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dy
1 = 2x
dx [order = 1, degree = 1]
F
Gdy I
J
2
Fdy I
+ 3GJ+ 2 = 0
2
Hdx K Hdx K [order = 1, degree = 2]
1
General solution and particular solution
A solution of a D.E. is a relation between the dependent and independent variables
satisfying the given equation identically.
The general solution will involve arbitrary constants equal to the order of the D.E.
If the arbitrary constants present in the solution are evaluated by using a set of given
conditions then the solution so obtained is called a particular solution. In many physical
problems these conditions can be formulated from the problem itself.
Note : Basic integration and integration methods are essential prerequisites for this
chapter.
Solution of differential equations of first order and first degree
Recollecting the definition of the order and the degree of a D.E., a first order and first
degree equation will be the form
dy
dx
bg bg bg
= f x, y or M x, y dx + N x, y dy = 0
We discuss mainly classified four types of differential equations of first order and first
degree. They as are as follows :
• Variables separable equations
• Homogenous equations
• Exact equations
• Linear equations
2
Example –1
Solve :
b g
e x y − 1 dx + 2 e x + 4 dy= 0
>> e b
y − 1g x
dx + 2 e x
+ 4 dy= 0
Dividing throughout by (y-1) (ex + 4) we get,
ex dy
dx + 2 =0 Variables are separated
x
e +4 y − 1
⇒ zx
ex
e +4
dx + 2
dy
y −1
=c z
i.e. log e x + 4 + 2 log y − 1 = c
or log e x + 4 + log y − 1 2 = c
i.e. log e x + 4 y − 1 2
bg
= log k say
or e x + 4 y − 1 2
= k is the required solution
Example 2
Solve
dy
dx
= x e y − x given that y 0 = 0
2
bg
dy dy
= x e y − x or = x ey e− x
2 2
>>
dx dx
dy
i.e. y = x e − x dx by separating the variables.*
2
e
z z
⇒ e − y dy − x e − x dx = c
2
z
i.e. − e − y dy − x e − x dx = c
2
Put − x 2 = t ∴− 2 x dx = dt or − x dx = dt 2
Hence we have, − e − y + e t dt 2 = c z
et
i e − e− y + =c
2
e−x
2
* For animation
3
The general solution becomes
1 1
− 1 = c or c = −
2 2
Now the general solution becomes
e− x
2
1
− e− y = −
2 2
e j
or e − x + 1 = 2e − y is the particular solution.
2
Example –3
dy
Solve : x y = 1 + x + y + xy
dx
dy
>> x y = 1 + x + y + xy
dx
dy
i.e., xy = 1 + x + y 1 + x
dx
dy
i.e., xy = 1 + x 1 + y
dx
ydy 1 + x
or = dx by separating the variables.*
1+ y x
⇒ z y
1+ y
dy − z 1+ x
x
dx = c
or z 1 + y − 1
1+ y
z 1
z
dy − dx − 1 dx = c
x
i.e., z1 dy − z 1
1+ y
dy − log x − x = c
Example – 4 :
dy dy
Solve : y − x = y2 +
dx dx
>> Rearranging the given equation we have,
4
dy
y − y2 = x + 1
dx
dx dy
or = by separating the variables.*
x + 1 y − y2
⇒ z dx
= z dy
x + 1 y 1 − y
=c
b gz
i.e. log x + 1 −
dy
y 1 − y
=c 1
We have to employ the method of partial fractions for the second term of the above.
1 A B
Let + +
y(1 − y ) y 1 − y
b g
⇒ 1= A 1 − y + B y
Put y = 0 1 = A
Put y =1 1 = B
∴ zb g z z
dy
y 1− y
=
1
y
dy +
1
1− y
dy
or − z = − z dy + z
dy 1 −1
yb
1 − yg y
dy
1− y
b g F
log x + 1 + log G1 − yI
Hy JK= c
L( x + 1) (1 − y) O
or log M
N y P = log k say
Q
∴ x + 1) (1 − y )= ky, is the required solution.
Example – 5 :
dy
Solve : tan y = cos( x + y ) + cos ( x − y )
dx
>> The given equation on expanding terms in the R. H.S. becomes
dy
tan y = cos x cos y − sin x sin y + cos x cos y + sin x sin y
dx
dy
i e tan y = 2 cos x cos y
dx
5
tan y
or dy= 2 cos x dx by separating the variables.*
cos y
z z
⇒ tan y. sec y dy − 2 cos x dx = c
∴ sec y − 2 sin x = c is the required solution.
Session – 2
Equations reducible to the variables separable form
Some differential equations can be reduced to the variables separable from by taking a
suitable substitution. We present a few examples.
Example – 6
Solve : cos (x + y + 1) dx – dy = 0
dy
>> We have = cos ( x + y +1)
dx … (1)
dt dy dt dy
Put t = x + y +1 ∴ =1+ or −1=
dx dx dx dx
dt dt
Now (1) becomes − 1 = cos t or = 1 + cos t
dx dx
i.e.
dt
1 + cos t
= dx ⇒
dt
z
1 + cos t
− dx =c z
i.e. z2 cosdt t 2
2
− x = c or z12 sec t 2 dt − x = c
2
i.e. tan (t / 2) − x = c
F
Gx + y + 1I
i.e. tan
H 2 JK− x = c is the required solution.
Example – 7
dy
Solve : = x tan y − x + 1
dx
dy
>> = x tan ( y − x ) + 1 .... (1)
dx
dt dy dt dy
Put t = y − x ∴ = − 1 or + 1=
dx dx dx dx
6
dt dt
Now (1) becomes + 1 = x tan t + 1 or = x tan t.
dx dx
dt
Hence = x dx by separating the variables.*
tan t
z z
∴ cot t dt − x dx =c
x2
i.e. log (sin t ) − =c
2
x2
Thus log sin ( y − x ) − is the required solution.
2
Example – 8
Solve : x + 2 y dx − dy = dx + dy
>> Rearranging the terms in the given equation we have,
x + 2 y − 1 dx = x + 2 y + 1 dy
dy x + 2 y − 1
or = 1
dx x + 2 y + 1
Put t = x + 2 y
dt dy F
G IJ
1 dt dy
∴
dx
=1 + 2
dx H K
or
2 dx
−1 =
dx
1 Fdt I t − 1
The d.e becomes G − 1J =
2H dx K t + 1
dt t − 1
∴ =2 +1
dx t + 1
dt 3t − 1
i.e., =
dx t + 1
or
t +1
3t − 1
dt =dx ⇒ z t +1
3t − 1
z
dt − dx = c
i. e., z t +1
3t − 1
dt − x = c
… (2)
Let t + 1 = l(3t −1) + m
or t + 1 = ( 3l ) t + ( −l+m)
⇒ 3 l =1 and − l+ m = 1
Hence l = 1 3 and − 1 3 + m = 1 or m = 4 3
∴t + 1 = 1 3 . 3t − 1 + 4 3
Thus (2) can be written as
7
i.e. z1 3 33t t−−11 + 4 3 dt − x = c
i.e. z 1 dt + z
1 4 dt
− x=c
3 3 3t − 1
t 4
i.e. + log (3t − 1) − x = c
3 9
x + 2y 4
i.e. + log (3 x + 6 y − 1) − x = c
3 9
2 4
i.e. y − x + log 3x + 6 y − 1 = c is the required solution.
3 9
Example – 9 :
dy x + y + 1
Solve : =
dx 2 x + 2 y + 3
dy x + y + 1
>> We have =
dx 2( x + y + 3
dt dy dt dy
Put t = x + y ∴ =1 + or −1 =
dx dx dx dx
The given equation becomes,
dt t +1 dt t +1
−1= or =1 +
dx 2t + 3 dx 2t + 3
dt 2t + 3 + t + 1 dt 3t + 4
i.e. = or =
dx 2t + 3 dx 2t + 3
2t + 3
i.e., dt = dx
3t + 4
⇒ z32tt ++ 43 dt − zdx = c
Let 2t + 3 = l (3t + 4) + m
or 2t + 3 = (3l) t + (4l + m)
⇒ 3 l = 2 and 4 l+m= 3
∴ l= 2 3 and 8 / 3 + m= 3 or m = 1 3
Thus 2 t + 3 = 2/3 . (3t+ 4) + 1/3
8
2t 1
i.e., + log 3t + 4 − x = c, where t = x + y
3 9
2 x + y 1
∴ + log 3 x + 3 y + 4 − x = c
3 9
1 1
i.e., (2 y − x ) + log (3x + 3 y + 4) = c is the required solution.
3 9
Example – 10
dy
Solve : x 3 + x 2 y + sec 2 xy = 0
dx
The given d.e. can be written as,
F
G I
Hdx + yJK+ sec xy = 0
dy
x2 x 2
1
dt dy
Put t = xy ∴ =x +y
dx dx
dt
Now (1) becomes, x 2 + sec 2 t = 0
dx
dt dt dx
i.e., x 2 = − sec 2 t or 2
=− 2
dx sec t x
z
∴ cos2 t dt + zdxx = c
2
1 1
i.e., 2xy + sin (2 xy ) − = c, is the required solution.
4 x
9
EXERCISES :
Solve the following differential equations
1 xy 2 + x dx + x 2 y + y dy = 0
2 x 2 − yx 2 dy + y 2 + x 2 y 2 dx = 0
dy F
G dyIJ
3 y − x
dx H
= a y2 +
dx K
4 x + y dx − dy = dx + dy
dy
5 x 4 + x 3 y+ cosec ( xy) = 0
dx
ANSWERS :
1 1 + x 2 1 + y 2 = c
2 log y + 1 y + 1 x − x = c
3 1 − ay a + x = cy
4 y − x + log x + y = c
5 cos ( xy) + 1 / 2 x 2 = c
Session –3
10
Example –1
Solve : x 2 y dx − x 3 + y 3 dy = 0
>> (Observe that the coefficient of dx and dy are homogeneous functions of degree 3)
The given equation can be written as,
dy x2 y
= 3 1
dx x + y 3
dy dv
Put y = v x ∴ =v+ x
dx dx
dv x 2 . vx
Now (1) becomes, v + x =
dx x 3 + v 3 x 3
dv x3 v dv v
i. e., v + x = 3 or x = −v
dx x 1 + v 3 dx 1 + v 3
dv v − v − v 4 dv − v 4
i. e., x = or x =
dx 1 + v3 dx 1 + v 3
1 + v3 − dx
∴ 4
dv = by separating the variables.*
v x
(* for animation)
v −3
i.e., + log v + log x = c
−3
1 y
i.e., − 3 + log (vx ) = c, where v =
3v x
3
x
Thus − 3 + log y = c, is the required solution.
3y
Example –2
Solve : x dy − y dx = x 2 + y 2 dx
L
M O
P
N
>> We have x dy = y + x 2 + y 2 dx
Q
dy y + x 2 + y 2
or = 1
dx x
11
dy dv
Put y = vx ∴ = v+ x
dx dx
dv vx + x 2 + v 2 x 2
Now (1) becomes v + x =
dx x
F
H
dv x v + 1 + v
2 IK dv
i.e., v + x = or x = 1 + v2
dx x dx
dv dx
∴ = by separating the variables. *
1 + v2 x
⇒ z 1dv+ v − zdxx = c
2
Example –3
dy y 2
Solve : x + =y
dx x
dy y2
>> We have x = y−
dx x
2
dy xy − y
or = 1
dx x2
dy dv
Put y = v x ∴ = v + x
dx dx
dv x .v x − v 2 x 2
Now (1) becomes v + x =
dx x2
dv x 2 v − v 2 dv
i.e., v + x = 2
or x = −v 2
dx x dx
dv dx
∴ 2
=− by separating the variables.*
v x
z z
dv
Hence 2 +
v
dx
x
1
= c i.e., − + log x = c, where v =
v
y
x
x
Thus − + log x = c, is the required solution.
y
12
Example – 4
Solve : x tan ( y / x ) − y sec 2 y / x dx + x sec 2 y / x dy = 0
>> The given equation can be written as,
dy y sec 2 y / x − x tan ( y / x )
= 1
dx x sec 2 y / x
y dy dv
Put = v or v = v x ∴ = v + x
x dx dx
2
dv v x sec v − x tan v
Now (1) becomes, v + x =
dx x sec 2 v
dv x v sec 2 v − tan v
i.e., v + x =
dx x sec 2 v
dv v sec 2 v − tan v
i.e., x = −v
dx sec 2 v
dv v sec 2 v − tan v − v sec 2 v
i.e., x =
dx sec 2 v
dv − tan v sec 2 v dx
i.e., x = 2
or dv = −
dx sec v tan v x
Hence z
sec 2 v
tan v
dv+ z
dx
x
=c
Example – 5
dy
Solve : x = y log y − log x + 1
dx
>> The given equation can be written in the form
dy y
= log ( y / x ) + 1 1
dx x
13
dy dv
Put y = v x ∴ = v+ x
dx dx
dv
Now (1) becomes v + x = v log v + 1
dx
dv dv dx
i.e., x = v log v or =
dx v log v x
Hence z1/ v
log v
dv −
dx
x
=c z
i.e., log log v − log x = c = log k say
i.e., log log v = log k + log x
i.e., log log v = log kx
⇒ log v = kx where v = y / x
Thus l g ( y / x ) = k x, is the required solution.
