sources. Standard HPS lamps cycle at end of life, indicating the need for replacement. Recent advances in HPS lamps include higher CRI models and models that do not cycle at end of life. A double arc-tube HPS lamp is available for safety and security applications.

Ballasts
Ballasts are required to start and operate fluorescent and HID lamps. Fluorescent lamp ballasts provide the voltage to start the arc discharge and they regulate the lamp current to stabilize light output. Rapid-start ballasts also provide the heating current to the electrodes so that lower voltages are necessary to ignite the arc compared to instant-start systems. The ballasting function has traditionally been reliably accomplished with electromagnetic units that consist of a core of magnetic steel laminations, surrounded by two copper or aluminum coils. Newer electronic ballasts operate lamps at higher frequencies, eliminating flicker and increasing energy efficiency. Industry sources say that 70 percent of all ballasts used in new construction are electronic. In October, the U.S. Department of Energy announced that all fluorescent lamp ballasts manufactured for commercial and industrial use for both new and renovation markets must be electronic by the year 2005. Fluorescent lamp ballasts, whether electronic or magnetic, typically operate fluorescent lamps in one of three ways. Preheat: Lamp electrodes are heated prior to the application of a high starting voltage that initiates the arc discharge. The starting voltage is applied through a thermal switch (starter) that applies the high starting voltage across the electrodes when it opens. No power is applied to heat the electrodes during operation. Preheat operation is characterized by lamp "flickering" when starting. Rapid start: Lamp electrodes are heated prior to and during operation. The ballast provides the proper voltage to the electrodes during starting and operation. Rapid-start operation is characterized by smooth starting and long lamp life. Instant start: Lamp electrodes are not heated. Instant-start ballasts provide a high opencircuit voltage across the unheated electrodes to initiate the arc discharge. Instant-start operation is more efficient than rapid start, but as in preheat, lamp life is shorter.

Ballasts use energy during operation, which decreases the overall efficiency of a lighting system (ballast loss). The efficiency of magnetic ballasts has been improved by using low-loss magnetic material and copper windings, resulting in lower internal losses. Ballast efficiency is regulated by a federal standard that prohibits the manufacture of ballasts that do not meet a minimum ballast efficacy factor (BEF).

When fluorescent lamps are operated by an electronic ballast at high frequency, they convert the input power to light output more efficiently. The lumens per watt (LPW) of the lamp-electronic ballast combination increases, which means the system either produces more light for the same power or produces the same light with less power. The total system input watts can actually be less than the sum of the lamp watts. For example, when a 32 watt T8 lamp is operated at high frequency, it requires only about 28 watts, making the input watts for a two-lamp system about 60 watts. The actual wattage is affected by the ballast factor, which can range from about 60 percent to 130 percent. Generally, the lower the ballast factor, the lower the input power. The ballast factor (BF) of a ballast provides information about the light output of a lighting system. The rated light output of a fluorescent lamp is determined in lab tests using a perfect reactor ballast. Ballast factor de-rates this catalog value of lamp light output for operation on a commercial ballast. BF is the ratio of the lamp lumen output on a commercial ballast to the lamp lumen output on the reference ballast.

Luminaires
Luminaires are complete lighting units, consisting of 1) lamps and ballasts to convert electricity to light, 2) lamp holders, 3) an optical system, 4) a means for connecting to power, and 5) a housing. OpticsThe optical system includes the lamp cavity and diffusing media plus one or more of the following components: reflectors, refractors, lenses, baffles, or louvers. Reflectors redirect light by using the principle of reflection. Retrofit reflectors upgrade the performance of fluorescent luminaires by increasing the interior reflectance. A refractor is a component that redirects light by refraction. Lenses are made of transparent or translucent material that have a prismatic configuration on the bottom surface to alter the directional characteristics of light passing through it. Polystyrene lenses are the least expensive but yellow due to the UV radiation from lamps. Lenses made from acrylic are light stabilized and do not discolor. Translucent sheets of milky-white plastic, called diffusers, scatter light uniformly in all directions below the ceiling plane, reducing source brightness, and shielding the lamps. Parabolic luminaires use large-cell louvers formed in a parabolic shape. The resultant light distribution reduces glare, controls light output, and has high aesthetic appeal. Luminaire efficiency is defined as the percentage of lamp lumens that leave the luminaire. This rating quantifies the optical and thermal effects that occur within the luminaire under standard test conditions. Judging luminaires on efficiency alone is not a good idea, since the most efficient luminaire is a glaring bare lamp. The coefficient of utilization (CU) is the percentage of lamp lumens that are received on the work plane. The CU is a function of luminaire efficiency, room geometry, and room surface reflectances. CU values, found in luminaire manufacturer catalog data, are used to evaluate how effectively a luminaire delivers light to the work plane in a given space. It is not appropriate to compare luminaires only by CU, except for use in the same space. Spacing criteria (SC) provides information regarding how far apart luminaires may be spaced to maintain uniform lighting. To use the spacing criteria, multiply the net mounting height by the spacing criteria value. The resulting number represents the maximum (center-to-center) distance that the luminaires may be spaced.

