Lappeenranta WA 1 CFD

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Basic Concepts about CFD Models

Basic Concepts about CFD Models
Walter Ambrosini Walter Ambrosini
Associate Professor in Associate Professor in Nuclear Nuclear Plants Plants
at the at the University University of of Pisa Pisa
Lappeenranta University of Technology Lappeenranta University of Technology
Summer School in Heat and Mass Transfer Summer School in Heat and Mass Transfer
August 18 August 18 20, 2010 20, 2010
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Summary
Summary
General remarks on turbulent flow General remarks on turbulent flow
Instability of laminar flow Instability of laminar flow
Statistical treatment of turbulent flow Statistical treatment of turbulent flow
Momentum transfer in turbulent flow Momentum transfer in turbulent flow
Heat transfer in turbulent flow Heat transfer in turbulent flow
Basic concepts about computational modelling of turbulent flows Basic concepts about computational modelling of turbulent flows
Length scales in turbulence Length scales in turbulence
Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
Reynolds Averaged Reynolds Averaged Navier Navier- -Stokes equations (RANS) Stokes equations (RANS)
Two Two- -phase flow applications phase flow applications
Prediction of heat transfer deterioration Prediction of heat transfer deterioration
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General remarks on turbulent flow
Instability of Laminar Flow
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The transition from laminar flow to turbulence is The transition from laminar flow to turbulence is an example of an example of
flow instability flow instability: :
beyond a certain threshold, beyond a certain threshold, inertia overcomes viscous inertia overcomes viscous
forces forces and the motion cannot be anymore ordered and the motion cannot be anymore ordered
this was shown by this was shown by Osborne Reynolds Osborne Reynolds in a classical in a classical
experiment experiment
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This transition occurs in many different systems: This transition occurs in many different systems:
pipe flow pipe flow
boundary layers boundary layers
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2
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free jets free jets
wakes wakes
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3
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In order to study stability of a nonlinear system by analytical In order to study stability of a nonlinear system by analytical
means the methodology of means the methodology of linear stability analysis linear stability analysis is often is often
adopted adopted
This has the objective to determine This has the objective to determine the stability conditions the stability conditions
consequent to infinitesimal perturbations consequent to infinitesimal perturbations: e.g., for a 2D : e.g., for a 2D
boundary layer it is boundary layer it is
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EXAMPLES OF TRANSIENT EXAMPLES OF TRANSIENT
ANALYSES ANALYSES
Cavity Cavity
RB Convection RB Convection
Buoyant Jet Buoyant Jet
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Turbulence introduces a large degree of Turbulence introduces a large degree of sensitivity to initial sensitivity to initial
conditions (SIC) conditions (SIC) that is typical of that is typical of deterministic chaos deterministic chaos
By this, it is meant that By this, it is meant that turbulent motion is not turbulent motion is not random random , ,
though it appears fluctuating in a similar manner, though it appears fluctuating in a similar manner, since the since the
equations governing the system are well defined equations governing the system are well defined
This characteristic is shared with many different This characteristic is shared with many different chaotic chaotic
systems systems, even governed by simple equations , even governed by simple equations
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5
5
dRe
d
= Gr
1
2
-
L
D
f'(Re) Re |Re|
d
1
d
= Re
1
-
2
Fo
1
+
4
sin (
d
d
1
d
= - Re
1
-
2
Fo
1
+
4
cos
Heating
Cooling
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Owing to the fluctuating nature of the turbulent flow field, it Owing to the fluctuating nature of the turbulent flow field, it is is
customary (after Reynolds) customary (after Reynolds) to introduce an appropriate time to introduce an appropriate time
averaging averaging of any specific value ( of any specific value ( intensive intensive ) of major ) of major
extensive extensive variables variables
The attempt is quite evidently to write The attempt is quite evidently to write equations in terms of equations in terms of
time averaged variables time averaged variables, structurally similar to those of , structurally similar to those of
laminar flow laminar flow
This attempt is successful, but This attempt is successful, but fluctuations cannot be forgotten fluctuations cannot be forgotten
Statistical Treatment of Turbulent Flow
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In particular, In particular, the following quantities have overwhelming the following quantities have overwhelming
importance importance
Turbulence intensity is strictly related to the turbulence kinet Turbulence intensity is strictly related to the turbulence kinetic ic
energy energy
This is one of the most important quantities adopted in present This is one of the most important quantities adopted in present
CFD codes CFD codes, mostly making use of , mostly making use of two two- -equation models equation models , to be , to be
described later on described later on
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The general balance equations in local and instantaneous The general balance equations in local and instantaneous
formulation are then averaged formulation are then averaged making use of the above making use of the above
described averaging operator described averaging operator
After simplifications (described in lecture notes), an averaged After simplifications (described in lecture notes), an averaged
form is finally reached showing that the attempt to get equation form is finally reached showing that the attempt to get equations s
similar to those of laminar flow leaves an additional term similar to those of laminar flow leaves an additional term
This term, having a clear This term, having a clear advective advective nature, points out that nature, points out that
fluctuations do play a role in transfers: this role represents a fluctuations do play a role in transfers: this role represents a
sort of additional sort of additional mixing mixing due to turbulence due to turbulence
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In analogy with the molecular motion, the basic idea is therefor In analogy with the molecular motion, the basic idea is therefore e
to interpret such term as an to interpret such term as an additional diffusion due to additional diffusion due to
turbulence turbulence
The momentum and energy balance equations contain this term The momentum and energy balance equations contain this term
that calls for a proper modelling that calls for a proper modelling
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The The Reynolds stress tensor Reynolds stress tensor appears in momentum equations appears in momentum equations
The Reynolds stresses account for the additional momentum The Reynolds stresses account for the additional momentum
flux due to eddies flux due to eddies
Momentum Transfer in Turbulent Flow