Example – 6
e j F
G xI
Solve : 1 + e x/y dx + e x/y 1 −
H y JKdy = 0
>> (As we observe terms with x / y , we need to express the
equation relating to dx / dy and the terms are homogeneous functions of degree 0.
e j F
Gx I
We have 1 + e x/y dx = e x/y
Hy − 1JKdy
Fx I
e G− 1J
Hy K
x/y
dx
or = 1
dy e1 + e j x /y
dx dv
Put x / y = v or x = v y ∴ = v+y
dy dy
dv e v v − 1
Now (1) becomes, v + y =
dy 1 + e v
dv e v v − 1 dv e v v − e v − v − e v v
i.e., y = − v i.e., y =
dy 1 + e v dy 1 + ev
dv e v + v (1 + e v dv dy
i.e., y =− or =−
dy 1 + ev v
e +v y
14
i.e., log (e v + v ) + log y = c
or log e v + v y = log k (say)
⇒ e v + v y = k, where v = x / y.
Thus y e x/y + x = k, is the required solution.
Session – 4
15
Example –1
Solve : ( x − 4 y − 9) dx + 4 x + y − 2 dy = 0
>> We have 4 x + y − 2 dy = − x − 4 y − 9 dx
dy − x + 4 y + 9
∴ =
dx 4 x + y − 2
Put x = X + h and y = Y + k where h and k are constants to be choosen suitably later.
dy dy dY dX
Now =
dx dY dX dx
dY dy dY
= 1 1 Hence =
dX dx dX
Thus (1) becomes
dY − X + h + 4 Y + k + 9
=
dX 4 X + h + Y + k − 2
dY − X + 4Y + − h + 4 k + 9
i.e., = 2
dX 4 X + Y + 4 h + k − 2
Let us choose h and k such that
− h + 4 k + 9 = 0 and 4 h + k − 2 = 0
Solving these equations we get, h = 1 and k = −2
dY − X + 4Y
Thus (2) becomes = 3
dX 4 X + Y
dY dV
Put Y = VX ∴ =V + X
dX dx
dV − X + 4VX
Now (3) becomes, V + X =
dX 4 X + VX
dV X −1 + 4V dV −1 + 4V
i. e., V + X = or X = −V
dX X 4 + V dX 4+V
dV −1 + 4V − 4V − V 2 dV − 1 + V 2
i. e., X = i.e., X =
dX 4+V dX 4 +V
4 + V dV dX
∴ 2
=− by separating the variables.*
1+ V X
16
⇒4 z1 +dVV + z1V+dVV + zdXX = c
2 2
1
i.e., 4 tan −1 V + log (1 + V 2 + log X = c
2
−1
i.e., 8 tan V + log (1 + V 2 + 2 log X = 2c
i.e., 8 tan −1 V + log (1 + V 2 X 2 = 2c, where V = Y / X
Example – 2
dy x + 2 y − 3
Solve : =
dx 2 x + y − 3
dy x + 2 y − 3
>> We have = 1
dx 2 x + y − 3
Put x = X + h and y = Y + k, where h and k are constants to be chosen suitably later.
dy dy dY dX
∴ =
dx dY dX dx
dY dy dY
= 1 1 Hence =
dX dx dX
dY X + h + 2 Y + k − 3
Thus (1) becomes, =
dX 2 X + h + Y + k − 3
dY X + 2Y + h + 2 k − 3
i. e., =
dX 2 X + Y + 2h + k − 3 ……(2)
Let us choose h and k such that,
h+ 2 k − 3 = 0 and 2 h + k − 3 = 0
Solving these equations we get h = 1 and k = 1
dY X + 2Y
Thus (2) becomes = 3
dX 2 X + Y
17
dY dV
Put Y = VX ∴ =V+X
dX dX
dV X + 2VX
Now (3) becomes V + X =
dX 2 X + VX
dV X 1 + 2V
i.e., V + X =
dX X 2 + V
dV 1 + 2V dV 1 − V 2
or X = − V or X =
dX 2 + V dX 2 + V
2+V dX
∴ 2
dv = by separating the variables.*
1− V X
⇒2 z dV
1− V 2 z z
+
V dV
1− V 2
−
dX
X
=c
1 F
G 1+ VIJ 1
i. e., 2
2
log
H K
1− V
− log (1 − V 2 − log X = c
2
F1 + V I
i. e., 2 log G J − log (1 − V − 2 log X = 2c
H1− VK
2
F1 + V I 2
i.e., log G J − log (1 − V X = 2c
H1− VK
2 2
or log M
L (1 + V 2 O
P
= log k say
N(1 − V 2
(1 − V 2
X Q 2
(1 + V (X +Y) Y
⇒ = k or = k since V =
3 2
(1 − V X X −Y
3
b g X
ut X = x − h = x − 1 and Y = y − k = y − 1
3
Thus x + y − 2 = k x − y is the required solution.
Exercises :
Solve the following equations:
1 x 3 + y 3 dx = xy x + y dy
2 x + y log x − y log y dx − x log x − log y dy = 0
3 Sin 2 ( x / y) y dx − x dy = y dy
4 y − x − 4 dx = y + x − 2 dy
5 3 x − y − 1 dy + 2 x − y dx = 0
18
Answers :
1 y / x + log y − x = c
2 log x + y / x log ( y / x ) − 1 = c
x 1
3. − sin (2 x y) − log y = c
2y 4
4 log ( x + 1)2 + y − 3 2
+ 2 tan −1 y − 3 x + 1 = c
5 x + y − 1 4 = c 4 x − 2 y − 1
Session - 5
We say that M (x, y) dx+N (x, y) dy = 0 is an exact differential equation if there exists a
function f (x, y) such that
df = M (x, y) dx+N (x, y) dy.
The necessary and the sufficient condition for the D.E. M (x, y) dx + N (x, y) dy = 0 to be
an exact equation is
M N
=
y x
Further the solution of the exact equation is given by
zMdx + zNbg
y dy = c
where, in the first term we integrate M (x, y) w.r.t x keeping y fixed and N (y) indicate
the terms in N not containing x.
Example –1
b g
Solve : [ y 1 + 1 x + cos y dx + x + log x − x sin y dy = 0
>> Let M = y b
1 + 1 xg
+ cos y and N = x + log x − x sin y
M 1 N 1
∴ = 1 + − sin y and = 1 + − sin y
y x x x
M N
Since = the given equation is exact.
y x
z z bg
The solution is M dx+ N y dy = c
L
i.e., z
MyG
F1 + 1 IJ + cos yO dx + z
NH x K P Q 0 dy= c
19
Example –2
dy y cos x + sin y+ y
Solve : + =0
dx sin x + x cos y + x
>> The given equation is put in the form,
by cos x +sin y+ ygdx + bsin x + x cos y + xgdy = 0
Let M = y cos x + sin y+ y and N = sin x + x cos y + x
M N
∴ = cos x + cos y+ 1 and = cos x + cos y+ 1
y x
M N
Since = the given equation is exact.
y x
z bg
z
The solution is M dx + N y dy = c
i. e., zby cos x +sin y+ ygdx = z0 dy= c
Thus y sin x + x sin y + xy = c, is the required solution.
Example – 3
e 2
j e 2
j
Solve : y 2 e xy + 4 x 3 dx + 2 xye xy − 3 y 2 dy = 0
2 2
>> Let M = y 2 e xy + 4 x 3 and N = 2 x y e xy − 3 y 2
M 2 2 N 2 2
∴ = y 2 e xy 2 xy +e xy 2 y , = 2 x y e xy y 2 + 2 ye xy
y x
M 2 2 N 2 2
i.e., = 2 xy 3 e xy + 2 ye xy and = 2 xy 3 e xy + 2 ye xy
y x
M N
Since = the given equation is exact.
y x
z z
The solution is M dx + N y dy= c
2
e xy
i.e., y 2 + x 4 − y 3 = c
2
y
2
Thus e xy + x 4 − y 3 = c, is the required solution.
20
The procedure to find such a factor is as follows.
Suppose that, for the equation M dx + N dy = 0
M N
≠ , then we take their difference.
y x
1 F
GM NI
J = f bg
1 FM
G NI
J = gbyg
If
N Hy x K
− x or
M Hy
−
xK
then e z bg or e zbg
f x dx − g y dy
is an integrating factor.
Example – 4
b g
Solve : (4 xy + 3 y 2 − x ) dx + x x + 2 y dy = 0
Let M = 4 xy + 3 y 2 − x and N = x x + 2 y = x 2 + 2 xy
M N
= 4 x + 6 y and = 2 x + 2 y. (The equation is not exact.)
y x
M N
Consider − = 2 x + 4 y = 2 x + 2 y close to N.
y x
F
G N I 2 x + 2 y
bg
Hy x JK= x x + 2 y
1 M 2
Now − = = f x
N x
Hence e z bg is an integrating factor.
f x dx
z dx 2
e z bg = e x = e z2 log x = e zlog x
2
f x dx
= x2
Multiplying the given equation by x 2 we now have,
M = 4 x 3 y + 3 x 2 y 2 − x 3 and N = x 4 + 2 x 3 y
z
Solution is given by M dx + N y dy = c z
Thus z(4 x y + 3x y
3 2 2
− x ) dx + z
3
0 dy = c
4 x4 3 2
i.e., x y + x y − = c, is the required solution.
4
21
Example – 5
b g b g
Solve : y 2 x − y + 1 dx + x 3 x − 4 y + 3 dy = 0
>> Let M = y b
2 x − y + 1g
and N = xb
3 x − 4 y + 3g
i.e., M = 2 xy − y 2 + y and N = 3 x 2 − 4 xy + 3 x
M N
= 2 x − 2 y + 1 = 6x − 4y + 3
y x
M
y
−
N
x
b g
= −4 x + 2 y − 2 = −2 2 x − y + 1 near to M.
F N I −2 b2 x − y + 1g 2
G J = − = gbg
1 M
Now,
M Hy − x K yb
=
2 x − y + 1g y
y
z
− g y dy
z2y dy y2
Hence I. F = e e = e 2 log y = e log = y2
Multiplying the given equation with y 2 we now have,
M = 2 x y 3 − y 4 + y 3 and N = 3 x 2 y 2 − 4 xy 3 + 3 xy 2
z
The solution is M dx + N y dy = c z bg
i.e., ze2 x y 3
− y4 + y jdx + z
3
0 dy = c
EXERCISES:
Solve the following differential equations
1. cos x (ey +1)dx + sin x eydy = 0
2. [4x3 y2+ y cos (xy)] dx+[2x4y+x cos (xy)] dy =0
3 xy 2 + x − 2 y + 3 dx + x 2 y dy = 2 x + y dy ; y 1 = 1
b g
4 y x + y + 1 dx + x x + 3 y + 2 dy = 0
ANSWERS:
22
1 sin x e y + 1 = c
bg
2 x 4 y 2 + sin xy = c
x 2 y2 x 2
3 + − 2 xy + 3 x − y 2 = 1
2 2
2 2
x y
4 + xy 3 + xy 2 = c
2
5 x 6 + x 4 y 3 + 3 x 4 y = 15
Session – 6
Linear Equations
A differential equation of the form
dy
+ Py = Q
dx …(1)
where P and Q are functions of x only is called a linear equation in ‘y’.
z
y e zP dx = Q e zP dx dx + c
is the solution of the linear equation (1).
An equation of the form :
dx
+ Px = Q ... 2
dy
where P and Q are functions of y is called a linear equation in x.
The solution can simply be written by interchanging the role of x and y.
z
i.e.. x e zP dy = Q e zP dy dy + c
is the solution for the linear equation (2)
Working procedure for problems
• The given equation must be first put in the form conformal to the standard
form of the linear equation in x or y.
• The expression for P and Q is to be written by simple comparison.
• We assume the associated solution and we only need to tackle the R.H.S. part
of the solution to finally arrive at the required solution.
