The Role of Reflection in Math Learning

The Role of Reflection in Mathematics Learning Author(s): Grayson H. Wheatley Source: Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 23, No.
5, Constructivist Teaching: Methods and Results (Oct., 1992), pp. 529-541 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3482851 . Accessed: 03/07/2013 03:51
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GRAYSON H. WHEATLEY
THEROLEOFREFLECTION IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING
ABSTRACr. is centralto the theory of constructivism Reflective abstraction as put forth by von Glasersfeld. In "comingto know",personsmakemajorcognitiveadvances by takingtheiractionsas objects of thought Leamersmove beyond being "in the action"when they engage in reflection. Thereare serious limitationsin the 'explain-practice" and active learing. methodof instruction even self-generated Performing mathematical operationsdoes not have the power which results from reflectingon the activity.Problem-centered an instructional whichhas been learning, strategy shownto providerich opporunitiesfor reflection,is exanmined. The natureof reflectionin mathematicalactivityis also considered.
The thesis of this paper is that reflectionplays a criticallyimportant role in mathematics learningand thatjust completingtasksis insufficient. An instructionalstrategy whichencourages reflectionis described, andthe role of communication and assessment in problem-centered learning and its effect on reflection is considered. Evidence is presentedthat encouragingreflection resultsin greatermathematics even on standardized achievement, tests which stressprocedures andparticular conventions.
PROBLEM-CENTERED LEARNING
Problem-centered learningis an instructional strategybased on constructivism (von Glasersfeld, 1987). In particular,it is assumed that studentswill give meaningto theirexperiences in idiosyncratic ways and thatattempts to impose mathematical procedures (e.g., subtracting whole numbersusing the standard regrouping method)are ineffectiveand,in fact, detrimental. It is also assumed thatlearning is facilitated by opportunities to communicate andnegotiatemathematicalmeaning.Mathematics is not "out therein the real world"but is the learner'sorganizingactivity. Self-constructed mathematical relationships are viable if they standthe test of subsequent experience,which includesinteractionswithothers. in the Mathematics Teachers Learning Projectat the FloridaStateUniversity Laboratory School use problem-centered learng as theirprimary instructional strategy(Wheatley, 1991). In problem-centered learning,the teacherselects tasks from resourcematerials(not a textbook)which she believes could be problematicfor the students,or she may devise tasks for a special purpose. These tasksarepresented witha minimum of teachertalkandthe students then workon the tasks in pairs.The studentsin pairsare at a similarstage in their
Educational Sudies in Mathematics 23: 529-541, 1992. 0 1992Kluwer Academic Prined in theNetherlands. Publishers.
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GRAYSON H. WHEATLEY
mathematicaldevelopment. The pairs attemptto reach consensus on their answersthrough negotiation.In the smallgroupsetting,therearerichopportunities for studentsto construct Afterabout30 minmathematical relationships. utes, the teacherorganizesthe class for a presentation of solutionmethodsby are made to the class, not to the teacher.The the students.The presentations class has the obligationof tryingto understand the explanations, and this may involve requestsfor clarification with ensuingnegotiations betweenstudents. The teacher'srole in this whole-classdiscussionis to facilitatethe negotiations. At timesshe mayjuxtaposetwo methodsor framean issue for discussion.Since the teachercan attachrelativeimportance to the variousissues, she can guide the discussionin what she believes to be more fruitfuldirections.Throughout the small-group and whole-classdiscourseshe staunchly maintains a non-judgmentalstance.In this way students can developintellectual autonomy andneed not try to "read" the teacherto learnthe "right" way to do the tasks.Extensive use is madeof non-routine tasksandevery effortis madeto encourage students to reflecton theirsolutionactivity.A majorgoal of problem-centered learning is to createa culture for inquiry(Richards, 1990). Problem-centeredlearning contrasts sharply with the "explain-practice" methodof instruction whichis standard in traditional school mathematics. The limitationsof such direct instruction have been well documented