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It is then customary to adopt the It is then customary to adopt the Boussinesq Boussinesq approximation approximation
based on a definition of based on a definition of turbulent momentum diffusivity turbulent momentum diffusivity (eddy (eddy
viscosity) viscosity), trying to define a simple constitutive relationship for , trying to define a simple constitutive relationship for
the Reynolds stress the Reynolds stress
The quantity The quantity
T T
is no more a property of the fluid, but also is no more a property of the fluid, but also
depends on flow. depends on flow.
Of course, Of course, the the Boussinesq Boussinesq approximation shifts the toughness approximation shifts the toughness
of the modelling problem to the definition of the eddy viscosity of the modelling problem to the definition of the eddy viscosity
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By the way, many different kinds of turbulence can be By the way, many different kinds of turbulence can be
envisaged, ranging from ideally homogeneous and isotropic to envisaged, ranging from ideally homogeneous and isotropic to
more realistically heterogeneous and anisotropic more realistically heterogeneous and anisotropic
Wall turbulence Wall turbulence is a classical example of the latter cases: is a classical example of the latter cases:
Eddy viscosity models have therefore the very tough job to Eddy viscosity models have therefore the very tough job to
reintroduce the complexity lost in the simple reintroduce the complexity lost in the simple Boussinesq Boussinesq
approximation approximation
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It is rather instructive and useful to consider It is rather instructive and useful to consider the distribution of the distribution of
velocity close to a plane wall velocity close to a plane wall; different quantities of widespread ; different quantities of widespread
use in CFD are introduced at this stage use in CFD are introduced at this stage
A A universal logarithmic velocity profile universal logarithmic velocity profile is found both on the is found both on the
basis of simple theoretical considerations and experiments basis of simple theoretical considerations and experiments
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4
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The effect of turbulence in the transport of momentum can be The effect of turbulence in the transport of momentum can be
clearly seen in comparing the distributions of velocity in the clearly seen in comparing the distributions of velocity in the
classical case of a circular pipe for laminar and turbulent flow classical case of a circular pipe for laminar and turbulent flows s
The flatter profile observed in the case of turbulent flow is th The flatter profile observed in the case of turbulent flow is the e
direct consequence of the direct consequence of the increasing efficiency in momentum increasing efficiency in momentum
transfer far from the wall transfer far from the wall due to the mixing promoted by due to the mixing promoted by
turbulence turbulence
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5
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The The averaged total energy equation averaged total energy equation and the and the steady thermal steady thermal
energy equation in terms of temperature energy equation in terms of temperature can be written as can be written as
Also in these cases additional terms to be modelled appear, e.g. Also in these cases additional terms to be modelled appear, e.g.: :
The rationale for evaluating the turbulent contribution is simil The rationale for evaluating the turbulent contribution is similar ar
as in the case of momentum as in the case of momentum
where where
T T
is the is the turbulent thermal diffusivity turbulent thermal diffusivity
Heat Transfer in Turbulent Flow
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The picture of the turbulent transfer phenomenon is therefore The picture of the turbulent transfer phenomenon is therefore
the same as for momentum: the same as for momentum:
The relation between the two turbulent diffusivities of heat and The relation between the two turbulent diffusivities of heat and
momentum poses an additional problem momentum poses an additional problem
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A simple but effective way to establish this relationship is to A simple but effective way to establish this relationship is to
define a constant define a constant turbulent turbulent Prandtl Prandtl number number , , in analogy with in analogy with
the molecular one assuming that, as a consequence of the the molecular one assuming that, as a consequence of the
Reynolds analogy, this could be in the range of unity Reynolds analogy, this could be in the range of unity
The assumption The assumption in this case in this case is that the same coherent is that the same coherent
structures carrying momentum are also responsible of heat structures carrying momentum are also responsible of heat
transfer transfer
However, However, this assumption holds acceptably for fluids having this assumption holds acceptably for fluids having
nearly unity molecular nearly unity molecular Prandtl Prandtl number number; in the other cases, ; in the other cases,
different approaches should be used different approaches should be used
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In turbulent flow an In turbulent flow an energy cascade energy cascade occurs representing the occurs representing the
transfer of turbulence kinetic energy from larger to smaller transfer of turbulence kinetic energy from larger to smaller
eddies eddies
Basic concepts about computational
modelling of turbulent flows
Length Scales in Turbulence
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As such, turbulence can be As such, turbulence can be
considered as considered as a phenomenon a phenomenon
characterised by a wide range of characterised by a wide range of
lengths lengths at which interesting at which interesting
phenomena do occur: phenomena do occur:
from from the integral length the integral length
scale scale, , l ll l l ll l, at which energy is , at which energy is
extracted from the mean flow extracted from the mean flow
to to the the Kolmogorov Kolmogorov length length
scale scale, , , at which turbulence , at which turbulence
kinetic energy is finally kinetic energy is finally
dissipated into heat dissipated into heat
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It must be noted that the It must be noted that the Kolmogorov Kolmogorov length scale, length scale, , , is small is small
but still large with respect to the molecular but still large with respect to the molecular mean free path mean free path : :
so, turbulence can still be studied so, turbulence can still be studied
basing on the continuum assumption basing on the continuum assumption
The integral length scale, The integral length scale, l ll l l ll l, , characterising large eddies can be characterising large eddies can be
defined as the average length over which a fluctuating defined as the average length over which a fluctuating
component keeps correlated, i.e. the quantity component keeps correlated, i.e. the quantity is not is not
negligible negligible
On both dimensional and experimental basis, it can be shown On both dimensional and experimental basis, it can be shown
that that
and and
with with ; therefore, ; therefore,
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Basing on these considerations, Basing on these considerations, it can be concluded that: it can be concluded that:
an adequate representation of turbulence should an adequate representation of turbulence should take into take into
account the phenomena of production and dissipation of account the phenomena of production and dissipation of
turbulence kinetic energy at the different scales turbulence kinetic energy at the different scales
in this respect, in this respect, two different strategies two different strategies can be envisaged: can be envisaged:
simulating the transient evolution of vortices of different simulating the transient evolution of vortices of different
sizes sizes, putting a convenient lower bound for the smallest , putting a convenient lower bound for the smallest
scale scale (DNS, LES, DES) (DNS, LES, DES)
simulating turbulence on the basis of the above described simulating turbulence on the basis of the above described
statistical approach statistical approach, introducing appropriate production , introducing appropriate production
and dissipation terms to approximately represent the and dissipation terms to approximately represent the
effects of the energy cascade effects of the energy cascade (RANS) (RANS)
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3
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Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS)
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This methodology follows the former of the two mentioned This methodology follows the former of the two mentioned
routes, routes, trying to simulate with the highest possible space and trying to simulate with the highest possible space and
time detail the evolution of vortices of all relevant sizes time detail the evolution of vortices of all relevant sizes
The assumption behind this technique is that the The assumption behind this technique is that the Navier Navier- -Stokes Stokes
equations are rich enough to describe the turbulent flow equations are rich enough to describe the turbulent flow
behaviour with no need of additional constitutive laws; for behaviour with no need of additional constitutive laws; for
incompressible flow it is: incompressible flow it is:
The web is full of fascinating pictures and movies about DNS The web is full of fascinating pictures and movies about DNS
results results
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The application of this technique is The application of this technique is very demanding in terms of very demanding in terms of
computational resources computational resources: representing flows of technical : representing flows of technical
interest is very challenging and requires massive parallel interest is very challenging and requires massive parallel
computing computing
However the technique is very promising and it is However the technique is very promising and it is sometimes sometimes
used to provide data having a similar reliability to experiments used to provide data having a similar reliability to experiments
with greater detail in local values with greater detail in local values
In fact, if used with enough detail, DNS can provide data which In fact, if used with enough detail, DNS can provide data which
can be hardly obtained in similar detail with experiments can be hardly obtained in similar detail with experiments
In addition to be an interesting field of research, In addition to be an interesting field of research, DNS is DNS is
therefore used also to provide data on which empirical therefore used also to provide data on which empirical
turbulence model can be validated turbulence model can be validated
CFD CFD- -Figure Figure- -1.ppt 1.ppt
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Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
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At a more reduced level of detail, At a more reduced level of detail, LES is aimed at simulating LES is aimed at simulating
only larger eddies, while the smaller scales are treated by only larger eddies, while the smaller scales are treated by
subgrid subgrid- -scale (SGS) models scale (SGS) models
In other words, there are In other words, there are two different length scales two different length scales: :
the large scales that are directly solved as in DNS; the large scales that are directly solved as in DNS;
the smaller scales that are treated by SGS models the smaller scales that are treated by SGS models
As such, LES is computationally more efficient than DNS and As such, LES is computationally more efficient than DNS and
may be also relatively accurate may be also relatively accurate
A key point in LES is introducing a spatial filtering for the A key point in LES is introducing a spatial filtering for the
smaller scales smaller scales
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2
The filters can be of different types: The filters can be of different types:
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3
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Once the resolvable scales are defined, the averaged N Once the resolvable scales are defined, the averaged N- -S equations S equations
are written in averaged form are written in averaged form
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The advection term can be manipulated as The advection term can be manipulated as
or also or also
Anyway, introducing the Anyway, introducing the subgrid subgrid- -scale stresses (or adopting slightly scale stresses (or adopting slightly
different definitions) different definitions)
it can be finally obtained it can be finally obtained
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So, So, the fundamental problem is defining the the fundamental problem is defining the subgrid subgrid scale stresses scale stresses
In 1963, In 1963, Smagorinsky Smagorinsky defined a model based on the following defined a model based on the following
equations equations
where C where C
S S
is the is the Smagorinsky Smagorinsky coefficient representing a parameter to coefficient representing a parameter to
be adjusted for the particular problem to be dealt with; values be adjusted for the particular problem to be dealt with; values in the in the
range 0.10 to 0.24 have been adopted for typical problems range 0.10 to 0.24 have been adopted for typical problems
LES LES is presently promising as a design tool, but still heavy from th is presently promising as a design tool, but still heavy from the e
computational point of view computational point of view
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Reynolds Averaged Reynolds Averaged Navier Navier- -Stokes (RANS) models Stokes (RANS) models - - 1 1
As already mentioned, the Reynolds averaging process leads to As already mentioned, the Reynolds averaging process leads to
momentum equations in which turbulence is represented by momentum equations in which turbulence is represented by the the
Reynolds stress Reynolds stress
The The Boussinesq Boussinesq approximation suggests that approximation suggests that
Moreover if the Reynolds analogy is adopted by specifying a cons Moreover if the Reynolds analogy is adopted by specifying a constant tant
turbulent turbulent Prandtl Prandtl number, also the eddy thermal diffusivity is related to number, also the eddy thermal diffusivity is related to
the eddy viscosity the eddy viscosity
So, So, the main problem is reduced to specifying the eddy viscosity the main problem is reduced to specifying the eddy viscosity
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2
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j
i
ij T ij ij T ij
j i
w
w
S k k
x x