23
Example – 1
dy
Solve : + y cot x = cos x
dx
dy
>> + y cot x = cos x is of the form
dx
dy
+ Py = Q, where P = cot x and Q = cos x
dx
∴ e zP dx = e zcot x dx = e zlog (sin x = sin x
z
The solution is y e zP dx = Q e zP dx dx + c
z
i.e., y sin x = cos x. sin x dx + c
y sin x = z
sin 2 x
i.e., dx + c
2
− cos 2 x
Thus y sin x = + c , is the required solution.
4
Example – 2
Solve : 2 y' cos x + 4 y sin x = sin 2 x given that y b 3g= 0
>> Dividing the given equation by 2cos x, we have
dy
+ 2 tan x y = sin x sin 2 x = 2 cos x sin x
dx
dy
This is of the form + Py = Q, where P = 2 tan x and Q = sin x
dx
e zpdx = e z2 tan x dx = e z2 log (sec x ) = sec 2 x
z
The solution is y e zP dx = Q e zP dx dx + c
z
i.e., y sec 2 x = sin x. sec 2 x dx + c
i.e., y sec 2 x =ztan x sec x + c
Thus y sec 2 x = sec x dx + c, is the general solution. ..... (1)
Consider y b 3g= 0 That is y = 0 when x = 3
Hence (1) becomes 0 = 2 + c or c = −2
Thus y sec 2 x = sec x − 2, is the required particular solution.
24
Example – 3
Solve : (1 + y 2 )dx + x − tan −1 y dy = 0
dx tan −1 y − x
>> We have =
dy 1 + y2
dx x tan −1 y
or + =
dy 1 + y 2 1 + y 2
dx
This is of the form + Px = Q
dy
1 tan −1 y zP dy = e tan −1y
Here P = and Q = ; e
1 + y2 1 + y2
The solution is given by x e zP dy = Q e zP dy dy + c z
−1
i.e., x e tan
−1
y
= ztan
1+ y
y
e 2
tan −1 y
dy + c
1
By putting tan −1 y = t, we obtain dy = dt
1 + y2
∴ x e tan
−1
y
z
= t e t dt + c
−1
i.e., x e tan y
= t e t − e t + c, by parts.
−1 −1
Thus x e tan y
= e tan y
tan −1 y − 1 + c, is the required solution.
25
dy
Form (ii) : + P y = Q y n where P and Q are functions of x.
dx
This equation is called as Bernoulli' s equation y.
We first divide the equation throughout by y n to obtain
1 dy
+ P y1− n = Q ..... 1
y n dx
dy dt 1 dy 1 dt
Put y1− n = t ∴ 1 − n y − n = or n =
dx dx y dx 1 − n dx
1 dt
Hence (1) becomes, + P t=Q
1 − n dx
dt
or + 1 − n P . t = 1 − n Q which is a linear equation in t.
dx
dx
Similarly + P x = Q x n , where P and Q are functions of y is called
dy
Bernoulli' s equation x. We first divide by x n and later put x 1− n = t
to obtain a linear equation in t.
Example - 4
dy
Solve : tan y + tan x = cos y cos2 x
dx
>> Dividing the given equation by cos y we have
dy
sec y tan y + sec y tan x = cos2 x 1
dx
dy dt
Now, put sec y = t ∴ sec y tan y =
dx dx
dt
Hence (1) becomes + t tan x = cos2 x
dx
dt
This equation is of the form + Pt = Q, where we have,
dx
P = tan x and Q = cos 2 x
∴ e zP dx = e ztan x dx = e zlog (sec x = sec x
z
The solution is t e zP dx = Q e zP dx dx + c
z 2
i.e., sec y sec x = cos x . sec x dx + c
i.e., sec y . sec x = z
cos x dx + c
Thus sec y sec x = sin x + c, is the required solution.
26
Example – 5
dy y
Solve : + = y2 x
dx x
>> Dividing the given equation by y 2 we have,
1 dy 1
2
+ =x 1
y dx y x
1 −1 dy dt
Put =t ∴ 2 =
y y dx dx
− dt t
Hence (1) becomes + =x
dx x
dt t
or − = −x
dx x
dt
This equation is a linear equation of the + Pt = Q,
dx
−1
where P = and Q = − x
x
z1x dx
∴ e zP dx = e
− 1
= e − log x =
x
The solution is t e zP dx z
= Q e zP dx dx + c
i.e., t .
1
x
z1
= − x . dx + c
x
1
Thus = − x + c, is the required solution.
xy
Example – 6
dy
Solve : xy 1 + xy 2 =1
dx
dx
>> Consider = x y + x 2 y3
dy
dx
or − xy = x 2 y 3 Dividing by x 2 we get,
dy
1 dx 1
2
− y = y3 1
x dy x
1 −1 dx dt
Put =t ∴ 2 =
x x dy dy
27
dt dt
Hence (1) becomes − − t y = y 3 or + t y = − y3
dy dy
dt
This equation is of the form + P t = Q where,
dy
P = y and Q = − y 3 ∴ e zP dy = e zy dy = e y
2
2
The solution is t e zP dy = Q e zP dy dy + c z
i. e., t e y
2
2
z
= − y3 e
y2 2
dy + c
2
Put y 2 = u ∴ y dy = du
Also y 2 y dy = y 2 du or y 3 dy = 2u du
∴ t ey
2
2
z
= −2 u e u du+c
y2 2
i. e., t e = −2 u e u − e u + c , on integration by parts.
ey 2
2
y2 F I
G
H JK
2
Thus = 2 ey 2 1 − + c , is the required solution.
x 2
EXERCISES
Solve the following equations
dy
1 + y cot x = 4 x cosec x ; y 2 = 0
dx
dy
2 sin 2 x − 2 y = tan x
dx
b
3 x dy + y − x − xy tan x dx = 0 g
dy y
4 + = x 2 y6
dx x
5 y 4 − 2 xy dx + 3 x 2 dy = 0
Answers:
1 y sin x = 2 x 2 − 2
2
2 y cot x = log tan x + c
3 x y cos x = cos x + x sin x + c
1 5
4 5 5 − 2 = c
x y 2x
5 x 2 = y 3 x + 2
28
Session – 7
Orthogonal Trajectories
Definition : If two family of curves are such that every member of one family intersects
every member of the other family at right angles then they are said to be orthogonal
trajectories of each other.
Example –1
or 2 x dx + y dy = 0
z z
⇒ 2 x dx + y dy = c
y2
i.e., x 2 + = c or 2 x 2 + y 2 = 2c = k say
2
Thus 2 x 2 + y 2 = k is the required O.T.
29
Example – 2
z z
⇒ y dy = − x dx + a 2 z dx
x
+c
y2 − x 2
i.e., = + a 2 log x + c
2 2
or x + y − 2 a 2 log x − b = 0 is the required orthogonal trajectories. Here b = 2c
2 2
Example-3
30
F
G yy I
y 2 = 2 yy1 x +
H 2 JKor y = 2 xy + yy
1 2
1 1
Example –4
z z
i.e., log r + sec d + tan d = c
i.e., log r + log (sec + tan ) + log (sec = c
i.e., log r b
sec + tan g
sec = log b (say)
F 1 sin IJ 1 = b
⇒ rG +
Hcos cos Kcos
r 1 + sin r 1 + sin
i.e., 2
= b or =b
cos 1 − sin 2
Thus r = b 1 − sin is the required O. T.
31
Example – 5
Find the O.T. of the family rn cos nθ = an
>> We have rn cos n θ = an
⇒ n log r + log (cos n ) = n log a
Differentiating w.r.t θ we have,
n dr F
G
− n sin n IJ 1 dr
rd
+
H cos n K
= 0 i. e.
r d
= tan n
dr d
Replacing by − r 2 we have,
d dr
1 F
G IJ = tan n
d d
r H K
−r 2
dr
or − r
dr
= tan n
d dr
∴ = by separating the variables.
tan n −r
⇒ z z
dr
r
+ cot n d = c
1
i.e., log r + log (sin n ) = c
n
or n log r + log (sin n ) = nc
i.e., log(r n sin n ) = log b (say)
∴ r n sin n = b, is the required O.T.
EXERCISES
Find the orthogonal trajectories of the following family of curves
1 y = ax 2
2 x 2 + y 2 + 2 y + c = 0 being the parameter.
3. Show that the family of parabolas x 2 = 4 a y + a is a self orthogonal.
4. r = a sec 2 2
5 r =a 1 + cos
ANSWERS
1 x 2 + 2 y 2 = c
2. x 2 + y 2 + 2 kx + c = 0 k is arbitrary.
4. r = b cosec 2 2
5 r = b 1 − cos
32
LESSON – 2 Part – C Integral Calculus
Session - 1
Introduction :
We are familiar with various methods of integration, definite integrals and the associated
application of finding the area under a curve.
In this chapter we first discuss reduction formulae and later discuss the method of tracing
cartesian and polar curves. By knowing the shape of a given curve we disucss application
of definite integrals such as area, length or perimeter, surface area of plane curves and
volume of solids.
In all these applications reduction formulae plays a vital role in the evaluation of definite
integrals.
Reduction Formulae
Reduction formulae is basically a recurrence relation which reduces integral of functions
of higher degree in the form of zf x n
dx, zf x m
g x n
dx (where m and n are non negative
Reduction formulae is basically a recurrence relation which reduces integral of functions
of higher degree in the form of zf x n
dx, zf x m
g x n
dx (where m and n are non negative
integers) to lower degree. The successive application of the recurrence relation finally
end up with a function of degree 0 or 1 so that we can easily complete the integration
process.
We discuss certain standard reduction formulae in the form of indefinite integrals and the
evaluation of these with standard limits of integration.
z n
Let In = sin x dx
=z
sin n −1
z
x . sin x dx = u v dx say
We have the rule of integration by parts,
zu v dx = uzvdx − zzv dx.u' dx
∴ I = sin x − cos x − z
n
n −1
− cos x n − 1 sin x cos x dxn−2
= − sin x cos x + n − 1 z
n −1 n−2
sin x cos x dx 2
= − sin x cos x + n − 1 z
n −1 n−2
sin x 1 − sin x ) dx 2
= −sin x cos x + n − 1 z
n −1
sin x dx − n − 1 z
n−2
sin x dx n
33
i.e. In = − sin n −1 x cos x + n − 1 In − 2 − n − 1 In
i.e. In 1 + n − 1 = − sin n −1 x . cos x + n − 1 In − 2
−sin n −1 x . cos x n − 1
z
∴ In = sin n x dx =
n
+
n
In − 2 1
z
∴ I4 = sin 4 x dx =
−sin 3 x cos x 3
4
+ I2
4
We need to apply the result (1) again by taking n = 2
i.e., I4 =
−sin 3 x cos x 3 −sin x cos x 1
+ + I0
R
S U
V
4 4 2 2 T W
We cannot find I0 from (1). But basically we have
z z
I0 = sin 0 x dx = 1 dx = x
=z
3
−sin x cos x 3
4 3x
Thus I4 sin x dx = − sin x cos x + +c
4 8 8
Corollary :
zsin
2
n
To evaluate x dx
0
zsin
2
n
>> Let In = x dx
0
∴ from (1) In
Lsin
= −M
n −1
x . cos x O
P +
2
n −1
I
N n Q n
0
n−2
34
n−3
i.e., In − 2 = In − 4
n−2
n −1 n − 3
Hence In = In − 4
n n−2
n−5
Similarly from (2) In − 4 = In −6
n−4
n −1 n − 3 n − 5
Hence In = In −6 again by back substitution.
n n−2 n−4
Continuing like this the reduction process will end up as below.
n −1 n − 3 n − 5 2
In = I1 if n is odd
n n−2 n−4 3
n −1 n − 3 n − 5 1
= I0 if n is even
n n−2 n−4 2
zsin x dx = − cos x = − 0 − 1 = 1
2
2
But I1 = 0
0
= zsin x dx = zdx = x
2 2
0 2
and I0 = 0
0 20
Thus we have,
R
|
n −1 n − 3
n−5 2
if n is odd
zsin x dx = S
2
n n n − 2 n−4 3
0 |Tn n− 1 nn −− 23 n−5 1
if n is even
n−4 2 2
Note :
z
The reduction formula for cos n x dx can be established in a similar way.