by Confrey (1990). Furthermore, problem-centered learningis not to be confused with "activelearning" or whatis sometimescalled"hands-on in whichmanipmath" ulativesare usedto helpstudents learnplacevalueandalgorithmic procedures. A salient featureof problem-centered learningis listening to students.In orderto select tasks, we must have some idea of students'mathematical conSteffe (1990) insiststhatmathematics structions. teachersmustattemptto construct the mathematicalknowledge of their students;we must adapt to the studentsratherthanexpect the studentsto do the adapting. Taskswhich have learningpotentialare best formulated by basingdecisionson our constructions of the students'current mathematical knowledgerather thanon a fixed curriculum. For example,we want Grade2 studentsto be able to find differencesof whole numbers, but to expectthemto do so whenthey havenot constructed ten as an abstract unitis an exercisein futilityandfrustration for bothstudents and teachers.Many of the mathematical difficultiesstudentshave in school result fromthe imposition of methodswhichcannotbe understood by them.Oncestudentsconstruct ten as an abstract iterableunit,addition and subtraction of twoareeasily accomplished. digitnumbers
THE ROLE OF REFLECTION IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING
531
ASSESSMENT
IN PROBLEM-CENTERED
LEARNING
Informed Professional Judgment In the Mathematics Learning Project,teachers assesspupilsusinginformed proGradesarenot given for dailyworkandtestsarenot adminfessionaljudgmenL In fact,at no time isteredexceptfor the required stateandnationalassessments. a judgmentof the students'mathematics. She does the teachercommunicate markthe ones thatarewrong,or have students cordoes not collectworksheets, rect their"mistakes". Instead,the teacherkeeps notes of students'activityin which she considerstheirpersistence,confidence,co-operation, communicaconstructions. tion,andthe qualityof theirmathematical In problem-centered learning,the teacherhas many opportunities to learn in pairs aboutthe qualityof students'work.She observesstudents'interaction as they engagein the daily tasksand as they presenttheirsolutionsto the class for discussion. She also arranges timeto talkwithstudents andthus individually gaininsightsinto theirmathematical constructions. On one occasion,as I was observingGrade2 students theirsolupresenting tions, Mrs.Jones,the teacher,hearda studentthinking out loud.Tracywas not presenting her ideas to another,she was just taLking to herselfabouthow she did the problem.Mrs.Jones said to me, "Did you hearwhat Tracyjust said? Thatis the fist time Tracyhas used ten in such a powerfulway".This teacher was so in tune with the reasoningof her 27 pupilsthatshe noticedthatone of themhadmadea significant She notedthis advancein her log for construction. later use. Ratherthanrelying on test grades and averagesof daily scores on worksheets,this teacherassessed pupils by using her informedprofessional judgment.And she was inforrned because she arranged to learn opportunities about the quality of her students' work. Her assessment was professional becauseshe was knowledgeable aboutelementary school children'smathematics, in this case the importance of constructingten as an abstractunit. Mrs. Jones assertedthat she had much greaterconfidencein her assessmentof students'mathematics thanever beforebecauseshe couldnow describeto a parent, or to anyoneelse, what her studentscould and could not do. In problem-centeredlearning, teachers also have students keep a portfolioof theirmathematics workwhichincludessamplesof dailyactivitiesas well as specialprojects. Standardized Tests The datashow thatelementary studentsengagedin problem-centered learning develop greatermathematical competencethan studentstaughtusing the conventionalexplain-practice methodeven on standardized tests which feature
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GRAYSON H. WHEATLEY