| |
= = +
|
|

\
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Models of different complexity can be adopted Models of different complexity can be adopted in this aim, classified in this aim, classified
on the basis of the number of the additional partial differentia on the basis of the number of the additional partial differential l
equations to be solved: equations to be solved:
1. 1. Algebraic or zero Algebraic or zero- -equation models equation models
2. 2. One One- -equation models equation models
3. 3. Two Two- -equation models equation models
An important distinction between turbulence models is anyway the An important distinction between turbulence models is anyway the
one between one between complete and incomplete models complete and incomplete models: :
completeness completeness of the model is related to its capability to of the model is related to its capability to
automatically define a characteristic length of turbulence automatically define a characteristic length of turbulence
in a complete model, therefore, only the initial and boundary in a complete model, therefore, only the initial and boundary
conditions are specified conditions are specified, with no need to define case by case , with no need to define case by case
parameters depending on the particular considered flow parameters depending on the particular considered flow
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ALGEBRAIC MODELS ALGEBRAIC MODELS
Possibly the best known algebraic model is the one obtained by t Possibly the best known algebraic model is the one obtained by the he
mixing length theory of mixing length theory of Prandtl Prandtl (1925) (1925)
where where l ll l l ll l
mix mix
is the mixing length; the model is similar to the one for is the mixing length; the model is similar to the one for
molecular viscosity molecular viscosity in which kinematic viscosity is a interpreted as in which kinematic viscosity is a interpreted as
the product of a mean molecular velocity by a length (the mean f the product of a mean molecular velocity by a length (the mean free ree
path) path)
In the presence of a wall, it is assumed In the presence of a wall, it is assumed where the constant where the constant
must be adjusted on an empirical basis must be adjusted on an empirical basis
The mixing length theory has received different reformulations, The mixing length theory has received different reformulations, but but
its character of incompleteness makes models based on transport its character of incompleteness makes models based on transport
equations to be preferable equations to be preferable
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PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION MODELS PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION MODELS
Referring from here on to the specific Reynolds stress tensor Referring from here on to the specific Reynolds stress tensor
it is possible to derive a it is possible to derive a Reynolds stress transport model Reynolds stress transport model by by
applying the time averaging operator as follows applying the time averaging operator as follows
where where
it is found it is found
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This equation shows This equation shows the typical difficulties encountered when the typical difficulties encountered when
trying to trying to close close the turbulence equations the turbulence equations. In fact: . In fact:
the application of the time the application of the time- -averaging operator to the averaging operator to the Navier Navier- -
Stokes equations makes the Reynolds stress tensor to Stokes equations makes the Reynolds stress tensor to
appear as a SECOND ORDER tensor of appear as a SECOND ORDER tensor of correlation correlation between between
two fluctuating velocity components two fluctuating velocity components
the derivation of transport equations for the Reynolds stress the derivation of transport equations for the Reynolds stress
tensor makes tensor makes HIGHER ORDER correlation terms to appear HIGHER ORDER correlation terms to appear
The transport equation for turbulent kinetic energy can be obtai The transport equation for turbulent kinetic energy can be obtained ned
by taking the trace of the system of Reynolds stress transport by taking the trace of the system of Reynolds stress transport
equations; in fact equations; in fact
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The k equation has the form The k equation has the form
The Reynolds stress appearing in this equation has the form The Reynolds stress appearing in this equation has the form
and the dissipation term has the form and the dissipation term has the form
and is evaluated by the relationship and is evaluated by the relationship
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A A one equation model was one equation model was proposed by proposed by Prandtl Prandtl in the form in the form
with with the additional closure equation the additional closure equation
In general, one In general, one- -equation models are incomplete, since the equation models are incomplete, since the
turbulence length scale, turbulence length scale, l ll l l ll l , must be defined on a case by case basis; , must be defined on a case by case basis;
complete versions are anyway available which specify complete versions are anyway available which specify
independently this length (e.g., Baldwin independently this length (e.g., Baldwin- - Barth, 1990). Barth, 1990).
In order to obtain complete models, In order to obtain complete models, an additional quantity must be an additional quantity must be
defined defined also subjected to a transport equation also subjected to a transport equation
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Two Two- -equation models equation models are mostly based on the definition of this are mostly based on the definition of this
further quantity in the form of further quantity in the form of or or basing on the following basing on the following
relationships that relationships that close close the problem (other versions are available) the problem (other versions are available)
for for k k- - models it is models it is
in particular for the Wilcox (1998) model it is in particular for the Wilcox (1998) model it is
with appropriate values of the constants and, in particular: with appropriate values of the constants and, in particular:
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for for k k- - models it is models it is
the dissipation equation can be derived exactly and has the the dissipation equation can be derived exactly and has the
classical form classical form
The The standard standard k k- - model model adopts the definitions adopts the definitions
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As presented, the above turbulence models are mostly suited for As presented, the above turbulence models are mostly suited for
dealing with turbulence conditions far from walls dealing with turbulence conditions far from walls
When wall phenomena must be dealt with When wall phenomena must be dealt with two possible approaches two possible approaches
are available: are available:
use of use of wall functions wall functions : : the logarithmic trend observed for the logarithmic trend observed for
velocity close to a flat surface is assumed to hold velocity close to a flat surface is assumed to hold
approximately near the specific considered wall, together approximately near the specific considered wall, together
with a corresponding temperature trend; with a corresponding temperature trend; in this case, the in this case, the
value of y+ in the first node close to the wall must be value of y+ in the first node close to the wall must be
conveniently large (e.g., y+ > 30 conveniently large (e.g., y+ > 30); );
use of low Reynolds number models: use of low Reynolds number models: these models are these models are
conceived to simulate the actual trend of turbulence close to conceived to simulate the actual trend of turbulence close to
the wall, by the adoption of the wall, by the adoption of damping functions damping functions; ; the value of the value of
y+ in the first node must be very small (typically y+<1) y+ in the first node must be very small (typically y+<1)
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On one hand, On one hand, the use of wall functions is computationally the use of wall functions is computationally
convenient convenient, since refining the mesh close to the wall is expensive in , since refining the mesh close to the wall is expensive in
terms of resources (see the figure from terms of resources (see the figure from Sharabi Sharabi, 2008) , 2008)
On the other hand, On the other hand, wall functions are not able to properly detect wall functions are not able to properly detect
some boundary layer phenomena some boundary layer phenomena for which they were not for which they were not
conceived (e.g., buoyancy effects in heat transfer, etc.) conceived (e.g., buoyancy effects in heat transfer, etc.)
Nevertheless, even low Nevertheless, even low- -Reynolds number models are not always Reynolds number models are not always
completely accurate completely accurate

