Interactions of Photons in Matter

Part B: Bulk Behavior of Photons

In part A we examined the three important processes that remove photons from a
beam of electromagnetic radiation: the photoelectric effect, the Compton effect, and pair
production. In each process a photon is removed from a forward-moving beam and an
electron appears. Furthermore, each process only occurs when there are atoms with
which the on-coming photons can collide and interact. The atoms provide bound
electrons for the photoelectric effect, nearly free electrons for the Compton effect and
atomic nuclei for pair production.

The intensity I of electromagnetic radiation is defined as the energy per unit time
passing through a unit area at right angles to the direction of propagation. Put in terms of
a beam of monoenergetic photons, it is the energy hv of a single photon times the number
of photons per unit time crossing a unit area perpendicular to the direction of the beam:

energy number of photons

Intensity of a photon beam = x
photon area x time

The last term on the right is, by definition, the photon flux N. Then,

I = (hv)N (6)

When a photon beam traverses a material, the photon flux N is reduced, because
photons are removed or are deflected from the forward direction. The absorption of
photons by a material is shown schematically in Figure 7. Clearly, the probability that a
photon will be removed from the beam increases with the number of atoms the beam
encounters;

Figure 7. Schematic representation of the absorption of photons by material.

(a) Compton effect; (b) photoelectric effect; (c) pair production.

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therefore, the probability increases with the thickness of the absorber. In the figure,
photons with a flux N are incident on a very thin absorber of thickness dx, and photons
with a flux N-dN emerge from the absorber in the forward direction. The number of
photons removed per unit time by a unit area of the absorber is then dN. The number of
photons removed in encounters with atoms in the absorber dN is proportional to the
photon flux N. Further, since the number of atoms the beam encounters is directly
proportional to the thickness of the absorber, dN is proportional also to dx. Therefore,

dN = -μNdx

where the constant of proportionality is called the attenuation coefficient, μ. [Recall from
last lecture that the attenuation coefficient has units of inverse length. We can also use
the mass attenuation coefficient by dividing by the density of the absorber, ρ. The mass
attenuation coefficient, μ/ρ, has units of cm2/g.]

Figure 8. Change in photon flux through an absorber.

If we rearrange terms and integrate x over all thickness from 0 to a finite

thickness, x (Figure 8), then

N x
dN N
∫N N = − μ ∫o dx → In N 0 = − μx
0

or N = Noe-μx (7)

Using equation (6) we can write:

I = I0 e-μx = N(hν) = N0(hν)e-μt (8)

where I0 = (hν)N0 is the intensity incident on the absorber and I = (hv)N is the intensity at
a distance x from the front surface. This equation shows that the intensity of
monoenergetic electromagnetic radiation falls off exponentially through an absorber.
The absorption increases with the thickness of the absorber (as x increases), or as the
absorption coefficient μ increases. We also see from Equation (8) that when μx = 1, or x

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= 1/μ, then I = I0/e. Therefore, the quantity 1/μ represents the absorber thickness at
which the intensity, I, is 1/e, or 37 percent of the incident intensity I0. Note that since N
(or I) falls off exponentially through an absorber, no specific range to photons can be
ascribed.

For a particular photon energy and for a particular absorbing material, the
absorption coefficient μ is a constant having the unit reciprocal length. Its value does,
however, change from one material to another, and it also depends, for a given absorbing
material, on the energy of the radiation. Figure 9a shows the various contributions to the
total absorption coefficients for lead as a function of the photon energy (plotted on a
logarithmic scale). For low-energy photons, whose removal occurs principally through
the process of the photoelectric effect, the absorption coefficient μ is large. It is smaller
at intermediate energies, at which Compton collisions are the most effective in absorbing
photons. It reaches a minimum in the vicinity of a few MeV once the threshold for pair
production is reached, and at very high energies, where μ has increased somewhat, pair
production predominates. The total absorption coefficients for two different absorbing
materials, lead and aluminum, are shown in Figure 9b.

Figure 9. Absorption coefficients as a function of photon energy (a) for lead with several
contributions to the total absorption coefficients; (b) for lead and aluminum.