The result is as follows.
n −1
zcos x dx = cos xn . sin x + n n− 1 I
n
n−2
0 0 0 0
35
Session – 2
Reduction formula for tan n x dx and z ztan
0
n
x dx, where n is a positive integer.
z
Let In = tan n x dx
=ztan n−2
z
x . tan 2 x dx = tan n − 2 x sec 2 x − 1 dx
=ztan n−2
x sec 2
x dx − z
tan n−2
x dx
=z
tan n−2
x sec 2 x dx − In − 2
For the first term, put tan x = t ∴ sec 2 x dx = dt
t n −1
z
Now In = t n − 2 dt −In − 2 =
n −1
− In − 2
tan n −1 x
Thus In = − In − 2 1
n −1
ztan x dx
4
n
Next, let In =
0
Ltan x O
=M
n −1 4
Nn − 1 P
∴ In − I by using (1)
Q 0
n−2
ztan
4 1
n
Thus In = x dx = − In − 2 2
0 n −1
1
or In + In − 2 = or n In +1 + In −1 = 1
n −1
Illustration
z
(i) To find tan 5 x dx
z
>> I5 = tan x dx =
tan 4 x
4
5
− I3 by using (1).
i.e., =
tan 4 x R
S
−
tan 2 x U
V
− I1
4 T 2 W
But I = z
1 tan x dx = z 1
tan x dx = log (sec x )
∴z
4 2
5 tan x tan x
tan x dx = − + log (sec x ) + c
4 2
Note : The reduction formula for z cot x dx can be established in a similar wayn
36
− cot n −1 x
z
In = cot n x dx =
n −1
− In − 2
z
3. Reduction formula for sec n x dx where n is a positive integer
z
>> Let In = sec n x dx
=z
sec n−2
x sec 2 dx
Integrating by parts we have,
z
In = sec n −2 x tan x − tan x . n − 2 sec n −3 x sec x tan x dx
= sec n−2
z
x tan x − n − 2 sec n − 2 x tan 2 x dx
= sec n−2
x tan x − n − 2 z
sec n−2
x sec 2 x − 1 dx
= sec n − 2 x tan x − n − 2 z
sec n
z
x dx + n − 2 sec n − 2 x dx
In = sec n −2 x tan x − n − 2 In + n − 2 In − 2
i. e., In 1 + n − 2 = sec n−2 x tan x + n − 2 In − 2
Lsecn− x tan x O
=M
2
P Fn − 2 I
+ G JI
4
N n − 1 Q Hn − 1 K
∴ In n−2
0 …(1)
But sec ( / 4) = 2 tan ( / 4) = 1, sec 0 = 1, tan 0 = 0
z
/4 2 n−2 n−2 F
G IJ
H K
n
Thus sec x dx = + In − 2 2
0 n −1 n −1
Illustrations
z
(i) To find sec 5 x dx
z
>> I5 = sec 5 x dx =
sec 3 x tan x 3
4
+ I3 by using (1).
4
3
sec x tan x 3 sec x tan x 1
+ + I1
R
S U
V
i.e., =
4 4 2 2 T W
z
But I1 = sec x dx = log (sec x + tan x )
37
z 5
∴ sec x dx =
sec 3 x tan x 3
4
3
+ sec x tan x + log (sec x + tan x ) + c
8 8
zsec
4
4
(ii) To evaluate x dx
0
e2 j + 2 I
2 R
| e 2j U
|= 2 + 2 = 4
0
>> I 4 =
3 3
S + 0V
2 2
= +
|T 1 |W3 3 3
2
3 3
Session – 3
z zsin
/2
Reduction formula for sin m x cos n x dx and m
x cos n x dx
0
where m and n are positive integers.
z
Let I m, n = sin m x cos n x dx
=zsin x sin x cos x dx = z
m −1 n
uv dx say
We have zuv dx = u z v dx − z
zv dx.u' dx
n +1
Here z
v dx = z
− cos x n
sin x cos dx = by putting cos x = t
n +1
Now I = (sin x G
F−cos x I− z−cos x m − 1 sin x cos x dx
n +1 n +1
Hn + 1 JK n + 1
m −1 m−2
m, n
sin m −1 x cos n +1 x m − 1
i. e., = −
n +1
+
n +1
z
sin m − 2 x cos n + 2 x dx
m −1 n +1
=−
sin x cos x m − 1
n +1
+
n +1
z
sin m − 2 x cos n x cos 2 x dx
m −1 n +1
=−
sin x cos x m − 1
n +1
+
n +1
z
sin m − 2 x cos n x (1 − sin 2 x dx
sin m −1 x cos n +1 x m − 1
=−
n +1
+
n +1
z
sin m − 2 x cos n x dx −
m −1
n +1
z
sin m x cos n x dx
38
−sin m −1 x cos n +1 x m − 1 m −1
Im, n = + I m − 2 n − Im, n
n +1 n +1 n +1
L
M
m −1 O 1
N P
i. e., Im, n 1 +
n +1 Q =
n +1
−sin m −1 x cos n +1 x + m − 1 Im − 2 n
L
M
m + nO 1
Nn + 1 P
m −1 n +1
Im, n
Q= n + 1 −sin x cos x + m − 1 I m − 2 n
m −1 n +1
=z m sinn x cos x m − 1
∴ Im, n sin x cos x dx = − + I m −2 n
m+n m+n …(1)
m n m n −1
Note : If we decompose sin x cos x = sin x cos x cos x and integrate by parts taking
u = cos n −1 x, v = sin m x cos x we can obtain
−sin m +1 x . cos n −1 x n − 1
Im, n = + Im, n −2 2
m+n m+n
Note:
m − 1 m − 3 n − 1 n − 3
zsin
2
m
x cos n x dx = ×k
0 m + n m + n − 2 m + n − 4
where k = π / 2 when m and n are even. This is known as Walli’s rule.
Illustrations
z 4 2 3 1
2 8
i sin 5 x cos 4 x dx = =
0 9 × 7 × 5 × 3 × 1 315
zsin 6 4 2 4 2
2 1
7
ii x cos 5 x dx = =
0 12 × 10 × 8 × 6 × 4 × 2 120
zsin 5 3 1 4 2
2 8
6
iii x cos 5 x dx = =
0 11 × 9 × 7 × 5 × 3 × 1 693
zsin 7 5 3 1 5 3 1
2 5
8
iv x cos6 x dx = =
0 14 × 12 × 10 × 8 × 6 × 4 × 2 2 4096
Session – 4
Note for problems : Basic properties of definite integrals are the prerequisites for
working problems on reduction formulae.
Example –1
Evaluate zx sin
0
8
x dx
z
Let I = x sin 8 x dx
0
39
z z
a a
We have the property f x dx = f a − x dx
0 0
∴I = z − x sin − x
0
8
dx =z
0
− x sin 8 x dx
= zsin x dx − zx sin x dx
0
8
0
8
zsin x dx − I or 2 I = 2 zsin
2
8 8
I= x dx by a property.
0 0
7 5 3 1
Hence I = by reduction formula.
8 6 4 2 2
35 2
Thus I =
256
Example –2
0
sin 6 x = 2 sin 3 x cos 3 x sin = 2 sin 2 cos ( 2
0
Put 3 x = y ∴ dx = dy 3
If x = 0 y = 0 If x = 6 y = 2
4L 1 5 3 1 O
I= M Pby reduction formula.
3N 8×6× 4 ×2 2Q
5
Thus I =
192
40
Example – 3
zx 1 − x dx
1
2 2 3 2
>> Let I = z
1
2 2 3 2
x 1− x dx
0
Put x = sin ∴ dx = cos d and varies from 0 to 2
3 2 3 2
1 − x2 = cos 2 = cos3
zsin zsin
2 2
2
∴ I= cos3 cos d = 2
cos 4 d
0 0
1 3 1
Hence I = by reduction formula.
6×4×2 2
Thus I =
32
Example – 4
zx z 2ax − x
x 2 dx
2a 2a
2
Evaluate (i) 2 ax − x 2 dx (ii)
0 0 2
zx
2a
2
>> Let I1 = 2 ax − x 2 dx
0
z4a
2
2
∴ I1 = sin 4 2 a sin cos 4 a sin cos d
=0
zsin
2
= 32 a 4 6
cos 2 d
0
5 3 1
= 32 a 4 by reduction formula.
8×6×4×2 2
5 a4
Thus I1 =
8
41
z 4 a 2 sin 4
2
ii) I2 = 4 a sin cos d
0 2 a sin cos
zsin
2 3 1
= 8 a2 4
d = 8a 2 by reduction formula.
0 4 2 2
3 a2
Thus I2 =
2
Example – 5
z 1 +xx
∞ 4
Evaluate 2 4
dx
0
z x4
∞
>> Let I = 2 4
dx
0 1+ x
z z
/ 2 tan 4 / 2 tan 4
∴ I= 8
sec 2 d = 6
d
= 0 sec = 0 sec
zcos
sin 4
z
2 /2
6
= 4
d = sin 4 cos 2 d
0 cos 0
3 1 1
Hence I = by reduction formula.
6×4×2 2
Thus I =
32
Exercises :
2
0
zx sin 7
x cos 2 x dx
za x4
a
3 dx
2
0 − x2
z 1 +xx
1 3
4 2 4
dx
0
5 z
∞ 6
x
2 9 2
dx
1+ x
0
Answers
1 128 1155 2 16 315 3 3 a 4 16 4 1 24 5 1 7
42
Session –5
Tracing of Curves
Introduction :
This topic gives an insight to the process of finding the shape of a plane curve based on
its equation by examining certain features. Based on these features we can draw a rough
sketch of the curve. It is highly essential to known the shape of the curve to find its
area, length, surface area and volume of solids.
List of important points to be examined for tracing a cartesian curve f (x, y) = 0
1. Symmetry : If the given equation has even powers of x only then the curve is
symmetrical about the y axis and if the given equation has even powers of y only
then the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.
If f (x, y) = f (y, x) then the curve is symmetrical about the line y = x. Also if
f (x, y) = f ( −x, − y) then the curve is symmetrical about the origin.
2. Special points on the curve : If f (0, 0) = 0 then the curve passes through the
origin. In such a case we can find the equations of tangents at the origin by
equating the groups of lowest degree terms in x and y to zero.
The points of intersection of the curve with the x-axis is got by putting y = 0 and
that with the y-axis is got by putting x = 0.
3. Asymptotes : Asymptote of a given curve is defined to be the tangent to the given
curve at infinity. In otherwords these are lines touching the curve at infinity.
Equating the coefficient of highest degree terms in x to zero we get asymptotes
parallel to the x-axis and equating the coefficient of highest degree terms in y to
zero we get asymptotes parallel to the y-axis.
4. Region of existence : Region of existence can be determined by finding out the set
of permissible (real) values x and y. The curve does not lie in the region whenever
x or y is imaginary.
By examining these features we can draw a rough sketch of the curve.
Note : In the case of a parametric curve : x = x (t) and y = y (t), we need to vary the
parameter t suitably to take a note of the variations in x and y so that the curve can be
drawn accordingly.
List of important points to be examined for tracing a polar curve f ( r, θ) = 0
1. Symmetry : f ( r, θ) = f ( r, −θ) then the curve is symmetrical about the initial line
θ = 0 and θ = π.
If f ( r, θ) = f ( r, π −θ) then the curve is symmetrical about the line θ = π / 2 (positive
y-axis)
43
If f ( r, θ) = f ( r, π / 2 −θ) then the curve is symmetrical about the line θ = π / 4 (the line
y = x)
If f ( r, θ) = f ( r, 3 π / 2 −θ) then the curve is symmetrical about the line θ = 3 π / 4 (the
line y = −x)
If f ( r, θ) = f ( −r, θ) then the curve is symmetrical about the pole. (origin)
2. Curve passing through the pole : If r = 0 gives a single value of θ say θ1 between 0
and 2π then the curve passes through the pole once. θ = θ1 is a tangent to the curve at
the pole.
If it gives two values then the curve passes through the pole twice.
3 Asymptote : If r → ∞ as → 0 then the line = 0 is an asymptote.
4. Region of existence : If r is imaginary for θ∈ (α, β) i.e, α< θ<β then the curve does
not exist in the region between θ = α and θ = β.
5. Special points : We can tabulate a set of values of r for convenient values of θ. These
give some specific points through which the curve passes.
By examining these features we can draw a rough sketch of the curve
Example – 1
Trace the curve y2 (a −x) = x3, a > 0
>> We have y2 (a −x) = x3. (This curve is known as cissoid)
We observe the following features of the curve.
1. Symmetry : The equation contain even powers of y.
⇒ the curve is symmetrical about x- axis.
2. Special points : The curve passes through (0, 0).
The given equation is ay2 −xy2=x3.
The lowest degree term is ay2 and ay2 = 0 ⇒ y = 0 which is the equation of x-axis. Hence
x-axis is the tangent to the curve at the origin.
Putting y = 0 we get x = 0 and vice versa. This means that the curve meets the x-axis and
y-axis at the origin.