and standard computation types of problems(Cobb,Wood, Yackel, Nicholls, andPerlwitz,1991;KamiiandLewis, 1991;Nicholls,Cobb, Wheatley, Trigatti, Yackel,Wood,andWheatley,1990). In the Mathematics Test of Basic Skills was Learning Project,the California to two Grade3 classesof 27 students who hadbeenusingproblemadministered centeredleamingfor two years.The gradeplacement was 3.7 on computations, 6.0 on concepts, and 4.4 on the section labeled problemsolving. Their total mathscore of 4A was 1.4 gradelevels above the normof 3.7. Priorto using the scoresat this school had constructivism as a basis for program development, of the test These findingsare similar been below gradelevel on all subsections to the resultsof the studiescited above.Elementary school children engagedin problem-centered learningcomparefavorablyon standardized tests with studentseducated in a moreconventional manner. Because of the importanceattached to such test scores, they cannot be in this paper.However,it is not at all clear that ignoredand are thus reported the available standardizedtests are an accurate indicator of mathematical knowledge.KamiiandLewis (1991) have shownthatsuchresultscan be quite misleading. Theyinterviewed students who hadperformed well on stardized tests and reported thatfrequently these studentsassociatedlittle meaningwith their computational procedures; they were unableto respondmeaningfully to non-routine problemswhich required more thanthe use of a set procedure. In contrast,studentswho had not scored particularly high on the tests but had a meaning-based experienced mathematics were able to do quite well program withnon-routine problems. Persistence One factor to considerin assessing a pupil's mathematics is persistence.To whatextentdoes a studentstay witha problem? In orderto do mathematics it is necessaryto engagein a taskon a sustained basis. Mathematics is not a set of discretefactsandprocedures but an interconnected set of relationships. Thus,it is necessary to investconsiderable energyandattention in makingsenseof a situation,workingout a solution,and assessingthe reasonableness of the conclusion. Doing mathematicsrequirespersistence, and any assessment system shouldtakeintoconsideration the degreeto whichstudents arepersistent. Mathematicalpowerresultsfroman unusual investment of attention over a considerable periodof time. In the Mathematics Leaning Project,we have foundthat studentsbecome much more persistent, often workingon a single task for an entireperiod.
533
EFFECTS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION
The widespreaduse of the term "application" suggests that mathematicsis viewed by many as a formal system to be learnedin the abstractand then for"kapplied to the realworld".Students do not easily give meaningto abstract mulationswhich are not in theirexperience.As learners,we give meaningto in termsof ourpreviousexperiences. new experiences Whenmathematical fora mulationsflow from meaningful experiences,studentsare able to construct mathematical worldwhich is coherentand useful. Ratherthanbeginningwith instructioncould to real world problems,mathematics abstractformulations beginwith situations fromwhichgeneralizations canbe made. Oftenthe use of manipulatives fornulations is supposedto makethe abstract of mathematics comprehensible to students.Using concreteobjectsto "show" studentsa mathematical conceptor relationship is still based on the "abstractfirst"conceptionof learning. When,as Gravemeijer (1990) suggests,emphasis is placed on mathematizing from potentiallymeaningfulsituations,students have the opportunity to constructexperience-based knowledge.Childrenwho have the opportunity to experiencesuch leaming environments are unlikelyto act as Talithadid in the examplebelow. In mathematics learning,the intention to make sense is essential(Erlwanger, norpro1973).Neitherthe abstract-first cedures-first approachto learningfosters the intentionto make sense. As an example of the effects of direct instruction,consider Talitha's mathematics worldas inferred froma clinicalinterview. Talitha, a Grade5 student who hadexperienced textbook-based conventional, mathematics instruction, was interviewed to determine the natureof her mathematics(ShawandJakubowski, to 1991).Talithawas considered by herteacher in carrying be amongthe top 15 percentof the class and was indeedproficient out algorithmic with whole numbers. procedures Forexample,duringthe interview she confidently computed, using the standard "borrowing" algorithm, the differencebetween2,005 and 1,237. But her actionon a subsequent taskindicated that she was not makingsense of her computational activity.The task "235 minus341"was presented verbally.She wroteit down in a verticalformat andbegan"applying" the methodfor performing multi-digit subtraction she had been trainedto use in subtracting whole numbers(see Figure 1). She did not to considerthe meaning attempt of the question.She didnot say thatit wouldbe impossible(assuming the set of wholenumbers), or say thatthe resultwouldbe a negativenumber; she blindlybeganusinga procedure she hadbeen trained to use - a procedure whichapparently hadlittleif anymeaningfor her. After she had successfullyperformedthe subtraction in the ones and tens columns,she said, "Youcan't takethreefromone so you have to borrowfrom