(a) Wall functions mesh (b) Low-Reynolds number mesh
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Damping functions in low Damping functions in low- -Re models Re models
In In low low- -Reynolds number models Reynolds number models the definition of eddy viscosity is the definition of eddy viscosity is
changed from the classical formulation changed from the classical formulation
to various forms including to various forms including damping functions, damping functions, f f

that provide for that provide for the decrease of the eddy viscosity while the decrease of the eddy viscosity while
approaching the wall approaching the wall
This allows This allows integration of the turbulence models through the integration of the turbulence models through the
boundary layer up to the wall itself boundary layer up to the wall itself
Different assumptions lead to various formulations of the low Different assumptions lead to various formulations of the low- -Re Re
models and, generally, to different results models and, generally, to different results
2
T
C f k

=
0 0 f for y

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Low Low- -Re models vs. wall functions Re models vs. wall functions
Providing an answer to Providing an answer to the question the question if the use of wall functions if the use of wall functions
should be preferred or not should be preferred or not to models having a low to models having a low- -Re capability Re capability is is
not trivial, since: not trivial, since:
it heavily depends on the application it heavily depends on the application
it is strictly linked to the purpose of the analysis it is strictly linked to the purpose of the analysis
In this lecture I will propose In this lecture I will propose a case in which a case in which WFs WFs are not applicable are not applicable, ,
since they completely overlook phenomena related to buoyancy since they completely overlook phenomena related to buoyancy
In a lecture to come on condensation, In a lecture to come on condensation, I will show that the use of I will show that the use of
some minimum low some minimum low- -Re number capabilities is useful to get relatively Re number capabilities is useful to get relatively
good agreement with experimental data though approximate good agreement with experimental data though approximate
method are also acceptable method are also acceptable; however, pending questions are: ; however, pending questions are:
could we afford describing a whole nuclear reactor could we afford describing a whole nuclear reactor
containment with such a strong refinement at the walls? containment with such a strong refinement at the walls?
couldn couldn t we instead accept a more approximate view of local t we instead accept a more approximate view of local
phenomena to get a reasonable overall picture? phenomena to get a reasonable overall picture?
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Anisotropic RANS Anisotropic RANS - - 1 1
This choice is anyway heavy
for the number of equations
to be solved
A further possibility is to use
an anisotropic RANS models
in which the simple
Boussinesq approximation is
abandoned
The assumption of an isotropic value of The assumption of an isotropic value of
T T
is not suitable for is not suitable for
simulating details of flow in noncircular passages simulating details of flow in noncircular passages
This is particularly true for This is particularly true for secondary flows secondary flows in the direction in the direction
orthogonal to the main flow that would require the full orthogonal to the main flow that would require the full
Reynolds stress transport models to be predicted Reynolds stress transport models to be predicted
RSM application from RSM application from Sharabi Sharabi (2008) (2008)
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Anisotropic RANS Anisotropic RANS - - 2 2
In particular, it is possible to use In particular, it is possible to use algebraic expressions algebraic expressions of the kind of the kind
(see e.g., (see e.g., Baglietto Baglietto et al., 2006) which is limited to second order et al., 2006) which is limited to second order
terms in the strain and the rotational rates terms in the strain and the rotational rates S S
ij ij
and and
ij ij
with respect with respect
to the original third order formulation to the original third order formulation
( (Baglietto Baglietto et al., 2006) et al., 2006)
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Two
Two
-
-
phase flow applications
Few general considerations Few general considerations
Two Two- -phase flow introduces phase flow introduces additional complexity additional complexity to the to the
already complex problem of simulating turbulent flow already complex problem of simulating turbulent flow
The presence of two phases and of The presence of two phases and of the related interfaces the related interfaces
requires particular care in modelling requires particular care in modelling
Ambitious goals of modelling two Ambitious goals of modelling two- -phase flow with CFD phase flow with CFD
would be, for instance, to represent important phenomena would be, for instance, to represent important phenomena
like CHF from first principles like CHF from first principles
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Two
Two
-
-
Few general considerations (cont Few general considerations (cont d) d)
The work in the application of CFD techniques to two The work in the application of CFD techniques to two- -phase flows phase flows
was developed for more than a decade, though nowadays it is stil was developed for more than a decade, though nowadays it is still l
noted that the noted that the obtained models are not yet so mature as the ones obtained models are not yet so mature as the ones
for single for single- -phase flows phase flows (foreword to (foreword to Nucl Nucl. Eng. Des., 240 (2010)) . Eng. Des., 240 (2010))
The field is therefore one of active research, requiring The field is therefore one of active research, requiring huge huge
computational resources; computational resources; the brand name of Computational Multi the brand name of Computational Multi- -
Fluid Dynamics (CMFD) was proposed for this field of research by Fluid Dynamics (CMFD) was proposed for this field of research by
Prof. Prof. Yadigaroglu Yadigaroglu (Int. J. (Int. J. Multiph Multiph. Flow, 23, 2003) . Flow, 23, 2003)
In principle, DNS, LES and RANS techniques can be all used In principle, DNS, LES and RANS techniques can be all used for two for two- -
phase flow phase flow, though the scenario of their application is strongly , though the scenario of their application is strongly
changed with respect to single changed with respect to single- -phase phase
In particular, in addition to the integral length scale and the In particular, in addition to the integral length scale and the
smallest turbulent scale, smallest turbulent scale, the scales of two the scales of two- -phase flow structures phase flow structures
(e.g., bubbles) (e.g., bubbles) are called into play are called into play
48 48
Two
Two
-
-
In the case of the In the case of the RANS approach RANS approach, , mass energy and momentum balance mass energy and momentum balance
equations equations are written in are written in 3D geometry 3D geometry for each phase k (see e.g., for each phase k (see e.g., Bestion Bestion
et al. 2005; et al. 2005; Mimouni Mimouni et al., 2008, et al., 2008, Galassi Galassi et al., 2009 for NEPTUNE) et al., 2009 for NEPTUNE)
These equations are accompanied by an extension to two These equations are accompanied by an extension to two- -phase flow of phase flow of a a
k k- - model model
where additional terms of where additional terms of turbulence production turbulence production appear due to the appear due to the
interaction between the phases. interaction between the phases.
An An interfacial area concentration transport equation interfacial area concentration transport equation is also used is also used
( )
k k k k
k k
w
t
= +

