Section 1 1.1: Studying the Structure of Cells 1.

Cell: the smallest unit that can perform the functions of life 2. Microscopy: the science of using microscopes to view samples or objects i) In the 1860s and 70s, compound microscopes were used in the discovery of disease-causing germs ii) As a result, people understood the importance of: a) Clean drinking water b) Disposing of sewage properly c) Sterilizing surgical instruments between operations d) Washing hands regularly iii) Advanced our understanding of cells 3. In 1665, English scientist Robert Hooke became the first person to study cells 4. First cell structure to be seen with early microscopes was the nucleus (looked like a dark spot) i) Nucleus: the organelle that controls the cells activities ii) Organelle: a specialized structure in a cell 5. Micrograph: a photograph taken with a microscope 6. The cell theory was developed in the mid-1800s and is one of the most important developments in biology i) Three main ideas: a) All living organisms are made of one or more cells b) The cell is the basic organizational unit of life c) All cells come from pre-existing cells 7. Cytosol: the fluid material between the cell membrane and the nucleus 8. Cytoplasm: the cytosol and organelles contained by the cell membrane 9. Numerous organelles are involved in the production, storage, or transport of proteins i) Proteins are essential nutrients for the growth and repair of body tissues 10. Some types of organelles are found in only plant or only in animal cells; some are found in both i) Chloroplasts plant cells ii) Mitochondria plant and animal cells; its function is to release energy from glucose 11. Cellular respiration: i) The process of cellular respiration: a) C6H12O6 + 6 O2 are broken down b) Glucose is broken down in a series of chemical reactions to gradually release energy c) Final products are ATP (adenosine triphosphate) + 6 CO2 + 6 H2O 1

1.2: Genes Questions and Answers 1. The nucleus contains the master set of instructions, carried in chromosomes i) Chromosome: in a cell nucleus, a thread-like structure made mostly of DNA a) Every organism has a specific number of chromosomes in the nucleus of each cell b) Typically come in pairs one of each pair comes from either parent upon fertilization c) Humans normally have 46 chromosomes per cell nucleus d) Made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) i. DNA: material found in the cell nucleus that contains genetic information e) Each chromosome consists of a single molecule of DNA, which is divided into segments called genes i. Gene: a segment of DNA that controls protein production I) Genes control the cells activities and much of its structure by controlling what proteins are made and when f) 1953: James Watson and Francis Crick created a DNA model based on previous scientific models (termed double helix) g) Three types of building-block molecules called nucleotides: phosphate, deoxyribose sugar, nitrogenous base i. Four types of nitrogenous bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine 2. DNA controls many of your physical features and how your body digests different foods 3. DNA is in charge of protein production and role distribution through genes, such as: i) Building parts of the body ii) Couriers carrying materials around the body iii) Pick-up/Transfer signals from one body part to another iv) Enzymes speed up various chemical reactions 4. DNA/Genetic screening: the process of testing individuals to determine whether they have the gene or genes associated with certain genetic disorders i) Down syndrome a) Amniocentesis: a technique used to detect Down syndrome in the fetus b) Karyotype: a micrograph that shows if a person has too many/few chromosomes or any broken ones c) Look for three chromosomes on Strand 21 ii) PKU a) Detected by obtaining a blood sample i. Examined for an enzyme needed to digest certain proteins; otherwise, phenylalanine builds up iii) Huntington disease: a genetic disorder that affects nerve cells 2

a) Symptoms: loss of muscle control and brain function b) Symptoms worsen for 15 years before the victim dies c) If one parent has it, the child will have a 50 per cent chance of having the gene iv) Arguments against genetic screening: a) Causes emotional pain for parents b) Testing is expensive and doesnt save lives v) Arguments for genetic screening: a) Reduces uncertainty b) May change many of a persons life decisions vi) Other conditions that can be identified include: a) Certain genes associated with breast cancer for women b) Cystic fibrosis c) Spina bifida 5. Drug companies research the cures for many diseases i) Expensive ii) Time-consuming iii) Might not be as successful outside of the lab iv) Trial data may be presented as more positive than it really is v) If they found an effective, but costly, cure: sell to profit or to fulfill ethical obligation? 6. Genetic code is universal so genes can be modified i) GMO/Transgenic organism: an organism whose genetic information has been altered with the insertion of genes from another species ii) Some people question genetic modification becomes evolution occurs naturally over an extremely long period of time iii) Uses of some GMOs: a) Bacteria: have a simple cell structure therefore, the first type of organism to be modified and used for medical treatments (less likely to cause allergic reactions or diseases) b) Bacteria/other plant genes: inserted into crop chromosomes (resist pests, have higher nutritional value, better withstand harsh weather) c) Growth hormones: injected into animals (increase human food supplies, lower price of meat) 7. Cloning: the process of creating identical genetic copies of an organism i) Gardeners have done this for centuries by taking cuttings from a plant and rooting them, resulting in copies of the parent plant ii) Steps in cloning a plant: a) Take pieces of the root b) Separate individual cells and grow them in a nutrient solution 3