here [13 tens]". Since there was nothing to the left of the one in the hundreds
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GRAYSON H. WHEATLEY
place to borrowfromand she knew she had to borrow,she borrowed from the right! Her answer was 884. When she was later asked about this she said, I shouldnot haveborrowed "Maybe fromthe 13 tens but fromthe 5 ones".It is clear thatTalithais in a foreign land when asked to thinkaboutmathematics. She is not makingsense of her activity;in fact, thereis no intentionto make sense of mathematics. Forher,thatis.not how thegameis played.As a resultof school instruction, she sees her taskas followingdirections given by the teacher. Directinstruction was not effectivein helpingTalitha do mathematics meaningfully.
Fig. 1. Talitha's computation.
ACTIVE LEARNING
Recently there hasbeenanattempt to moveawayfrom direct instruction. Some educators havecometo see teachers' demonstrations of procedures as ineffectiveandhaveadvocated active learning (National Council of Teachers of Mathwhen ematics, 1989). Often manipulatives areusedin teaching mathematics, the teacher demonstrates thewaytheyareto be usedandstudents areleftlittlefreedomto give meaning to theexpenence in waysthatmakesenseto them; the
way the materials are to be used is prescribed. Thereis the mistaken belief on the partof the teacherthat the mathematics is apparent in the materials,for example,"baseten"blocks (Cobb,Yackel,Wood, 1992). This is basedon the belief thatmathematics is "outthere" andthatmodels"show" the concepts.The
demonstration withconcrete materials is quiteappealing because theconcepts areso vividforthosewhohavealready madetheconstruction. Thus,there is the mistaken belief thatsincewe, as adults, can see the mathematics in the thestudents blocks, willtoo.Butthe"seeing" requires theveryconstruction the is intended activity to teach.
535
and the The use of manipulatives does not always promoteunderstanding of meaning. Forexample,if students areaskedto calculate34 take construction to obtaintheiranswer.Theymight away 18, theymightuse manipulatives 1) countout 34 blocks; 2) remove18 blocks; 3) countthenumber remaining; and 4) writetheanswer16. Whilesuch activitymay be meaningful andresultin an answer,it does not necessarilylead to die development of thinkingstrategiesand efficientcomputaWhile studentsinvolvedin this type of activitymay be less tionalprocedures. likely to be just manipulating meaningless symbols,therearefew opportunities for learning.They may very well be routinizinga primitiveand inefficient - for example,countingout 14 objects, methodfor addingtwo wholenumbers if the learing countingout 17 objects,and thencountingthemall. In contrast, environment the students to devise theirown methodsandtaketheir encourages activityas an objectof thought, thentheirinitialprimitive methods maybecome valuableas a basis for the construction of other mathematical relationships. Withoutthe intentionto give meaningto theiractivity, studentsmay just be going throughthe motions and not doing mathematics. Only when students formthe intention of makingsense of theirexperiences do theyjoin the communityof inquirers andeffectivelytakechargeof theirown learning.
ASPECTS OF PROBLEM-CENTERED LEARNING
Reflection In mathematics learning, reflectionis characterized by distancing oneself from the actionof doingmathematics (Sigel, 1981).It is one thingto solve a problem andit is quiteanother to takeone's own actionas an objectof reflection.In the process of reflection,schemes of schemes are constructed a second-order construction. Personswho reflect have greatercontrolover theirthinkingand can decidewhichof severalpathsto take,rather thansimplybeingin theaction. It is not enoughfor students to completetasks;we mustencourage students to reflect on theiractivity.For example,being askedto justify a methodof solution will often promotereflection.This may occur in the small-group setting when a learningpartner asks, "Willthatwork?" or it may occur in the wholeclass discussionwhen the presenter is askedto clarifyan explanation. Finally, carefullyselectedtaskscancauseperturbation whichresultsin reflection. Whensolversreflecton solutionactivitythey"distance" themselvesfromthe
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(Sigel, 1981). In this way, theymake activityand"holdthe activityin thought" their activityan object which can be examined. As Cifarelliobservedin his solvers, studyof problem