Figures 10 and 11 show how the absorption of electromagnetic radiation varies

with the energy of the photons and with the identity of the absorbing material. They
show the intensity of the incident beam, of the beam at various depths of penetration in
the absorber, and of the emergent beam. Figure 10 shows the absorption of low energy x-
rays, which are appreciably absorbed in moderate thicknesses of lead, and so are called
soft, and the absorption of energtic, or hard, x-rays, which are only slightly attenuated
through the same thickness of lead. This illustrates that for a particular absorbing
material and for photons of relatively low energy (less than 4 MeV), the coefficient
decreases as the photon energy increases.

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 Figure 10. Exponential attenuation of soft and hard x-rays by a lead absorber

Figure 11 shows the absorption of x-rays of the same energy in lead and in
aluminum of the same thickness; clearly, lead is much more effective as an x-ray
absorber and therefore has a much larger absorption coefficient for a given photon
energy. It is generally true that dense materials, such as lead, are more effective
absorbers than light materials, the basis of x-ray photography; the relative darkening of
the photographic emulsion is a measure of the x-ray intensity, and the relative absorption
properties of light and dense materials are the reason for the differential darkening of the
image.

Figure 11. Exponential attenuation of 1-MeV photons by lead and by aluminum.

Figures 12 and 13 give the mass attenuation coefficients for five elements and a
number of materials for photons with energies from 0.10 MeV to 100 MeV. The
structure of these curves reflects the physical processes we discussed in Part A. At low
photon energies the binding of the atomic electrons is important and the photoelectric
effect is the dominant interaction. High-Z materials provide greater attenuation and
absorption, which decrease rapidly with increasing photon energy. The coefficients for
Pb and U rise abruptly when the photon energy is sufficient to eject a photoelectron from
the K shell of the atom. The curves for the other elements show the same structure at
lower energies. When the photon energy is several hundred KeV or greater, the binding
of the atomic electrons becomes relatively unimportant and the dominant interaction is

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Compton scattering. Since the elements (except hydrogen) contain about the same
number of electrons per unit mass, there is not a large difference between the values of
the mass attenuation coefficients for the different materials. Compton scattering
continues to be important above the 1.022 MeV threshold for pair-production until the
latter process takes over as the more probable.

Figure 12. Mass attenuation coefficients for various elements.

Figure 13. Mass attenuation coefficients for various materials.

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“Good” and “Bad” Geometry:

In Figure 14 below, the detector P is positioned to measure only photons that have
not undergone an interaction. This arrangement of source and detector is known as a
“good” geometry measure of attenuation since all interaction events will lead to photon
removal or scattering such that the photon will not be seen at the detector location. The
other requirement for good geometry is that the beam (N in the Figure) be physically
small. If a broad beam is used, photons can scatter in from other areas of the attenuator
and be included in the definition of N. Thus, good geometry for attenuation
measurements uses a small, highly collimated pencil beam of incident photons and a
collimated detector system that “sees” only unscattered photons. This arrangement will
lead to measurements reflecting attentuation as described by equation (7).

Figure 14. Transmission of photons through an absorber of thickness dx. A detector

placed at P will measure the transmission under “good” geometry in which is twill see
only photons that are transmitted without scatter. At position Q the detector will
measure scattered photons that have interacted in the absorber. This is considered
“bad” geometry or broad-beam attenuation for purposes of evaluating the attenuation
coefficient.

“Bad geometry” or broad beam geometry describes a large beam and

uncollimated detector system such that scattered photons are also detected. Thus many
more photons than those predicted by equation (7) are detected. The additional photons
resulting from scattering is sometimes referred to as “buildup”. There is no adequate
analytical expression for measurement of attenuation in broad beam conditions. Instead,
tables of “buildup factors,” B, are experimentally obtained as a function of photon
energy, material type and material thickness. These factors are then incorporated into the
pencil-beam exponential attenuation expression (equation (7)) as follows:

N
= B(x)e-μx (9)
N0

where B(x) is the buildup as a function of absorber thickness, x. Equation (9) provides an
empirical estimate of the photons expected after traversal through a thickness of x.