3. Asymptotes : Equating the co-efficient of the highest degree term in y i.e. coefficient
of y2 being a −x to zero we get x=a which is a line parallel to the y-axis. Hence x=a is an
asymptote. Also coefficient of the highest degree term in x is x3 whose coefficient is 1 ≠ 0.
This implies that there is no asymptote parallel to the x-axis.
4. Region of existence : y2 = x3 / (a −x)
∴ y = x 3 a − x.
44
This is positive if x > 0, a −x > 0 or x < 0, a −x < 0 i.e. x > 0, x < a, x < 0, x > a. Since
a > 0 the second case is not possible. Hence y is real if x > 0 and x < a which implies that
the curve lies in the interval 0 < x < a. Further as x increases y also increases.
Note : Since the curve meets the coordinate axes at the origin only, the origin called a
‘cusp’ with x-axis as the common tangent.
Example – 2
Trace the curve y2 (a −x) = x2 (a + x), a > 0
>> y2 (a −x) = x2 (a + x) (This curve is known as ‘Strophoid’.)
We observe the following features of the curve.
1. Symmetry : The equation contain even powers of y.
⇒ the curve is symmetrical about x- axis.
2. Special points : The curve passes through the origin. The equation of the curve can be
put in the form
a (y2 −x2) −x y2 −x3 = 0
Equating the lowest degree terms to zero we have a (y2 −x2) = 0
Hence y = + x which are the tangents to the curve at the origin. Since there are two
tangents, the origin is called a ‘node’.
Next putting y =0 we get x2 (a + x)= 0 x=0, x = −a.
The points are (0, 0) and ( −a, 0)
Also putting x = 0 we get ay2 = 0 or y = 0 and the point is (0, 0)
Hence we say that the curve intersects x-axis at (0,0) ( −a, 0) and intersects the y-axis at
(0, 0) only.
3. Asymptotes : The co-efficient of the highest degree term in x being x3 is −1 and hence
there is no asymptote parallel to the x-axis. Also the coefficient of the highest degree in
45
y being a −x, a −x = 0 gives x = a. Hence x = a is the only asymptote which is a line
parallel to the y-axis.
4 Region of existence : y = x 2 a + x a − x.
When a+x < 0 and also when a −x < 0 y is imaginary.
Hence we can say that the curve lies between the lines x = −a and x = + a
The shape of the curve is as follows.
Example – 3
Trace the curve a y2 = x2 (a −x), a > 0
We observe the following features of the curve.
1. Symmetry : The equation contain even powers of y and hence the curve is
symmetrical about x- axis.
2. Special points : The curve passes through (0, 0). The equation of the curve is
ay2 −ax2 + x3 = 0. Equating the lowest degree terms to zero we have
a (y2 −x2) = 0 y=+x
These are the equations of the tangents to the curve at the origin.
If y = 0 then x2 (a − x) = 0, or x = 0, x = a and if x = 0, y = 0. Hence the curve meets
the x-axis at (a, 0) and meets the y-axis at (0,0) only.
3. Asymptotes : The coefficient of the highest degree terms in x and y are
respectively 1 and a. Since these are constants, there are no asymptotes.
4. Region of existence : y = x a − x a
y is positive if x > 0 and a −x > 0. x > 0 and x < a or 0 < x < a.
The curve lies between x = 0 and x = a.
46
The shape of the curve is as follows.
Session – 6
Example – 4
Trace the curve r = a sin 3 (Three leaved rose)
We observe the following features of the curve.
f (r, ) f (r, − ) the curve is not symmetrical about the initial line.
f (r, ) f ( −r, ) the curve is not symmetrical about the pole.
f (r, ) f (r, − ) the curve is symmetrical about the line .
r = 0 gives sin 3 0
n or
n
Taking values for n = 0, 1, 2, …..6 we get the corresponding values of
and the curve passes through the pole for these values.
If 0<
r is positive and r = a if
If <
r is positive and r = 0 if
If
< r is negative and r = −a if
These observations implies that r increases from 0 to a as varies from 0 to r
decreases
from a to 0 as varies from to
.
r increases numerically from 0 to a as varies from to
Further f(r
− ) = f(r, ) implies that the curve is symmetrical about the line
= / 6 so that we conclude that there is a loop between the lines and
Similarly we can examine the path of the curve as moves from to and also from
to 2 .
47
Let us tabulate a set of values of r corresponding to some values of
Example – 5
Trace the curve r2 = a2 cos 2 (Lemniscate of Bernoulli)
>> We observe the following features of the curve.
f (r, ) = f (r, − ) the curve is symmetrical about the initial line.
f (r, ) = f ( −r, ) the curve is symmetrical about the pole.
r = 0 gives a2 cos 2 = 0 i.e., cos2 = 0 2
and
and
are the tangents to the curve at the pole.
When = 0, r2 = a2 or r = + a.
Hence the curve meets the initial line at the points (+a, 0) and ( − a, 0).
Since the curve is symmetrical about the initial line it is composed of two loops. r is real
for and . Also r doesnot tend to infinity for any
and hence there are no asymptotes.
48
Application to find area, length and volume of solids of revolution
zy dx
b
A=
x=a
The area (A) between the curves y = f (x) and y = g (x) between x = a and x = b is given
by
z z
b b
A = f x dx − g x dx.
a a
The area (A) called the sectorial area, bounded by a polar curve r = f ( and the lines
and
is given by
A=
1
2
zr d
2
1
2
2. Length : The length (s) of the arc of a curve between two specified points on it for
various types of the curves are given by the following formulae.
Such a process is called rectification and the entire length of the curve is called as the
perimeter of the curve.
(i) Cartesian curve y = f (x) or x = f (y)
b
Fdy I Fdx I
2
s = z 1 + G J dx or z 1 + G J dy
d
2
Fdx I Fdy I
2
s = z G J + G J dt
t2 2
t1Hdt K Hdt K
(iii) Polar curve r = f (
49
z r +Fdr I Fd I
2 2
G
Hd JKd or s = z 1 + r G J dr
2 r2
Hd r K
2 2
s=
= 1 r = r1
3. Surface area : When a curve revolves about the x-axis a surface is generated and
the same is called a surface of revolution. If a curve is bounded by the ordinates
x = a and x = b revolves once completely about the x-axis, the area of the surface
(S) generated is given by
z z ds
b b
S = 2 y ds= 2 y dx
x=a a dx
ds Fdy I
1 + GJ
2
where
dx
=
Hdx K
Similarly the surface area of revolution about the y-axis is given by
z2 z ds
d d
S= x ds = 2 x dy ,
y=c c dy
ds dx F
G IJ 2
where
dy
= 1+
dy HK
In the case of a polar curve the surface area of revolution about the initial line is given by
S= z2
=
2
1
r sin ds= 2 zr sin
2
1
ds
d
d
ds dr F
G IJ 2
where
d
= r2 +
d HK
4. Volume of revolution : The volume (V) of the solid generated by the revolution of the
curve y = f (x) between the ordinates x = a and x = b, about the x-axis is given by
zy dx
b
2
V=
x=a
Similarly if the axis of revolution is the y-axis, the volume of the solid is given by
zx dy
d
2
V=
y=c
Also in the case of a polar curve r = f ( ) the volume (V) of the solid generated is given
by
V=
2
3
z
r 3 sin d (revolution about the initial line)
V=
2
3
z
r 3 cos d (revolution about the line = 2)
50
Session – 7
Example –1
The Astroid : Astroid is the curve represented by the equation
x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3
Its parametric equation is x = a cos3 and y = a sin3 .
We shall find its shape first and then determine the associated area, perimeter, surface
area and the volume.
(a) Trace curve x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3
>> Let us consider its parametric equation :
x = a cos3 y = a sin3 .
We tabulate x, y corresponding to certain angles of in the interval [0, 2
x a 0 −a 0 a
y 0 a 0 −a 0
From the table we conclude that the curve meets the x-axis at the points (a, 0) and (
− a, 0). Also it meets the y-axis at the points (0, a) and (0, − a). Since | cos | < | and |
sin | < 1, we have | x | < a and | y | < a. Hence we infer that the entire curve lies within a
circle of radius ‘a’ having origin as the centre.
Also we have from the cartesian equation of the curve,
f (x, y) = f ( −x, y) ; f (x, y) = f (x, − y) ; f (x, y) = f (y, x)
Hence the curve is symmetrical about the coordinate axes and also about the line y = x.
Taking a note of the values of x and y as advances from one quadrant to the other the
shape of the curve is as follows.
51
(b) Find the area enclosed by astroid x 2/3 + y 2/3 = a 2/3
>> Note : In any problem on applications we need to draw the curve first by briefly
examining the important features.
The curve astroid is symmetrical about the coordinate axes and hence the required area
(A) is equal to four times the area in the first quadrant.
z z ddx d
a a
i.e., A = 4 y dx = 4 y
0 0
dx
We have x = a cos3 y = a sin 3 ∴ = −3a cos 2 sin
d
When x = 0 : a cos3 = 0 or cos3 = 0
x = 1 : a cos3 = a or cos3 = 1
za sin
0
3
∴ A=4 −3 a cos2 sin d
0= 2
zsin
2
= 12 a 2 4
cos 2 d
0
3 1 1
= 12 a 2 by reduction formula.
6×4×2 2
Thus the area ( A) enclosed is 3 a 2 8 sq. units.
Fdx I Fdy I
l = 4 z G J +G J d
2
2 2
∴
Hd K Hd K
=0
52
z 9a cos
2
2 4
=4 sin 2 + 9a 2sin 4 cos 2 d
0
z 9a cos
2
2 2
=4 sin 2 cos 2 + sin 2 d
0
z
2
= 4 3a cos sin d
0
z
/2
= 6 a sin 2 d
0
L−cos 2 O
= 6a M
2
N2 P Q = − 3a cos 0
− cos 0 = −3a −1 − 1 = 6 a
z zy dds d
a 2
∴ S = 2 × 2 y ds = 4
0 =0
ds Fdx I Fdy I
= G J + G J = 3a cos
2 2
But
d Hd K Hd K sin
zsin
2
= 12 a 2 4
cos d
0
3
= 12 a 2 by reduction formula.
5 × 3×1
Thus the required surface area = 12 a 2 / 5 sq. units.
(e) Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the astroid x 2/3+y 2/3= a 2/3
>> Because of the symmetry the required volume (V) is equal to twice the volume of the
solid generated by the curve in the first quadrant about the x-axis.
z y dx = 2 zy ddx d
a a
2 2
∴ V =2×
0 0
a zsin cos d
2
3 7 2
=6
0
53
6 4 2 1
= 6 a3 by reduction formula.
9 × 7 × 5 × 3 ×1
Thus the required volume of the solid is 32 a 3 / 105 cubic units.
Example –2
Cycloid : Cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle which
rolls on a fixed straight line known as the base. Imagine a wheel rolling on a straight line
without slipping. A fixed point on the rim of the wheel traces the cycloid. The parametric
equation of the cycloid can be in the following forms :
i x = a − sin y = a 1 − cos
ii x = a + sin y = a 1 − cos
iii x = a − sin y = a 1 + cos
iv x = a + sin y = a 1 + cos
x 0 a(
) a a(3
) 2a
y 0 a 2a A 0
From the table we can conclude that the curve intersects the x-axis at x = 0 and 2a .
Also, we have y = a (1cos ) and since | cos | < 1 y is non negative. Hence the curve
lies above the x-axis.
Taking a note of the values of x and y as advances in the interval [0, 2 ] the shape of
the curve is as follows. It is called an arch of the curve.
54
(b) Find the area of an arch of the cycloid :
x = a − sin y = a 1 − cos
zy ddx d
2
>> Area A =
=0
z
2
i.e., A = a 1 − cos a 1 − cos d
0
z 1 − cos d
2
= a2 2
z4 sin ( 2 d
2
= a2 4
z zsin
2
∴ A = 8a 2 sin 4 t dt = 8a 2 2 4
t dt
t =0 t =0
3 1
i.e., A = 16 a 2 by reduction formula.
4 2 2
Thus the area enclosed by an arch of the curve on its base is 3 a2 sq.units.