andin manycases subsequent solutionactivityled Reflectionsmadepossiblesolvers'anticipations of potentialproblematic situationsgave rise to novel to higherlevel reflections... anticipations led solversto high level reflections. (Cifarelli,1988,p. 195) solutionactivityandeventually
It is possiblethatstudents may be so active thatthey fail to reflectand thusdo not learn.We can keep studentsso busy that they rarelyhave time to think aboutwhattheyare doing, andtheymay fail to becomeawareof theirmethods and options.In fact, thereis an implicitmessagethatthey are not supposedto to thinkaboutwhat they are doing. Rarelyare Americanstudentsencouraged reflect on their mathematicalactivity. As Stigler and Perry (1990) report, in particular, amountof time thaneither "Japanese students, spenda far greater children aboutmatheChineseor American engagingin reflectiveverbalization matics" (p. 52). determined differencesof whole numbers Once studentshave repeatedly by countingout blocks and are faced with a taskfor which theirprimitivemethod and encourageis inefficient- for example,92 takeaway 37 - opportunities of an efficientselfmentto reflecton theiractivitymay lead to the construction generated algorithm. By becoming conscious of their organizing activity, students can moreeffectivelymodifytheiractions.The effectsof doingwithout reflection areseen in the examplebelow. The followingproblemwas presentedto a Grade3 student: "You have 24. How manythreeswill you need to have 36?".Sue countedby threesfrom24 to of the number of threeson herfingers.She reported fouras an 36, keepingtrack answer.She was able to solve the problemusing a meaningful method.When asked to explainwhatshe did, her responsewas to repeatthe action.She was thatis, she was not able to not able to takeher activityas an objectof thought; thinkabouther activity.She was "in the action"rather than"reflecting on her action" (SchOn, 1983). As an exampleof reflection in mathematics learning,consideran episode with Jim, a beginningGrade3 student.My goal in the interviewwas to engage schemesfor Jim in mathematical activityso thatI could inferhis mathematical task and prodealing with whole numbers.I began with a mentalarithmetic ceeded with the intention of findinga task which he would takeas a problem. The protocolis shownbelow. Interviewer: Whatis 21 takeaway 19? Jim: One ... no, TWO! I: Whatis 31 takeaway28?
THE ROLE OF REFLECTIONIN MATHEMATICSLEARNING
537
J: I: J: I: J:
12. Whatis 31 takeaway29? 11. Whatis 31 takeaway 30? [Long pause] One?
WhenJim was asked,"Whatis 31 takeaway 30", he pausedfor quitea while. Since he had previouslyanswered11, to 31 take away 29, he was confronted with a perturbation in his activity.Forsome time beforehe spoke,he was obvithe resultof potential thathe was anticipating ously deep in thought. I inferred activities. He was reflecting, that is, modifying, his cognitive structures (schemes)to accountfor the conflictin his responses whichhe now recognized. When he finally responded,he said "one"in a quizzical way, as if to say, "Basedon what I said before, it shouldbe 11 but I know it is one". He was restructuring his schemes, performinga majorreorganization. When he was asked again,"Whatis 31 take away 29?", he responded, "Two ... I've got it now".He hadre-established equilibrium, and the tensioncreatedby the cognitive conflict was reduced.He had become awareof his two ways of thinking aboutthetask. Laterin the interview,I placed six cubes in frontof him and asked, "How He countedthemandresponded many?" "six".Next, I placeda ten rodwith the six cubes and asked "How many now?". He had previously establishedby ten. Therewas a long pauseduringwhichhe countingthatthe rod represented thoughtintentlyaboutthe task.We could say thathis reflectionwas causedby his anticipation. He could have easily determined the numberby countingby ones, but he was not satisfiedto obtainthe answerby thatmethod.I believe he did not immediatelycount by ones because he was in the process of giving meaningto ten as more thanjust a name in a sequence.He was attempting to anticipate the resultof one or morepotentialactionsbut was unableto anticipate the resultof anyparticular action.Jimcould not think,"six andten moreis sixteen",as an adultmightdo, becauseten did not exist as an iterableunitfor him.Afterthe long pausehe countedthe six ones, countedup six on the ten rod, said thatsix and six are 12, and counted 13, 14, 15, 16. Many factorsplayed into his decisionto determine how manymadeup thisparficular collection.He couldhave foundout by countingby one or perhaps two. He could have started with ten and countedup six to arriveat sixteen.Becauseof the long pauseand the obviousconcentration, I infer thathe was formulating a plan. He may also have been consideringwhatwould be appropriate in the situation- how his actionswouldbe perceivedby me. In any event, he was clearlythinkingabout his thinking the resultsof potential andanticipating actions.This is an example