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Example 1:
What thickness of concrete and of lead are needed to reduce the number of 500-
keV photons in a narrow beam to one-fourth the incident number? Compare the
thicknesses in cm and in g cm-2. Repeat for 1.5-MeV photons.

Solution:
We use Eq. 7 with N(x)/N0 = 0.25. The mass attenuation coefficients μ/ρ are obtained
from Figs. 12 and 13. At 500 keV, the linear attenuation coefficient for concrete is μ =
(0.089 cm2 g-1) (2.35 g cm-3) = 0.209 cm-1; that for lead is μ = (0.15) (11.4) = 1.71 cm-1.
Using Eq. 7, we have for concrete

0.25 = e-0.209x,

giving x = 6.63 cm. For lead,

0.25 = e-1.71x,

giving x = 0.811 cm. The concrete shield is thicker by a factor of 6.63/0.811 = 8.18. In g
cm-2, the concrete thickness is 6.63 cm x 2.35 g cm-3 = 15.6 g cm-2, while that for lead is
0.811 x 11.4 = 9.25 g cm-2. The concrete shield is more massive in thickness by a factor
of 15.6/9.25 = 1.69. Lead is a more efficient attenuator than concrete for 500-keV
photons on the basis of mass. Photoelectric absorption is important at this energy, and
the higher atomic number of lead is effective. The calculation can be repeated in exactly
the same way for 1.5-MeV photons. Instead, we do it a little differently by using the
mass attenuation coefficient directly, writing the exponent in Eq. 7 as μx = (μ/ρ)ρx. For
1.5-MeV photons incident on concrete,

0.25 = e-0.052ρx,

giving ρx = 26.7 g cm-2 and x = 11.4 cm. For lead,

0.25 = e-0.051ρx,

and so ρx = 27.2 g cm-2 and x = 2.39 cm. At this energy the Compton effect is the
principal interaction that attenuates the beam, and therefore all materials (except
hydrogen) give comparable attenuation per g cm-2. Lead is almost universally used when
low-energy photon shielding is required. It can be used to line the walls of x-ray rooms,
be incorporated into aprons worn by personnel around x-ray equipment, and be fabricated
into containers for gamma sources. Lead bricks also afford a convenient and effective
way to erect shielding.

Energy Transfer and Energy Absorption:

The energy transferred to the absorber, and the energy absorbed, are related to,
but not equal to, linear attenuation. If we look back at Figure 7, and notice that

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attenuation is a result of the three different interaction types, we see that not all of the
energy of the incoming photons that interact in the material is necessarily absorbed there.
We’ll consider each of the energy-loss mechanisms, and examine both the energy transfer
coefficients and the energy absorption coefficients.

Photoelectric Effect: Following the ejection of the photoelectron, the inner shell
vacancy is immediately filled by an electron from an upper level. This is accompanied
by the emission of photons or Auger electrons. The fraction of incident beam transferred
to electrons (i.e. the photoelectron and the Auger electrons) can be expressed as 1 – δ/hν
where δ (delta) is the average energy emitted as fluorescence radiation following
photoelectric absorption in material. We can then express the energy transfer coefficient
for the photoelectric effect as:

⎛ δ ⎞
τtr = τ ⎜1 − ⎟ (10)
⎝ hv ⎠

This gives the fraction of the intensity that is transferred to the electrons. Since the
Auger electrons and even the photoelectrons are likely to be completely stopped in the
absorber, then the energy transfer coefficient will be the same as the energy absorption
coefficient i.e. all transferred energy will be locally absorbed, ie. τtr = τabs.

Compton Scattering: For Compton scattering of monoenergetic photons, the

energy transfer coefficient is:

E avg
σtr = σ (11)
hv
where Eavg/hν is the average fraction of the incident photon energy that is converted into
kinetic energy of the Compton electrons. If we assume that the scattered photon leaves
the material but the Compton electron does not, then σtr = σabs.