Lighting Controls

Controls can reduce the electrical energy used by lighting systems in two ways. Electrical energy (kWh) can be reduced either by reducing the lighting power (kW) or by reducing the time of use (hours), and since electric use is measured and billed by kilowatt-hours, reducing either reduces electric costs. Operating hours can be reduced by switching, occupancy sensors, scheduling controls, or photocells. Switching: Belief in two myths prevents energy users from saving money. The first myth states that "Continuously operating fluorescent lights is cheaper than turning them off for brief periods." Turning off fluorescent lights saves energy, extends overall lamp life, and reduces replacement costs. The current during starting for a two-lamp, rapid-start luminaire lasts less than 1 second and has almost no energy cost. The energy savings that result from turning off the lamp accrue far more quickly. The second myth states that "Turning lights off shortens lamp life and increases maintenance costs." Fluorescent lamps will run more hours if operated continuously, but they will last for many more years if they are turned off when not in use. Although the average rated life of fluorescent lamps is shortened by switching, calendar life is lengthened. Calendar life is the time between lamp changes and includes the time the lamp is off. For example, standard F40 rapid-start lamps operated continuously result in a rated lamp life of 34,000 hours (calendar life of 3.9 years). Turning off F40 lamps for 12 hours each day decreases the average rated lamp life to 30,000 hours, but calendar life is extended to 6.8 years! Switching incandescent lamps off always saves money, because they use the most power and frequent switching only mildly affects lamp life. Since HID lamps take so long to strike and even longer to re-strike, scheduling or high-low operation is recommended. Switching controls: Push-button stations operating contactors (specialized relays to handle lighting loads), local wall switches, and key-activated switches are examples of switching controls. On-off switching can be provided by single or three- or four-way switches, multi-circuit switching or using multiple ballasts to separately control lamps. Multi-circuit switching is accomplished by subdividing the lighting circuits into small areas and providing each area with a switch. In-board/outboard switching can also be accomplished by equipping two-, three-, or four-lamp luminaires with two ballasts. Occupancy recognition is the strategy applied to intermittently occupied areas to turn lights on when people are present and automatically turn lights off after the room is unoccupied.

Occupancy sensors: The two principal technologies used for occupancy sensors are passive infrared (PIR) and ultrasonic. PIR sensors react only to body heat and sense occupancy by detecting the difference in heat from a body and the background. A lens creates conical detection zones so PIR sensors use line-of-sight sensing to "see" an area and control it. Ultrasonic sensors use volumetric detectors and transmit waves above the range of human hearing, then measure the time for the waves to return. Ultrasonic units can detect persons behind obstructions, but are sensitive to common air movements. Adjustments: There are two adjustments, sensitivity and delay. The sensitivity adjustment makes a unit more or less sensitive to motion. Ultrasonic units should be adjusted so they are not sensitive to air movement. The delay adjustment sets the time the lights remain on when no occupancy is detected. Setting the delay too short can reduce lamp life and increase occupant complaints about switching. A 15-minute delay setting may be appropriate. Scheduling is the control strategy employed to activate, extinguish, or adjust lighting according to a predetermined schedule and is best suited for facilities where certain things happen at certain times. Time clocks are the easiest way to implement scheduling strategies. There are several types, including preset, electromechanical, electronic, and astronomical. Preset timers include springwound units, switch-plate timers, and switches with preset electronic timers built-in. Astronomical time clocks are used to control outdoor lighting and can automatically adjust sunrise and sunset times each day. Twenty-four-hour time clocks switch lighting loads on-off several times each day; the schedule repeats each day. Day skipping allows selected days to be removed from the schedule. Seven-day time clocks switch at various times each day of the week and then the schedule is repeated each week. Backup power keeps time clocks current when there are power interruptions. The newest backup is a capacitor that keeps the schedule memory activated until power is restored. When timers are used to turn off lights in occupied areas, they should have a feature that warns occupants when lights are going to be turned off so occupants can extend the on time. Timeactivated sweep systems are used to sweep off building lighting sequentially and usually use components of low-voltage relay systems. Photocells are light-activated switches used to turn off lights when daylight is adequate for safety and task performance. They are made of cadmium-sulfide cells that reduce sensitivity over time. A delay feature prevents rapid cycling during cloudy days.