( )
( )
T k k k
k k k k k k k k k k k
w
w w p M g
t

(
+ = + + + +

( )
2 2 2
, , ,
2 2 2
T k k k
k k k k k k k k k k k k k i k i i w k k k k
w w w p
h h w g w h q a q q q
t t

( (
| | | | | |
( + + + = + + + + + +
( ( | | |

\ \ \

[ ]
,
1
Production terms
T
i k k k k
k k i k k k K
i k j K j
k k k
w P
t x x x

(
(
+ = + +
(
(

(

[ ]
, 1 1
1
C Production terms C
T
i k k k k k
k k i k k k
i k j j k
w P
t x x x k

(
(
+ = + +
(
(

(

49 49
Two
Two
-
-
Needless to say, Needless to say, this model relies on the this model relies on the Boussinesq Boussinesq
assumption assumption; turbulent viscosity is moreover given simply by ; turbulent viscosity is moreover given simply by
Its is quite clear that Its is quite clear that the success of such a model is strictly the success of such a model is strictly
linked to its ingredients in terms of constitutive relationships linked to its ingredients in terms of constitutive relationships
that must be suitable for the particular considered flow regime that must be suitable for the particular considered flow regime
In particular, for a bubbly flow the momentum transfer term, In particular, for a bubbly flow the momentum transfer term,
M M
k k
, should account for , should account for mass transfer mass transfer, the , the drag drag and and lift lift forces, forces,
the the added added mass term mass term and the and the turbulent dispersion of bubbles turbulent dispersion of bubbles
A major lack of RANS approaches is anyway in the fact that A major lack of RANS approaches is anyway in the fact that
some two some two- -phase flow fields are naturally unstable: phase flow fields are naturally unstable: time time
averaging is therefore suitable only to have a global averaging is therefore suitable only to have a global averaged averaged
picture picture of what happens, loosing instantaneous details (see of what happens, loosing instantaneous details (see
e.g., the discussion in e.g., the discussion in Yadigaroglu Yadigaroglu et al., 2008) et al., 2008)
k
k
k
T
k
k
C