Pair Production: The energy transfer coefficient for pair production is related to
the attenuation coefficient as follows:
⎛ hν − m o c 2 ⎞
κ tr = κ ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ (12)
⎝ h ν ⎠

So, the total energy transfer coefficient for photon s of energy hν in a given material is
found by combining equations (10) to (12):

⎡ δ ⎤ ⎛ E avg ⎞ ⎛ hν − m o c 2 ⎞
μtr = τ ⎢1 − ⎥ + σ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + κ ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ (13)
⎣ hν ⎦ ⎝ hν ⎠ ⎝ hν ⎠

This coefficient determines the total energy given to electrons produced by the photon.
Except for possible bremsstrahlung produced by these electrons, the energy absorbed in
the immediate vicinity of the interaction site would be the same as the energy transferred

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there. Difference in the various coefficients are illustrated by the data shown for water
and lead in the following table (Table 2) We see that bremsstrahlung is relatively
unimportant in water for photon energies less than ~ 10 MeV (ie since μtr/ρ is not much
larger than μen/ρ). In lead, on the other hand, bremsstrahlung accounts for a significant
difference in the mass energy-transfer and mass energy-absorption coefficients at much
lower energies.

Table 2. Mass attenuation , Mass Energy-Transfer, and

Mass Energy-Absorption coefficients (cm2/g) for Photons in Water and Lead

Figure 15 shows the mass energy-absorption coefficients for the elements we

considered in Figure 12.

Figure 15. Mass energy-absorption coefficients for various elements.

Example 2:
A parallel beam of 1-MeV photons is normally incident on a 1.2-cm aluminum slab
(ρ = 2.70 g cm-3) at a rate of 103 s-1. The mass attenuation and mass energy-absorption
coefficients are, respectively, 0.0620 cm2 g-1 and 0.0270cm2 g-1.
(a) What fraction of the photons is transmitted without interacting?

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(b) What fraction of the incident photon energy is transmitted by the slab?
(c) How much energy is absorbed per second by the slab?
(d) What fraction of the transmitted energy is carried by the uncollided photons?
(e) If the mass energy-transfer coefficient is 0.0271 cm2 g-1, what fraction of the initial
kinetic energy transferred to the electrons in the slab is emitted as bremsstrahlung?

Solution:
(a) The values given for the mass attenuation and mass energy-absorption coefficients
can be checked against Figures.12 and 15. The attenuation coefficient is μ = 0.0620
x 2.70 = 0.167 cm-1. The fraction of photons that penetrate the 1.2-cm slab without
interacting is therefore e-(0.167 x 1.2) = 0.818.
(b) The energy transmitted by the slab can be inferred from Equation (8), irrespective of
the beam width and uniformity, provided the slab can be regarded as “thin.” This
criterion is satisfied to a good approximation, since 0.818 of the incident photons do
not interact (μx = 0.200). The energy absorption coefficient is μen = 0.0270 x 2.70 =
0.0729 cm-1. It follows that the fraction of the incident photon energy that is
transmitted by the slab is:
(c)
I
= exp(− μ en x) = e −0.0729 x1.2 = 0.916
I0

where I and I0 are the transmitted and incident intensities. Whereas this result is
approximate, the answer to part (a) is exact.
(d) The rate of energy absorption by the slab is the difference between the incident and
transmitted rates. The result of (b) implies that the fraction of the incident photon
energy that is absorbed by the slab is 0.084. With the incident rate I0 = (1.0 MeV) x
(103 s-1) = 1.0 x 103 MeV s-1, we find that the rate of energy absorption in the slab is
0.084I0 = 84.0 MeV s-1.
(e) From part (a) it follows that the rate of energy transmission through the slab by the
uncollided photons is (exactly):

I0 e-μx = 1.0 x 103 x 0.818 = 818 MeV s-1.

Since 84.0 MeV s-1 is absorbed by the slab, 1000 – 84 = 916 MeV s-1 is transmitted.
The fraction of the total transmitted energy carried by the uncollided photons is
therefore 818/916 = 0.893.
(f) With μen/ρ = 0.0270 cm2 g-1 and μtr/ρ = 0.0271 cm2 g-1, we have μεν/μtr =
0.0270/0.271 = 0.9963. Thus the fraction of the secondary-electron initial kinetic
energy that is emitted as bremsstrahlung is:

μ en
g = 1− = 1 − 0.9963 = 0.0037.
μ tr

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