(c) Find the length of an arch the cycloid :
x = a − sin y = a 1 − cos
zFdx I Fdy I
2 2
G
Hd JK+ G
Hd JKd
2
>> Length (l ) =
=0
z a 1 − cos + a sin d
2
2 2 2 2
i.e., l =
0
= a z 2 1 − cos d = a z 2 2 sin (
2 2
2
2 d
0 0
= 2a z
2
L2a cos ( 2 O
sin ( 2 d = − M
2
0 N 1 2 P Q 0
= −4 a cos − cos 0 = −4 a −1 − 1 = 8a
Thus the required length is 8a
55
(d) Find the surface area generated by the revolution of an arch of the cycloid
x = a ( −sin ), y = a (1 −cos ) about the x-axis.
zy dds d
2
>> Surface area ( S = 2
0
ds Fdx I Fdy I 2
= G J + G J = 2 a sin ( / 2)
2
But
d Hd K Hd K
∴ S=2 z
2
a 1 − cos 2 a sin ( / 2) d
0
z zsin
2 2
= 4 a2 2 sin 3 ( / 2) d = 8 a 2 3
( / 2) d
0 0
Put 2 = t ∴ d = 2 dt and t varies from 0 to
zsin zsin
2
Hence S = 8 a 2 3
t . 2 dt = 16 a 2 2 3
t dt
t=0 t=0
2
i.e., S = 32 a 2 by applying reduction formula.
3
Thus the required surface area is 64 a 2 3 sq. units.
(e) Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cycloid
x = a − sin y = a 1 − cos
zy ddx d
2
2
>> V =
0
= za 1 − cos
2
2
2 a 1 − cos d
0
= a zo t z
2 3 2
3 2
2 sin 2 d = 8 a 3 sin 6 2 d
0 0
= 8 a 2z 3
sin 6
2 d = 16 a z
3
sin 6
2 d
0 0
zsin
2
∴ V = 16 a 3 6
t . 2 dt
0
5 3 1
= 32 a 3
, by reduction formula.
6 4 2 2
Thus the required volume is 5 2 a 3 cubic units.
56
Session –8
Example –3
Cardiode : r = a (1+cos )
(a) Trace the curve r = a (1+cos )
>> r = a (1+cos )
We observe the following features of the curve.
(i) f (r, ) = f (r, − ) and hence the curve is symmetrical about the initial line.
(ii) r = 0 when = and hence the curve passes through the pole. = is a
tangent to the curve at the pole.
(iii) Since | cos | < |, | r |< 2a and hence the curve lies with in the circle of radius
2a having its centre at the pole.
Let us tabulate r for certain angles of .
r 2a 3a/2 a a/2 0
57
i.e., A = 2 z = za 1 + cos d
1 2
20
r d
0
2 2
0
4
( 2) d
zcos zcos
2 2
∴ A = 4a 2 4
t. 2 dt = 8 a 2 4
t dt
t=0 t=0
3 1
= 8 a2 by reduction formula.
4 2 2
Thus the area enclosed is 3 a 2 / 2 sq. units.
zds ds dr F
G IJ 2
i.e., =2
0d
where
d
= r2 +
d HK
ds
Now = a 2 1 + cos 2 + a 2 sin 2 = a 2 1 + cos
d
= 2 a cos ( 2
z L
sin ( / 2) O
M
∴ perimeter = 2 2 a cos( / 2) d
0
= 4a
N1 2 P Q= 8a 0
Thus the perimeter of the curve is 8a units.
(d) Find the surface area of the revolution of the curve about the initial line.
ds dr F
G IJ = 2a cos (
2
But
d
= r2 +
d HK 2)
=4 a z2 cos
2 2
2 2 sin ( 2 cos( 2) cos( 2) d
=0
58
z
= 16 a 2 cos 4
0
2 sin ( 2 d
zcos
2
Hence S = 16 a 2 4
t sin t . 2 dt
t=0
3 1
= 32 a 2 by reduction formula.
5×3
Thus the required surface area is 32 a 2 5 sq. units.
(e) Find the volume generated by the revolution of the curve r = a (1 + cos ) about
the initial line.
>> V =
2
3 0
z
r 3 sin d =
2
3 0
z
a 3 1 + cos 3 sin d
∴V =
3 2
z
2 a3 0 3
t − dt = z
2 a3 2 3
3 0
t dt
=
2 a3 L
Mt O 2 a
P
4 2
= 4 − 0 =
8 a 3 3
3 N4 Q 3 0
3
Thus the required volume is 8 a 3 3 cubic units.
Example – 4
Regarding sphere as the solid generated by revolving a circle about a diameter, find the
volume of a sphere of radius ‘a’
>> Let x2 + y2 = a2 be the equation of the circle and when the semicircle revolves about
the diameter (x-axis) a sphere of radius ‘a’ is generated.
Volume V = zy dx 2
z z a − x dx
a a
V = y 2 dx = 2 2
−a −a
a
= a 2 x − x 3 3 = 4 a3 3
−a
59
Example – 5
Find the volume generated by the parabola y2 = 4 ax when revolved about the y-axis
between y = 0 and y = 2a
>> Required volume (V = zx dy
2
z y 4a dy
2a
2 2
i.e., V =
y=0
=
L
My O
P
5 2a
16 a N 5Q
2
0
32 a 5
= 2 a 5 =
80 a 2 80 a 2
Thus the required volume is 2 a 3 5 cubic units.
Example – 6
Find the perimeter of the curve r = a sin3 ( / 3)
>> Let us tabulate r for certain angles of where r = a sin3 ( / 3)
r 0 a/8 3 3a 8 A 3 3a 8 a/8 0
zr
3
2 2
∴ perimeter l = + dr / d d
=0
Fdr I 2
+ G J = a sin o t 2
Hd K
2 2 6
r 3 + a. 3 sin 2 3 cos 3 1 3
60
za sin
3
2
Hence, perimeter l = 3 d
0
Put 3= ∴ d = 3d and varies from 0 to
z zsin
2
∴ l =a sin 2 3d = 3 a 2 2
d
=0 0
1
i.e., l = 6 a . by reduction formula.
2 2
Thus the required perimeter is 3a / 2 units.
Exercises
1. Show that the length of the arc from = 0 to = along the curve
x = a (cos + sin ), y = = a (sin − cos ) is a /2
2. Find the surface area of a sphere of radius a.
3. Show that the surface area generated by the revolution of the loops of the curve
r2 = a2 cos 2 about the initial line 2 a2 ( 2 − 2 ).
4. Find the volume of the sphere of radius ‘a’.
5. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of a loop of the curve
r2= a2 cos 2 about the initial line.
Answers
3
2. 4 a2 4. 4 a3/3 5. 2 a 15
61
Infinite Series
Session - 1
Introduction:
Infinite series is basically a summation of infinite number of terms. The summation will
be meaningful if there is no significant change in the sum as more and more terms gets
added up which is the concept of convergence. In this topic we discuss the aspect of
convergence, divergence and oscillation of an infinite series which are attributed as the
nature or the behaviour of an infinite series. In this connection we make use of well
established tests so as to draw a valid conclusion on the nature of an infinite series.
‘Progression’ is the pre-requisite for this topic
Definitions
If un is a function of n defined for all integral values of n, an expression of the form
u1 + u2 + u3 +... + un containing infinite number of terms is called an infinite series
∞
usually denoted by ∑ un or simply ∑ un
n =1
un is called the nth term or the general term of the infinite series. The sum of the first n
terms of the series is denoted by sn
i.e., sn = u1 + u2 + u3 + +u n
Convergence, Divergence and Oscillation
A series ∑ un is said to be convergent if lim sn = l where l is a finite quantity.
n→∞
62
a 1 − r n
sn = if r < 1 1
1− r
a r n − 1
and sn = if r > 1 2
r −1
Now if r|< 1 r n → 0 as n → ∞ and from (1), we have
a a
lim sn = 1 − 0 = which is a finite quantity.
n→∞ 1− r 1− r
Hence we conclude that the geometric series is convergent for | r |< 1.
a r n − 1
Next if r > 1 from (2) lim sn = lim =∞
n→∞ n→∞ r −1
n
If r > 1 r → ∞ as n → ∞
Hence we conclude that the geometric series is divergent if r > 1
Also if r = 1 the series becomes a + a + a +…
sn = a + a + a… to n terms = na
∴ lim sn = lim n a = ∞
n→∞ n→∞
63
∞
Consider the series ∑ n + 2 − n +1
n=1
Here un = n + 2 − n + 1 =
en + 2 − n +1jen + 2 + n +1 j
en + 2 + n +1j
n + 2 − n + 1 1
i.e., un = =
n + 2 + n +1 en + 2 + n +1 j
Clearly lim un = 0
n→∞
Next sn = u1 + u2 + u3 +un −1 + un
i. e., sn = e3 − 2 j+ e4 − 3 j+ e5 − 4 j+ + en + 1 − n j+ en + 2 − n +1 j
i. e., sn = − 2 + n + 2
∴ lim sn = lim − 2 + n + 2 = ∞
n→∞ n→∞
Remarks :
64
Remark : In this test the given series un is to be compared with another series vn
whose nature is to be known to us. We usually compare with the harmonic series
∞ 1
∑ ( p − series) which is convergent for p > 1 and divergent for p ≤ 1
n =1 np
(The proof is established later)
• Given an infinite series, we first write the nth term (general term) un.
[The nth term of the A.P; a, a+ d, a+2 d, … is a+(n − 1)d ]
Example – 1
65
1 2 3
Examine the series + + + for convegence.
1.3.5 3 5 7 5 7 9
>> Numerators are 1, 2, 3, .... Hence the general term is n.
In the denominator we have,
First factors : 1, 3, 5, ... ∴ n th term = 1 + n − 1 2 = 2 n − 1
Second factors : 3, 5, 7, ... ∴ n th term = 3 + n − 1 2 = 2 n + 1
Third factors : 5, 7, 9 ... ∴ n th term = 5 + n − 1 2 = 2 n + 3
Thus n th term of the given series is given by
n n 1
un = Choose vn = 3 = 2
2n − 1 2 n + 1 2n + 3 n n
un n n2
Thus = ×
vn 2 n − 1 2n + 1 2 n + 3 1
un n3 1
Now lim = lim 3 =
n→∞ vn n→∞ n 2 − 1 n 2 + 1 n 2 + 3 n 8
By comparision test, ∑ un and ∑ vn behave alike.
1 1
Here ∑ vn = ∑ 2
is of the form ∑ p p = 2 > 1 is convergent.
n n
Hence ∑ un is also convergent.
Example – 2
Find the nature of the series
1 1+ 2 1+ 2 + 3
2
+ 2 2
+ 2 +
1 1 +2 1 + 22 + 32
>> It should be observed that there will be n terms in the numerator and the
denominator of the general term un.
66
1 + 2 + 3+ + n ∑n
∴ un = 2 2 2 2
= 2
1 + 2 + 3 + + n ∑n
n n + 1 n n + 1 2n + 1
i.e., un =
2 6
n n + 1 6 3 1
i.e., un = = Choose vn =
2 n n + 1 2n + 1 2n + 1 n
u 3 n
Now lim n = lim
n→∞ vn n→∞ 2 n + 1 1
F
G 3 I 3
= lim
n→∞ H2 + 1 n JK= 2
By comparison test, ∑ un and ∑ vn behave alike.
1 1
But ∑ vn = ∑ = ∑ 1 p = 1 is divergent.
n n
Hence ∑ un is also divergent.
Example – 3
∞ 1
Test for convegence ∑
n =1 n +1+ n
1 1
>> By data un = Choose vn =
n +1 + n n
un 1 n
Now lim = lim
n→∞ vn n→∞ n +1+ n 1
n n 1
= lim = lim =
n→∞ n 1 + 1 n + n n→∞ n 1 + 1 n + 1 2
67
en + 1 − n j
∞
Discuss the convergence of the infinite series ∑
n =1
en + 1 − n j en + 1 + n j =
n +1+ n n + 1− n
un =
n +1+ n
1
i.e., un = which is the same as the example discussed.
n +1+ n
Example – 4
L
Mn + 1 − n O
∞
P
N Q
3 3
Test for convergence ∑
n =1
=L
Mn + 1 − n O
P
N Q
3 3
>> By data, un
un 1 n2
Now lim = lim ×
n→∞ vn n→∞ n 3 + 1 2 3
+ 3 n3 + 1 n + n2 1
n2
= lim 2 3
n→∞
n3 1 + 1 n3 + 3 n3 1 + 1 n3 n + n 2
n2
= lim
2 3 3
n→∞ n2 1 + 1 n3 + n2 1 + 1 n3 + n2
n2 1 1
= lim
L
M O
P
= =
1+1+1 3
N + 3 1 + 1 n3 + 1
Q
2 3
n→∞ n2 1 + 1 n3
68
Exercises :
Find the nature of the following series
1 4 7
1 + + +
1 2 3 2 5 7 3 8 11
12 12 + 22 12 + 2 2 + 32
2 3 + 3 + +
1 1 + 2 3 13 + 2 3 + 33
1 1 1
3 + +
3+ 5 4+ 6 5+ 7
L
Nn + 3 − n O
M P
Q
4 2
4 ∑
Answers :
1. Convergent 2. Divergent 3. Divergent 4. Convergent
Session – 3
69
(iii) nth term of the series involves n !, (n+1) !, (n !)2 etc.