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of a learner engagedin reflection. As anotherexample of an instructional setting which promotesreflection, considerthe QuickDrawactivityused in the Mathematics Learning Project.In the QuickDraw activity,a complex geometricfigure (see Figure2) is briefly shown to the students,and they are asked to draw what they see. Then the teacherasks,'Vhat did you see andhow did you drawit?".In this way the students' mathematicsare acknowledged.It is quite a different matterfor the teacherto ask, "Did your drawingmatchwhat I showed you? Did you get it right?". The languagecan implythatthereis just one way of thinking aboutthe figure (the teacher'sway) and thatthe students'task is to see it the teacher's way. The question "What did you see?"encourages students to give meaning to theirexperience in ways thatmakesense to them.As a varietyof interpretations are presentedby the students,the teachercan expressdelight at the diversity andcreativity in thechildren's mathematics. For example,the shapein Figure2 was shown to Grade4 students and they reported seeing (1) a cube, (2) a hexagonwith a Y in it, and (3) two diamonds andtwo triangles. As students alternative presented interpretations, the element of surpriseat anothers'construction led to reflection,and studentsbegan to reportstill otherways of seeing the figure.Therewas an expressionof amazement andjoy in realizingthe figurecould be viewed in so many ways. When the teacherresponded non-judgmentally, not "pushing" one interpretation over theirown mathematics another,the studentswere free to construct ratherthan whatthey were supposedto do. In this activity,the discourse try to determine reflection. promoted
Fig. 2. Quick Draw shape.
JUSTIFICATION
Optimalconditionsfor learningexist when the individualmustdefenda posi-
THE ROLE OF REFLECTIONIN MATHEMATICSLEARNING
539
tion he or she has taken.However,social normsmustbe negotiated beforethe can be realized. potential 1) The groupmembersmust assumethe obligationof tryingto makesense of the explanation. 2) Personspresentinga solutionor explanation must presenta self-generated solution. 3) Solutionsmust be presentedin a "proofsand refutations" setting(Lakatos, 1976). That is, group members recognize the obligation to construct a response to any challenge to their explanation- an explanationwhich a construction incorporates of thequestioner. 4) Thepurpose of thedialogueis not to be rightbutto makesense. 5) The purposeof any questionraised by a memberof the groupis to give meaning to the explanation; it is a sincereandgenuinequestion. While it may requireseveral weeks or even monthsto negotiatethese social norms,once accomplished, learning is greatlyfacilitated. In theprocessof justifying a solutionmethod, reflectionon activityis natural.
SUMMARY
The limitationsof the conventional explain-practice are methodof instruction being widely recognized.Confrey(1990) has described the effects on learners of such directinstruction. Shaw and Jakubowski how Talitha (1991) described on numerals operated for her.In usingruleswhichapparently hadlittlemeaning attemptingto overcome the limitationsof direct instruction,educatorshave often movedto activelearning. Yet simplyhavingstudents engagein meaningful activitiesdoes not alwaysresultin a desirable level of mathematical competence.Mathematics learningdoes not alwaysresultfromdoing, no matterhow well the activitiesare designed.However,it has been arguedin this paperthat establishinga learningenvironment in which reflectingon actionsis encouragedcanbe quiteeffective. Establishing an environment whichencourages reflectionis a complexenterprise. In additionto selectingtasks, the teachermustnegotiatesocial normsin whichstudents canbecomea community of inquirers. Bothstudents andteacher must learn to talk mathematicsand learn to listen. Effective mathematics instruction 1) promotes autonomy andcommitment; 2) is basedon theoretical modelsof children's mathematics learning; 3) assumesthatmeaning mustbe negotiated;
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GRAYSON H. WHEATLEY