Control Strategies to Reduce Lighting Power

Dimming, daylight harvesting, and lumen depreciation compensation are the three major control strategies used to reduce lighting energy use. Dimming involves adjusting the light output of luminaires to a specific level. Dimming: Fluorescent dimming is now accomplished with adjustable light output electronic ballasts that can dim to 5 percent light output for energy-management applications. HID dimming is accomplished by voltage reduction. Two-level control is a common type of HID control that uses relay switching of capacitors in the ballast compartment, resulting in a fixed reduction. Daylight harvesting is the control strategy that is applied where daylight can be used effectively for lighting interior spaces. Daylight harvesting systems change the light level gradually according to the daylight level. The strategic application of photosensors is the key. Unlike photocells that switch lights based on light level, these silicon sensors gradually increase or decrease the light output of a fluorescent system using a dimming ballast.

Lumen depreciation compensation is the newest lighting control strategy that employs special photosensors that detect the actual light level and track the lumen depreciation of the lamps. When the lamps are new and surfaces are clean, the output of the dimming ballasts and input power is low, saving energy. Input power and light level gradually increase as lamps age and surfaces accumulate dirt to compensate for these depreciation effects.

Maintenance
Principles of lighting maintenance: 1. The light output of lighting systems decreases over time. 2. Many lighting systems are over-designed to compensate for light loss over time. 3. Improving maintenance practices can reduce light loss and allow reductions in energy use or improve light levels. 4. Group maintenance practices save money. 5. Proper maintenance is the most neglected, most cost-effective way of reducing overall cost of lighting. 6. When maintenance is not performed, performance suffers gradually. The final result is a degraded lighting system performing as low as 50 percent of its capability. Effect of maintenance on efficiency and effectivenessUnlike other building energy systems, when maintenance is not performed on lighting systems, energy use may be reduced. The energy input to the system declines as lamps burn out and ballasts stop functioning. These savings may be illusory, though, as building occupants may compensate for the light loss using portable equipment that may be very inefficient. The more effective solution is to maintain light levels by using a maintenance plan to address four recoverable light loss factors: lamp burnout factor, lamp lumen depreciation, luminaire dirt depreciation, and room surface dirt depreciation. These light-loss factors can be recovered by performing maintenance. The figure shows how neglected lighting systems lose efficiency over time. Group relampingThe benefits of changing all the lamps in a group at scheduled intervals has several advantages. 1. fewer work interruptions 2. lower labor cost 3. fewer lamps to stock 4. higher maintained light level Action stepsSchedule relamping in groups and spot relamp between intervals to reduce lumen depreciation and to save labor cost. 2. Clean fixtures at the time of relamping.

3. Write a lighting maintenance policy. 4. Design new and retrofit projects to incorporate scheduled maintenance. 5. Get help from lighting management companies. TroubleshootingThe best method of troubleshooting lighting is swapping known good components with unknown. Experience is the best tool. Troubleshooting guides include the IESNA's Lighting Handbook, and Applied Illumination Engineering, by Jack L. Lindsey, Fairmont Press, Chapter 17. The major lamp manufacturers also publish troubleshooting guides. John Fetters - John Fetters is Energy User News Fundamentals of Energy Series editor.