(iv) The number of factors in the numerator and denominator increase steadily from term
1 1 2 1 2 3
to term like + + + (carry over series)
3 3 5 3 5 7
When the ratio test fails we can try to apply the order test in the first instance
or
apply Raabe’s test.
Raabe’s test becomes inevitable when the ratio test fails in the case of carry over
series.
Example – 1
x x2 x3
+ + +
1.2 2 3 3 4
xn
>> un =
n n + 1
x n +1
∴ un +1 =
n + 1 n + 2
un +1 x n +1 n n + 1 n
Now = = x
un n + 1 n + 2 xn n+2
u n 1
∴ lim n +1 = lim x = lim x=x
n→∞ un n→∞ n + 2 n→∞ 1 + 2 n
R
S
convergent if x <1
∴ by D' Alembert' s ratio test ∑ un is
T
divergent if x > 1
and the test fails if x = 1
1n 1 1
But when x = 1 un = = = 2
n n + 1 n n + 1 n +n
70
un is of order 1 / n 2 ( p = 2 > 1) and hence ∑ un is convergent.
Hence we conclude that
∑ un is convergent if x ≤ 1 and divergent if x > 1
Example – 2
Find the nature of the series
1 1 3 2 1 3 5 3
x+ x + x +
2 2 4 2 4 6
1 3 5 2n − 1 n
>> un = x 1
2 4 6 2n
1 3 5 2 n + 1 − 1 1 3 5 2 n + 1 n +1
un +1 = x n +1 = x
2 4 6 2 n + 1 2 4 6 2 n + 2
1 3 5 2 n − 1 2 n + 1 n+1
i.e., un +1 = x 2
2 4 6 2 n 2 n + 2
From (1) and (2) we have,
un +1 1 3 5 2 n − 1 2n + 1 n +1 2 4 6 2 n
= x ×
un 2 4 6 2 n 2 n + 2 1 3 5 2 n − 1 x n
u 2n + 1
i.e., n +1 = x ... 3
un 2n + 2
un +1 2n + 1 n 2 + 1 n
∴ lim = lim x = lim x=x
n→∞ un n→∞ 2 n + 2 n→∞ n 2 + 2 n
n 1
= lim
= <1
n→∞ n 2 + 1 n 2
∴ ∑ un is divergent by Raabe' s test Hence we conclude that the given series
∑ un is convergent if x < 1 and divergent if x ≥ 1
71
Example –3
∞ 3 6 9 3n 5n
Test for convergence ∑
n =1 4 7 10 3n + 1 3n + 2
3 6 9 3n 5n
>> By data un =
4 7 10 3n + 1 3n + 2
3 6 9 3 n + 1 5n +1
∴ un +1 =
4 7 10 3 n + 1 + 1 3 n + 1 + 2
3 6 9 3n 3n + 3 5n +1
i. e., un +1 =
4 7 10 3n + 1 3n + 4 3n + 5
un +1 3 6 9 3n 3n + 3 5n +1 4 7 10 3n + 1 3n + 2
Now = ×
un 4 7 10 3n + 1 3n + 4 3n + 5 3 6 9 3n 5n
u 3n + 3 3n + 2
i.e., n +1 = 5
un 3n + 4 3n + 5
un +1 3n + 3 3n + 2
∴ lim = lim 5
n→∞ un n→∞ 3n + 4 3n + 5
3 + 3 n 3 + 2 n
= lim 5 = 5 >1
n→∞ 3 + 4 n 3 + 5 n
Example – 4
72
∞ 4 7 10 3n + 1 n
Find the nature of the series ∑ x
n =1 n
4 7 10 3n + 1 n
>> By data, un = x 1
n
4 7 10 3 n + 1 + 1 n +1 4 7 10 3n + 4 n +1
un +1 = x = x
n + 1 n + 1
4 7 10 3n + 1 3n + 4 n +1
i.e., un +1 = x 2
n + 1 n
From (1) and (2) we have,
un +1 4 7 10 3n + 1 3n + 4 n +1 n
= x ×
un n + 1 n 4 7 10 3n + 1 x n
u 3n + 4
i.e., n +1 = x
un n +1
un +1 3n + 4 3+ 4 n
∴ lim = lim x = lim x = 3x
n→∞ un n→∞ n + 1 n→∞ 1 + 1 n
R
S
convergent if 3 x < 1 or x < 1 3
Hence by ratio test ∑ un is
T
divergent if 3 x > 1 or x > 1 3
and the test fails if 3 x = 1 or x = 1 / 3
u 3n + 4 1 u 3n + 3
If x = 1 3 we have n +1 = or n =
un n + 1 3 un+1 3n + 4
F I F3n + 3 − 1IJ = lim n F −1 I
Hu K H3n + 4 K H3n + 4 JK= lim
− 1J = lim n G G −1 −1
Now lim n
n→∞
G u n
Example – 5
Test for convergence of the infinite series
2 3 4
1+ 2
+ 3 + 4 +
2 3 4
>> The first term of the given series can be written as 1!/11 so that we have,
n n + 1 n + 1 n n
un = n
∴ un +1 = n +1
= n +1
= n
n n + 1 n + 1 n + 1
73
un +1 n nn nn
Now = = n
un n + 1 n n n 1 + 1 n n
u 1 1
∴ lim n +1 = lim n
= <1
n→∞ un n→∞ 1 + 1 n e
Hence by ratio test ∑ un is convergent.
Exercises
3 32 33
1 1+ + + +
1 2 3
2 3 2 4 3
2 x+ x + x +
3 4 4 5 5 6
1 1 2 2 1 2 3 3
3 x+ x + x +
3 3 5 3 5 7
3 x 3 6 x 2 3 6 9 x 3
4 + + +
4 5 4 7 8 4 7 10 11
∞ 3 5 7 2 n + 1
5 ∑ xn
n =1 3 6 9 3n
Answers
1. Convergent
2. Convergent if x < 1, divergent if x > 1
1. Convergent if x < 2, divergent if x > 2
2. Convergent if x < 1, divergent if x > 1
3. Convergent if x < 3/2, divergent if x > 3/2
Session - 4
Cauchy’s root test
If un is a series of positive terms and if
1 n
lim un = l (finite)
n→∞
then the series is convergent if l < 1, divergent if l > 1 and the test fails if l = 1.
When the test fails we can try the order test or the fundamental test.
Note : 1. We try to apply this test if un is of the form [f (n)]g (n)
2. The following standard limits will be useful
74
F
G 1I
n
F xI
n
(i) lim n1 n = 1
H n JK= e; G
H n JK= e
x
ii lim 1 + iii lim 1 +
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
Example – 1
∞ L1 + 1 O
∑ M
− n3 2
N nP
n
Q by data.
R
| L 1 O U |V − n3 2 1 n
∴u =S M
1 n
1+ P
n
|TN n Q |W
L1 + 1 O
=M
L1 + 1 O − n1 2
− n
N nQ N nP P =M
1 n
u
n
Q
L1 + 1 O
= lim M
− n
N nP
1 n
Now lim u
n→∞
n
Q n→∞
1 1
= lim = < 1
n→∞
L
M 1 O
n e
N nP
1+
Q
as n → ∞, n also → ∞
Hence by Cauchy' s root test ∑ un is convergent.
Example – 2
n + 1 n x n ∞
Discuss the convergence of ∑
n =1 n n +1
n + 1 n x n
>> un = by data.
n n +1
∴ (un ) 1/ n
=
o n + 1 t n 1 n
xn 1 n
n + 1 x n + 1 x
= =
n n+1 1 n
n1+1 n n n1 n
1/ n n + 1 x n 1 + 1 n x 1 + 1 n x
lim (un ) = lim 1 n
= lim 1 n
= lim
n→∞ n→∞ nn n→∞ nn n→∞ n1 n
75
lim 1 + 1 n x 1 + 0 x
1/ n n→∞ 1 n
lim (un ) = 1 n
= = x, lim n = 1
n→∞ lim n 1 n→∞
n→∞
convergent if x < 1 R
S
Hence by Cauchy' s root test ∑ un is
divergent if x >1 T
and the test fails if x = 1
n + 1 n
When x = 1,un =
n n +1
un is of order n n / n n +1 = 1 / n and hence ∑ un is divergent.
Thus ∑ un is convergent if x < 1 and divergent if x ≥ 1.
Example – 3
Find the nature of the series
F
G I 2
HJKx
2 3 2
1+ x+ + x > 0
3 4
Fn + 1 I
>> Omitting the first term, u = G J x
n
Hn + 2 K
n
n
R
|F n + 1I U |V x = F n + 1I
n 1 n
∴ u n =S G J
|THn + 2 K|W
1 n
G
Hn + 2 JKx
n 1 n
1 n 1 + 1 n
Now lim un = lim x=x
n→∞ n→∞ 1 + 2 n
convergent if x < 1 R
S
Hence by Cauchy' s root test ∑ un is
divergent if x > 1 T
and the test fails if x = 1
76
Fn + 1 I Fn + 1 I L 1 + 1 n O
But when x = 1 u = G J 1 = G J = M
n n n
Hn + 2 K Hn + 2 K N 1 + 2 n P
n
n
Q
1 + 1 n e 1 n
F1 + x IJ = e
= using lim G
n
H nK
x
lim u = lim
n = n 2
n→∞ 1 + 2 n
n→∞ e e n→∞
1
Since lim un = ≠ 0 ∑ un is divergent when x = 1
n→∞ e
Thus ∑ un is convergent if x < 1 and divergent if ≥ 1.
Example – 4
1 1 1
Test for convergence + 2 + 2 +
2 2 3
>> The first term of the series can be put in the form 1 / 11 so that we have,
1
un = n
n
F1 I 1 n
Exercises :
Tests for convergence the following series
F1 + 3 IJ
∑ G
− n2
1
H nK
Fn + 1I F3 I
∑ G J GJ
n2 n
2
Hn K H4 K
4 F 7I F 10 I F
13 I
2 3 4
+ GJ + GJ + GJ +
3 H 5K H 7K H 9K
3
x x2 x3
4 1 + + + + x > 0
2 32 4 3
Answers :
77
(1) Convergent (2) Divergent (3) Divergent (4) Convergent
zf ( x) dx is finite or infinite.
∞
convergent or divergent according as the integral
1
Note : The condition f ' ( x ) < 0 ensures that f ( x ) decreases as x increases where f ' ( x )
is the derivative of f ( x ).
Example :
Apply Cauchy’s integral test to discuss the nature of the harmonic series (p- series)
∞ 1
∑
n =1 np
1
>> By data un = = f n
np
1 −p
f x =
p
= x − p ∴ f ' x = − px − p −1 = p +1 < 0
x x
Hence f x is decreasing.
z z z L
x1− p
M O ∞
N P
∞ ∞ 1 ∞
Now f x dx = p dx = x − p dx = if p ≠ 1
1 1 x 1 1− p Q 1
Case - i : Let p > 1 or ( p − 1) > 0
1
Then x 1− p = p −1 → 0 as x → ∞ p − 1 > 0
x
Lx O 1 = 1 which is finite.
1− p
∴ zf x dx =M P= 0 −
∞
∞
1 N1− pQ 1− p p −1
1
Thus ∑ un is convergent if p > 1.
78
Case - ii : Let p < 1 or 1 > p i.e., (1 − p) > 0
Lx O
As above zf x dx =M P
∞ 1− p ∞
1 N1− pQ 1
1− p
But x → ∞ as x → ∞. (1 − p) > 0
zf x dx = ∞ − 1 −1 p = ∞
∞
Hence
1
zf x dx = zx1 dx = log x
∞ ∞
∞
1 1 =∞−0=∞
1 1
Thus ∑ un is divergent if p = 1.
∞ 1
Conclusion : ∑ p is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p ≤ 1.
n=1 n
Remark : We have used the behaviour of this series while solving problems on comparison test
∞ 1
to discuss the nature of a given series in comparison with a series of the form ∑ p
n=1 n
Session – 5
Alternating series
If u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ...are all positive, then a series of the form u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + ... is called an
∞
n −1
alternating series represented by ∑ −1 un
n =1
79
Absolute convergence and conditional convergence
The alternating series u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 +... is said to be absolutely convergent if the series of
positive terms u1 + u2 + u3 + u4 +... is convergent.