4) has sense makingas a goal; 5) involvesthe negotiation of social norms; and andfacilitates reflection. 6) encourages We have solid evidencethatinstruction whichhas reflectionas a primary componentenablesstudents to construct robustmathematical relationships. Students who haveexperienced problem-centered learning, in whichreflectionis central, areableto solve non-routine problems andto construct new knowledge.
REFERENCES as a LearningProcess in Mathematical Cifarelli,V. V.: 1988, The Role of Abstraction Problem Solving.Unpublished doctoral Purdue West Lafayette, dissertation, IN. University, Cobb, P., Wood, T., Yackel, E., Nicholls, J., Wheatley,G., Trigatti,B., and Perlwitz,M.: 1991, "Assessmentof a problem-centered mathematics learningsecond-grade project",Journalfor Researchin Mathematics Fucation 22, 3-29. Cobb,P., Yackel,E., andWood,T.: 1992,"A constructivist to the representational altemative view of mind in mathematics Journalfor Research in Mathenatics Education,23(1), education", 2-33. Confrey,J.: 1990, 'What constructivism impliesfor teaching", Journal for Researchin Mathematics Monograph No. 4, 107-122. S.: 1973, "Benny'sperceptionof rules and answersin IPI mathematics", Erlwanger, Journal of Mathematical Behavior1(2), 1-26. Gravemeijer, K.: 1990, "Context problemsand realisticmathematics instruction." In K. Gravemeijer, M. van den Heuvel,and L Streefland, (eds.),Context Free Production Testsand Geometry in RealisticMathematics Education,ResearchGroupfor Mathematical Education and EducationalComputer Centre, StateUniversity of Utrecht, TheNetherlands. Kamii,C. and Lewis, B.: 1991, "Achievement tests in primary mathematics: Perpetuating lowerorderthinking", Arithmetic Teacher38(9), 4-9. Lakatos, I.: 1976,ProofsandReftaions, Cambridge Press,Cambridge. University NationalCouncilof Teachers of Mathematics, Commission on Standards for School Mathematics.: 1989,Curriculum and Evaluation Standards, Author, Reston,VA. Nicholls,J., Cobb,P., Yackel,E., Wood, T., and Wheatley,G.: 1990, "Assessingyoung children's mathematical In G. Kulh (ed.), AssessingHigher OrderThinking learning". in Mathematics, American Association for the Advancement of Science,Washington, DC, pp. 137-154. J.: 1990, "Mathematical Richards, In E. von Glasersfeld discussions". (ed.),RadicalConstructivism in Mathematics Education, KluwerAcademic Publishers, Dordrecht. Schon,D. A.: 1983,TheReflective Practitioner, Basic Books,New York. Shaw,K. L. andJakubowski, E.: 1991, "Teachers for changingtimes",Focus on Learning changing Problemsin Mathematics, 13(4), 13-20. Sigel, L.A.: 1981, "Social experiencein the development of representational thought:Distancing In I. E. Sigel, D. M. Brodzinksy, theory." andR. M. Golinkoff(eds.),New Directionsin PiagetianTheory and Practice,Lawrence Erlbaun,Hillsdale, NJ. Steffe, L.: 1990, "Adaptive mathematics teaching", In T. Cooney and C. Hirsch(eds.), Teaching and Learning Mathematics in the 1990s. NationalCouncilof Teachers of Mathematics, Reston, VA, pp. 41-51. Stigler, J. W. and Perry,M.: 1990, "Mathematics leaming in Japanese,Chinese, and American classroons"In G. B. Saxe andM. Gearhart (eds.), Children's Mathematics. New Directions for ChildDevelopment, No. 41. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, pp. 27-54.
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Seaside,CA. Publications, of Knowledge,Intersystems von Glasersfeld, E.: 1987,TheConstruction learning", Science perspectiveson science and mathematics Wheatley,G.: 1991, "Constructivist Education 75(l), 9-21.
B-182 Mathematics Education, FloridaStateUniversity Tallahassee, Florida32306 USA

The Role of Reflection in Math Learning

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The Role of Reflection in Mathematics Learning Author(s): Grayson H. Wheatley Source: Educational Studies in Mathematics, Vol. 23, No.

THEROLEOFREFLECTION IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING

THE ROLE OF REFLECTION IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING

THE ROLE OF REFLECTION IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING

EFFECTS OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION

Fig. 1. Talitha's computation.

THE ROLE OF REFLECTION IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING

THE ROLE OF REFLECTIONIN MATHEMATICSLEARNING

Fig. 2. Quick Draw shape.

Optimalconditionsfor learningexist when the individualmustdefenda posi-

THE ROLE OF REFLECTIONIN MATHEMATICSLEARNING

THE ROLE OF REFLECTION IN MATHEMATICS LEARNING

B-182 Mathematics Education, FloridaStateUniversity Tallahassee, Florida32306 USA

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