2
=
50 50
By the way, unsteady calculations with RANS may show By the way, unsteady calculations with RANS may show
oscillations that may somehow match with experimental oscillations that may somehow match with experimental
observations ( observations (Zboray Zboray and De and De Cahard Cahard, 2005) , 2005)
LES models LES models, of course, reintroduce the possibility to address , of course, reintroduce the possibility to address
varying flow fields like the fluctuations of bubble plumes; such varying flow fields like the fluctuations of bubble plumes; such
applications are interestingly discussed, among the others, by applications are interestingly discussed, among the others, by
Yadigaroglu Yadigaroglu et al., (2008) and in works there referred to, and et al., (2008) and in works there referred to, and
by by Niceno Niceno et al., (2008) et al., (2008)
In such discussions, it can be noted that, in similarity with th In such discussions, it can be noted that, in similarity with the e
case of RANS, case of RANS, LES models require accurate closure models for LES models require accurate closure models for
the different terms appearing in the equations in addition to the different terms appearing in the equations in addition to
adequate SGS models adequate SGS models
Two
Two
-
-
51 51
Lahey Lahey (2009) recently discussed the capabilities of (2009) recently discussed the capabilities of DNS DNS
models models in representing two in representing two- -phase flows phase flows
As in case of single As in case of single- -phase flow, the attractiveness of this phase flow, the attractiveness of this
technique lies in the fact that there is no need to technique lies in the fact that there is no need to
introduce empirical models to obtain accurate introduce empirical models to obtain accurate
predictions; the obvious drawback is the heavy predictions; the obvious drawback is the heavy
computational load computational load
In the case of two In the case of two- -phase flows, phase flows, interface tracking interface tracking
algorithms algorithms must be introduced; in the mentioned paper, must be introduced; in the mentioned paper,
an algorithm based on the signed distance form the an algorithm based on the signed distance form the
interface is used in the PHASTA code interface is used in the PHASTA code
Dam break problems, bubble interactions and plunging Dam break problems, bubble interactions and plunging
jets are within the predictive capabilities, whenever jets are within the predictive capabilities, whenever
appropriate computational resources are made available appropriate computational resources are made available
CFD CFD- -Figure Figure- -2.ppt 2.ppt
Two
Two
-
-
52 52
Prediction of heat transfer deterioration
Addressed experimental data Addressed experimental data
As in Sharabi et al. [2007], the considered experimental
data are those by Pismenny et al. [2006]:
National Technological University of Ukraine
turbulent heat transfer in vertical tubes for supercritical
water
operating pressure of 23.5 MPa
inlet temperature and heating conditions involved in these
analyses resulted in both dense and gas-like fluid to be
present in the test section
thin wall stainless steel tubes with inner diameters of 6.28
and 9.50 mm were adopted, with a 600 mm long heated
section preceded by a 64 diameters long unheated region
cromel-alumel thermocouples were adopted to measure
the inlet and outlet fluid temperature, as well as the outer
temperature of the tubes.
53 53
Previous results Previous results
Previous results obtained by Sharabi et al. [2007] with an
in-house code
(AKN = Abe et al. [1994]; CH = Chien [1982]; JL = Jones and Launder [1972];
LB = Lam and Bremhorst, [1981]; LS = Launder and Sharma [1974]; YS =
Yang and Shih [1993], WI=Wilcox [1994], SP=Speziale et al. [1990])

a) 6.28 mm ID, q=390 kW/m
2
, G= 590 kg/(m
2
s),
T
inlet
=300 C, upward flow
b) 6.28 mm ID, q=390 kW/m
2
, G= 590 kg/(m
2
s),
T
inlet
=300 C, downward flow

54 54
It can be noted that:
k- models predict in a qualitatively reasonable way the onset
of heat transfer deterioration occurring in upward flow
however, despite of quantitative differences between the
results of the different k- models, they all tend to predict a
larger wall temperature increase than observed
on the other hand, the Wilcox [1994] k- model (WI) and the
Speziale et al. [1990] k- model (SP) were seen to predict no
deterioration or a very delayed one
in the case of upward flow, all the models provided similar
results, characterised by the absence of any deterioration
phenomenon, in qualitative agreement with experimental
observations
Previous results (cont Previous results (cont d) d)
55 55
Velocity distribution predicted by the YS model
(upward flow, G=509 kg/(m2s), q=390 kW/m2,
tin=300 C)
Velocity distribution predicted by the
WI model (upward flow, with G=509
kg/(m2s), q=390 kW/m2, tin=300 C)
(Longer pipe)
Buoyancy forces accelerate
the flow at the wall and lead
to an m-shaped velocity
profile
Reasons for Heat
Transfer
Deterioration
56 56
Turbulent kinetic energy distribution predicted
by the YS model (upward flow, G=509 kg/(m2s),
q=390 kW/m2, tin=300 C)
Turbulent kinetic energy distribution
predicted by the WI model (upward
flow, G=509 kg/(m2s), q=390 kW/m2,
tin=300 C)
(Longer pipe)
In the transition to the m-shaped
profile velocity gradients are
suppressed and turbulence
production decreases
57 57
With the STAR-CCM+ code, the following modelling choices were
made:
The adopted 2D axi-symmetric mesh included
20 radial nodes in a 0.54 mm thick prismatic layer region close to the
wall
26 uniform nodes in the remaining core region, having a radius of 2.6
mm
The stretching factor adopted in the prismatic layer was 1.2
Trimmed meshes were selected for the core region
Though slightly coarser than in the in-house code calculations, the grid
was found to be suitable to provide enough accurate results with a
reasonable computational effort
Later, the results obtained by this grid have been compared to those
obtained by a finer one (68 radial and 500 axial nodes) showing little
differences
Default code options were adopted in relation to advection schemes
(2nd order)
The steady-state iteration algorithm of the code was adopted, starting
with coupled flow and energy iterations and then shifting to the
segregated equation approach
In all the code runs, it was checked that the requirement y+ < 1 was
respected with due margin
STAR STAR- -CCM+ Results CCM+ Results
58 58
Concerning water properties at 23.5 MPa, the code allows assigning
the dependence of density and specific heat on temperature in
polynomial form
Thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity can be instead assigned
adopting user defined field functions.
Suitable local cubic spline polynomials were then used for these
properties, whose coefficients were generated on the basis of tables
obtained by the NIST package

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Temperature [K]
D
e
n
s
i
t
y

[
k
g
/
m
3
]
Data
Splines
Interval Boundaries

0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
180000
200000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Temperature [K]
C
p

[
J
/
(
k
g
K
)
]
Data
Splines
Interval Boundaries

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l

C
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

[
W
/
(
m
K
)
]
Data
Splines
Interval Boundaries

0.0E+00
2.0E-04
4.0E-04
6.0E-04
8.0E-04
1.0E-03
1.2E-03
1.4E-03
1.6E-03
1.8E-03
2.0E-03
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Temperature [K]
D
y
n
a
m
i
c

V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

[
k
g
/
(
m
s
)
]
Data
Splines
Interval Boundaries

0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
180000
200000
640 645 650 655 660 665 670 675 680
Temperature [K]
C
p