c) Becomes a plant embryo d) Grows into a plantlet e) Finally, a mature plant iii) Steps in cloning a mammal: a) Scientists remove the cell nucleus of an egg from the female b) A cell from an adult is removed; it and the egg cell are placed beside each other in a bath of chemicals c) Electrical jolt causes them to fuse d) The fused cell begins dividing to form an embryo e) The embryo is inserted in the uterus to complete its development. The offspring is a clone of the mammal that donated the adult cell. 8. Mutation: a change in the DNA of an organism i) Affects how well a protein does its job a) Sickle cell anemia: a disease in which the gene that codes for hemoglobin is less effective ii) Mutagen: a substance or factor that can cause a mutation in DNA a) Electromagnetic radiation, such as X-rays and UV rays b) Chemicals, such as mercury and cigarette tar iii) Some occur in only one or a few cells iv) Some are inherited v) Mutations that occur on a non-genetic part of DNA are not harmful vi) Some allow for adaptation vii) As of now, most people who participate in trials of gene therapy treatment become sicker or die viii) Other concerns for gene therapy treatments: a) Arent people with hereditary diseases able to lead happy, successful lives? b) Who gets access to treatments and who pays? c) Who funds research and who holds control over the resulting product or technology? d) How far should society go in using treatments?

1.3: Cells from Cells 1. Cell reproduction: the process by which new cells are formed i) In single-celled organisms: a) Only one parent b) One cell divides to produce two new cells i. Daughter cells ii. Genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell ii) In multicellular organisms: a) Two parents mate b) Offspring receive half of their genes from each parent i. Offspring share genetic material and may look alike, but they are not identical to the parents 2. Cell division: the process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells i) Single-celled organisms reproduce this way ii) For multicellular organisms: a) The process by which a fertilized egg (a single cell) eventually becomes an adult with millions of cells b) The process that replaces lost or damaged cells 3. Cells also divide when they grow too large to efficiently perform the functions necessary for their survival i) Cell membrane is important in this instance a) Food and oxygen molecules must cross the membrane to get inside all of the cells b) Waste materials cross the membrane to exit the cell i. Diffusion: the movement of molecules from areas of higher concentrations to areas of lower concentrations until equilibrium is reached c) Selectively permeable: i. Not all materials can cross it ii. Some kept out and others in 4. Cells are surrounded by solutions that contain water and dissolved nutrients and gases 5. Cells use nutrients, produce more organelles and cytosol; get bigger and increase in volume 6. Cells need enough surface area to service its volume (more surface area = more nutrients + easier to get rid of wastes) 7. Cells only use 10 per cent of their genes to produce the proteins they need to do their particular job, as a result of cell specialization