[
J
/
(
k
g
K
)
]
Data
Splines
Interval Boundaries

0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
640 650 660 670 680 690 700
Temperature [K]
T
h
e
r
m
a
l

C
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

[
W
/
(
m
K
)
]
Data
Splines
Interval Boundaries
STAR STAR- -CCM+ Results (cont CCM+ Results (cont d) d)
59 59
The analysis reported herein was limited to four k- models:
the Two-Layer All y+ Wall Treatment (referred to in the following as
all y+), suggested for simulating with a reasonable accuracy
different kinds of flows;
the standard Low-Reynolds Number K-Epsilon Model (referred to in
the following as low-Re) suggested by code guidelines for natural
convection problems and referred to a model published by Lien et
al. [1996];
the AKN model, already used with the in-house code [Abe et al.,
1994];
the V2F model that, besides the k and equations, solves two
additional transport and algebraic equations; this model is
suggested to capture more accurately near wall phenomena
[Durbin, 1991; Durbin, 1996; Lien et al., 1998].
60 60
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 20 40 60 80 100
x / D
W
a
l
l

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
C
]
Low-Re
AKN
V2F
All y+
Low-Re (finer mesh)
Experiment

a) 6.28 mm ID, q=390 kW/m
2
, G= 590 kg/(m
2
s),
T
inlet
=300 C, upward flow

61 61
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 20 40 60 80 100
x / D
W
a
l
l

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
C
]
Low-Re
AKN
V2F
All y+
Experiment

a) 6.28 mm ID, q=390 kW/m
2
, G= 590 kg/(m
2
s),
T
inlet
=300 C, downward flow

62 62
It can be noted that:
the Two-Layer All y+ Wall Treatment was unable to detect
the start of deterioration phenomena in upward flow
all the other k- models showed a behaviour similar to the
one already observed in the previous study:
they are able to detect the onset of deterioration
they tend to overestimate the effect of deterioration on wall
temperature prediction
all the models have no difficulty to predict the behaviour
observed in downward flow, in which no deterioration was
detected
The reasons of this behaviour were found to be the same as
observed in the previous study (see below)
63 63
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
X
-
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

[
m
/
s
]Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
Low-Re Model, Upward Flow
x/D
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
X
-
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

[
m
/
s
]Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
AKN Model, Upward Flow
x/D

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
X
-
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

[
m
/
s
]Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
V2F Model, Upward Flow
x/D
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
X
-
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

[
m
/
s
]Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
All y+ Model, Upward Flow
x/D

Figure 1: Radial distribution of the axial velocity component in the upward flow case
64 64
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
T
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

K
i
n
e
t
i
c

E
n
e
r
g
y

[
J
/
k
g
]
Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
Low-Re Model, Upward Flow
x/D
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
T
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

K
i
n
e
t
i
c

E
n
e
r
g
y

[
J
/
k
g
]
Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
AKN Model, Upward Flow
x/D

0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
T
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

K
i
n
e
t
i
c

E
n
e
r
g
y

[
J
/
k
g
]
Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
V2F Model, Upward Flow
x/D
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
T
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

K
i
n
e
t
i
c

E
n
e
r
g
y

[
J
/
k
g
]
Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
All y+ Model, Upward Flow
x/D

Figure 1: Radial distribution of turbulent kinetic energy in the upward flow case
65 65
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
X
-
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

[
m
/
s
]Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
Low-Re Model, Downward Flow
x/D
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
X
-
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

[
m
/
s
]Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
AKN Model, Downward Flow
x/D

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
X
-
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

[
m
/
s
]Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
V2F Model, Downward Flow
x/D
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
X
-
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

C
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

[
m
/
s
]Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
All y+ Model, Downward Flow
x/D

Figure 1: Radial distribution of the axial velocity component in the downward flow case
66 66
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
T
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

K
i
n
e
t
i
c

E
n
e
r
g
y

[
J
/
k
g
]
Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
Low-Re Model, Downward Flow
x/D
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
T
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

K
i
n
e
t
i
c

E
n
e
r
g
y

[
J
/
k
g
]
Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
AKN Model, Downward Flow
x/D

0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
T
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

K
i
n
e
t
i
c

E
n
e
r
g
y

[
J
/
k
g
]
Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
V2F Model, Downward Flow
x/D
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035
Radius [m]
T
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

K
i
n
e
t
i
c

E
n
e
r
g
y

[
J
/
k
g
]
Pipe Inlet
0
16
32
48
64
80
88
All y+ Model, Downward Flow
x/D

Figure 1: Radial distribution of turbulent kinetic energy in the downward flow case
67 67
CFD and CMFD are very powerful tools, whose
capabilities are conditioned to our understanding of
phenomena and to computer power
The smaller is the degree of empiricism we wish to
introduce in the models, the greatest is the computer
power needed
It is a very fascinating world in which smart ideas are
needed to discover newer and newer possibilities
In summary
In summary
68 68
Thank Thank Thank Thank
Thank Thank Thank Thank
you you you you
you you you you
for for for for
for for for for
your your your your
your your your your
attention attention attention attention
attention attention attention attention
, ,, ,
, ,, ,
Walter Ambrosini Walter Ambrosini Walter Ambrosini Walter Ambrosini
Walter Ambrosini Walter Ambrosini Walter Ambrosini Walter Ambrosini
69 69
Sources and suggested readings
Sources and suggested readings
N.E. N.E. Todreas Todreas, M. S. , M. S. Kazimi Kazimi Nuclear Systems I Nuclear Systems I , Taylor & Francis, 1990. , Taylor & Francis, 1990.
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Lappeenranta WA 1 CFD

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1 1

Basic Concepts about CFD Models

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