1.4: The Cell Cycle 1. Skin cells and cells that line the stomach have short lifespans 2. Muscle cells have long lifespans (15 years) 3. Cell cycle: a continuous sequence of cell growth and division, including the stages of interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis; i) Controlled by protein molecules ii) Stages of the cell cycle: a) Interphase: periods of growth in the life of a cell i. Longest stage of the three (90 per cent of the cell cycle) ii. Consists of two growth stages and a stage of DNA replication a. DNA replication: the process by which DNA is copied, creating sister chromatids joined at the centromere I) Prepares the cell for cell division b. Growth in size and in organelles before and after DNA replication iii. Cells do whatever activities they are designed to do, as well as necessary cell activities a. i.e., absorbing oxygen and glucose, cellular respiration, waste removal b) Mitosis: the process by which the duplicated contents of the cells nucleus divide into two equal parts i. Centrosome: an organelle that helps to organize the tubules that make up the cells cytoskeleton ii. The process of mitosis: a. Prophase: the phase of mitosis in which sister chromatids condense and coil, allowing the chromosomes to become visible I) Nucleolus and the nuclear membrane disappear II) Spindle fibres form from thread-like tubules extending from the two centrosomes towards the centromeres III) Two centrosomes head towards opposite cell poles b. Metaphase: the longest phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes are aligned across the centre of the cell I) Each centromere is attached to two spindle fibres one at each end of the cell c. Anaphase: the shortest phase in mitosis in which the centromere splits apart and the chromatids are pulled to opposite sides of the cell by the spindle fibres I) Spindle fibres retract, each pulling a chromatid towards one end of the cell (separate and become chromosomes) 6

I) The cell has twice as many chromosomes as usual d. Telophase: the phase of mitosis in which two daughter nuclei are formed I) Form separate membranes (around each set of chromosomes) and nucleoli (appears within each new nucleus) I) Chromosomes become harder to see iii. Mitosis is a continuous process without breaks between phases c) Cytokinesis: following mitosis, the third stage in cell division that involves the separation of the two nuclei and cell contents into two daughter cells i. The cytosol and the organelles divide ii. In animal cells: a. A ring of specialized proteins in the middle of the cell contracts b. The contraction pinches the cell membrane until the parent cell divides into two c. Each daughter cell has a complete set of chromosomes in its nucleus and its own share of cytosol and organelles iii. In plant cells: a. The Golgi body produces small vesicles, carrying the materials needed to form a new cell wall b. The vesicles line up between the two new nuclei I) Cell plate: a structure that helps to form the cell wall in the process of plant cell cytokinesis c. The cell plate grows out, joining the old cell wall d. New cell walls are secreted on each side of the cell plate, dividing the cytoplasm into two e. New cell membranes form inside the cell walls 4. Cell cycle checkpoints: a point in the life of a cell when proteins determine whether cell division should or should not occur i) Cell division doesnt occur under three conditions: a) Insufficient nutrients to support cell growth (during interphase) i. For many cells, this checkpoint seems to be the most important a. More cells of that type are not needed b) The DNA has not replicated (during interphase, before mitosis) c) The DNA is damaged (during mitosis) i. e.g. Chromosomes have not attached in metaphase, chromosomes have not moved to poles in anaphase 7

Cells that leave the cycle enter a non-dividing stage a) Most of the bodys cells are in this stage i. e.g., muscle cells, nerve cells 5. Cells die when they are damaged beyond repair by physical force or exposure to toxic materials i) The cells contents leak out, causing swelling and redness in that body region 6. Some cells are known as suicide genes i) Pre-programmed into the cell ii) The genes code for proteins responsible for killing cells under certain conditions a) Normal finger and toe development in human embryos b) There is a threat to the organism i. e.g., a cell is infected with a virus 7. Cancer: cells with abnormal genetic material that are dividing uncontrollably and can spread to other body parts i) Tumour: an abnormal clump or group of mutated cells that have divided repeatedly and excessively ii) Cell division in healthy tissue: a) Carefully controlled by chemical messages that pass from cell to cell b) When cells mature and die, other cells are stimulated to divide and replace the dead cells c) Rate of cell division = rate of cell death iii) Abnormal cell division: a) Cells divide much more often and the cycle continues with their cells and their cells cells b) Forms a tumour and further changes to the clump can result in cancer c) Cancer cells break away, move into the circulatory system, and spread to a new location in the body 8. Cells must be attached to a surface when they divide 9. Most normal cells undergo 20 to 30 rounds of cell division i) More may result in a greater chance of cell mutation ii) After this, cells carry out programmed suicide a) Cancer cells make an enzyme called telomerase which allows them to keep dividing i. May also disable cells to produce or recognize suicide-causing proteins 10. Cancer cells must have several mutations before cell division control is completely lost i) Mutations occur because of: a) Chance b) Inherited genetics c) Contact with mutagens 8

ii)

i.

Carcinogens: mutagens that lead to cancer a. e.g., asbestos, tobacco smoke, human papilloma virus (HPV)