If the given alternating series is convergent and the absolute series (series of positive
terms) is divergent then the alternating series is said to be conditionally convergent.
Property : Every absolutely convergent series is convergent but the converse is not true.
Example – 1
1 1 1
Test for convergence the series, 1 − + − +
2 3 4
1
>> Here un = We shall apply Leibnitz test.
n
1 1 n +1− n 1
Now un − un +1 = − = = >0
n n + 1 n n + 1 n n + 1
i.e., un − un +1 > 0 ⇒ un > un +1
1
Also lim un = lim =0
n→∞ n→∞ n
Hence the given series is convergent by Leibnitz test.
1 1 1
convergent”, but the converse is not true. The series 1 − + − + serves as an
2 3 4
example for the converse of the statement not being true. That is a convergent series not
being absolutely convergent.
80
1 1
The alternating series is convergent by Leibnitz test, but the absolute series 1 + + +
2 3
∞ 1
being ∑ is divergent . ( p - series where p = 1
n =1 n
Thus the alternating series is not absolutely convergent.
Example –2
1 1 1
Test the series 1 − + −
+... for
2 2 3 3 4 4
(a) convergence (b) absolute convergence (c) conditional convergence
1 1 1
>> We have un = = 3 2 ∴ un +1 =
n n n n + 1 3 2
1 1
Now un − un +1 = 3 2 −
n n + 1 3 2
n + 1 3 2 − n 3 2
= > 0 since (n + 1) > n.
n n + 1 3 2
i.e., un − un +1 > 0 ⇒ un > un +1
1
Also lim un = lim =0
n→∞ n n
n→∞
Example – 3
81
3 5 7 9
Find the nature of the series − + − +
4 7 10 13
2n + 1 2 n + 1 + 1 2 n + 3
>> We have un = ∴ un +1 = =
3n + 1 3 n + 1 + 1 3n + 4
2n + 1 2n + 3 1
Now un − un +1 = − = >0
3n + 1 3n + 4 3n + 1 3n + 4
i.e., un > un +1
2 +1/ n 2
Also lim un = lim = i.e., lim un ≠ 0
n→∞ n →∞ 3 + 1 n 3 n →∞
Example – 4
Show that the series
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+ − − + + − − + is convergent.
2 2 32 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2
>> Consider the absolute series,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
The general term of this series is given by un = 2
n
1
∑ 2 is a harmonic series ( p = 2 > 1) and it is convergent.
n
Hence we conclude that the given series is absolutely convergent.
But every absolutely convergent series is convergent.
Hence the given alternating series is convergent.
Remark : The problem can also be done by applying Leibnitz test.
Example – 5
82
Discuss the nature of the series
x2 x3 x4
x− + − +
2 3 4
>> The general term of the series is given by
n −1
−1 xn −1 n x n +1
un = ∴ un +1 =
n n +1
We shall apply generalised D' Alembert' s test.
un +1 −1 n x n +1 n
Now lim = lim n −1 n
n→∞ un n→∞ n + 1 −1 x
n
= lim −1 x = x
n→∞ n 1 + 1 n
Hence the series is absolutely convergent if | x | < 1, not convergent if | x | > 1 and the test
fails if | x | = 1.
Since absolute convergence implies convergence, the given series is convergent if |x|<1,
that is –1< x <1,not convergent when | x | > 1 and the test fails if | x | = 1.
If | x | = 1 then x = 1 or –1.
1 1 1
If x = 1, the series becomes 1 − + − +
2 3 4
1 1
We have un = ∴ un +1 = Clearly un > un +1
n n +1
1
Also lim un = lim =0
n→∞ n→∞ n
83
Exercises :
Find the nature of the following series :
1 1 1
1 1 − + − +
4 7 10
1 1 1 1
2 Examine the series − + − + for
7 12 17 22
(a) convergence for (b) absolute convergence
(c) conditional convergence
Answers :
1. Convergent
2. Convergent, conditionally convergent, not absolutely convergent.
84
V.T.U. Web-Based Education
By Prof.M.G.Geetha
Dept. of Mathematics, PESIT
Bangalore
ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY IN 3
DIMENSIONS
Introduction
Any point in a plane can be located by means of two real numbers, called the
coordinates. These numbers could either be distances from two fixed straight lines or a
distance form a fixed point and an angle with reference to a straight line.
The former is called the Cartesian System of coordinates and the latter the polar system
of coordinates. If the two reference lines in the Cartesian system are perpendicular to
each other, the system is called the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system.
Any point in a plane is represented by P(x, y) in Cartesian system and P(r, θ ) in polar
system of coordinates.
In space, we need three real numbers to locate a point and the reference lines, called the
coordinate axes, which are three concurrent mutually perpendicular lines. The system of
coordinates is called the rectangular Cartesian coordinate system in three dimension.
F I G 1
In the above figure, the lines OX,OY and OZ are the three axes with O as the
origin of the coordinate system.
85
If P(x,y,z) is any point in this system, then ON = x, NM = y and MP = z where
M is the foot of the perpendicular from P to the XOY plane and N is the foot of
the perpendicular from M to the axis OX.
Distance formula :
Then from the right angled triangle OMP,
∴Distance PQ = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2
Section Formula
If a point R divides the line segment joining the points P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2)
x + x1 y 2 + y1 z 2 + z1
If R is the middle point of PQ, then R≡ 2 , ,
2 2 2
Example:
Find the coordinates of the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are
A (x1, y1, z1), B (x2, y2, z2) and C (x3, y3, z3).
86
If G is the centroid of the triangle ABC, then it divides AD, the median from A,
in the ratio 2:1.
x 2 + x3 y 2 + y 3 z 2 + z 3
Since D is the mid point of the side BC, D ≡ , ,
2 2 2
x + x2 + x3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 z1 + z 2 + z 3
∴G ≡ 1 , ,
3 3 3
Direction Cosines:
If a straight line makes angles α, β and γ with the coordinate axes, then cosα, cosβ and
cosγ are defined as the Direction Cosines (D.C.s) of the straight line. They are denoted
by l, m, n.
Numbers proportional to the D.C.s are called Direction Ratios (D.R.s), denoted by a. b.
c.
For instance,
1, 0, 0 are the D.C.s of the X-axis and s,0,0 are its D.R.s for any real number s.
Note
1. Two parallel lines have the same D.C.s
2. If A(x, y, z) is any point on the line OA that makes angles α, β and γ with the
three axes, then
x y z
3. = cos α , = cos β , = cos γ where OA = r
r r r
∴cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1, using the distance formula r =
x2 + y2 + z 2
87
4. If P is any point at a distance r from the origin, then P is given by P ≡ (r l, r m,
r n) where l, m, n are the D.C.s of the line OP.
5. l2 + m2 + n2 =1 for any line whose D.C.s are l, m, n
6. If a, b, c are D.R.s of a line, then a, b, c are proportional to the D.C.s l, m, n
a b c a2 + b2 + c2
i.e., = = = = a2 + b2 + c2
l m n l +m +n
2 2 2
Fig 1.4
Let l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 be the D.C.s of two given straight lines.
Draw OP and OQ parallel to the given lines passing through the origin.
Let OP = r1 and OQ = r2.
Then P ≡ (r1l1, r1m1, r1n1) and Q ≡ (r2l2, r2m2, r2n2)
∴ PQ2 = (r2l2 – r1l1)2 + (r2m2 – r1m1)2 + (r2n2 – r1n1)2
= r12 + r22 – 2r1r2 (l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2), using the distance formula
Remember : l12 + m12 + n12 = 1 and l22 + m22 + n22 = 1 .
88
Also, using Cosine formula for triangle OPQ,
∧
We have PQ2 = OP2 + OQ2 – 2OP.OQ cos θ, where θ = P O Q .
Equating the two expressions for PQ2, we get cos θ = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2
Note:
1. The expression for the angle between two lines in terms of their D.R.s (a 1, b1, c1 and
a2, b2, c2 )
a1 a 2 + b1b2 + c1 c 2
is cos θ =
a12 + b12 + c12 a 22 + b22 + c 22
Projection of a line joining two points on a straight line with known D.C.s :
Fig. 1.5
Let A ≡ (x1, y1, z1), B ≡ (x2, y2, z2) and let l, m, n be the D.C.s of the line MN.
MN is the projection of AB on MN.
If θ is the angle between AB and MN, then MN = AB cos θ.
l (( x2 − x1 ) + m( y 2 − y1 ) + n( z 2 − z1 )
∴MN = ( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2
( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2
x 2 − x1
etc.
( x 2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y 2 − y1 ) 2 + ( z 2 − z1 ) 2
Exercise:
1. The distance between the points (0,0,3) and (-4, 0, 0) is
a)* 5 unit b) √5 units c) 25 units d) 4 units
89
2. If A ≡ (-1, 0, 4) and B ≡ (1, -6, 2), then the mid-point of AB is
a) (1, -3, 1) b)* (0, -3, 3) c) (1, -3, -1) d) (0, 3, -1)
3. The line which is perpendicular to the line with D.R.s 1,2,3 has D.C.s
proportional to
a) 3, 2, 1 b) *0, 3, -2 c) 1, 3, -2 d) 1, -2, 3.
4. The vertices (5, -1, 1), (7, -4, 7), (1, -6, 10) and (-1, -3, 4) form a
a) rectangle b) Square c)* Rhombus d) None of the others
5. The point A (5,8,-1) is joined to the mid-point M of the line joining P(1,2,-3) and
Q(3,4,5). The angle between these two lines is
a)* 90o b) 30o c) 60o d) 45o
Planes:
A Plane is a surface such that the line joining any two points on the surface lies entirely
on the surface.
Theorem:
A linear equation ax + by + cz +d = 0 in x, y and z represents a plane.
Proof :
If A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) are two points on the surface represented by the above
90
px + qx1 py 2 + qy1 pz 2 + qz1
Or a 2 + b + c + d = 0
p + q p + q p + q
which implies that the point C lies on the surface given by equation (1).
Since C is any arbitrary point lying on the line AB, the entire line AB lies on the surface
(1).
∴By the definition of a plane, equation (1) represents a plane.
Note: Comparing the general and the normal forms of equations of a plane, we get
a b c d
= = = from which we observe the following:
l m n −p
1. a, b and c, the coefficients of x, y and z in the equation of a plane are proportional
to the D.C.s of the normal to the plane.
In other words, the coefficients of x, y, z are a set of D.R.s of the normal.
a2 + b2 + c2
2. Since each ratio is equal to = a2 + b2 + c2 ,
l +m +n
2 2 2
−d
we get p=
a + b2 + c2
2
d
∴ Length of the perpendicular from the origin to the plane is
a2 + b2 + c2
3. To find the length of the perpendicular from any point P ≡ (x1, y1, z1) to the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0, shift the origin to the point P keeping the directions of the axes
91
unchanged.
Then any general point (X, Y, Z) in the new system of coordinates changes to
(x – x1, y – y1, z –z1)
∴The equation of the plane in the new system of coordinates is
a (x + x1) + b (y + y1) + c (z + z1) + d = 0
or ax + by + cz + (ax1 + by1 + cz1+ d) = 0
so that the perpendicular distance of the plane from P, the origin in the new system, is
0.
Note:
The three-point form of equation to a plane gives the condition for coplanarity of four
points
(xi, yi, zi) ; i = 1, 2, 3, 4 as
x1 − x 2 y1 − y 2 z1 − z 2
x2 − x 3 y2 − y 3 z2 − z 3 = 0.
x3 − x 4 y3 − y 4 z3 − z 4
92
Intercept form of equation:
If a plane makes intercepts A, B, and C with the coordinate axes, then the points
(A,0,0), (0,B,0) and (0,0,C) lie on the plane.
If ax + by + cz + d = 0 is the equation of the plane, then
−d −d −d
a= , b= & c=
A B C
x y z
∴The equation of the plane reduces to + + = 1.
A B C
This is known as the intercept form of equation to the plane.
Note:
1. The angle between the two planes aix + biy + ciz + di = 0 ; i = 1, 2 ; is equal to the
angle between their normals and hence is
a1 a 2 + b1b2 + c1c 2
cos −1
1 + + + + 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
a b1
c1
a 2
b 2
c
2. If the two planes are perpendicular, then a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0.
3. Equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection of two planes
aix + biy + ciz + di = 0, i =1,2 ; is
(a1x + b1y + c1z +d1) + k(a2x + b2y + c2z +d2) = 0 where k is a constant.
Exercise:
1. The planes 2x + 3y - z = 5 and 6x +9y – 3z -7 = 0 are
a) Perpendicular b)* Parallel c) coinciding d) inclined at an angle of 45o
2. The distance of the point (1,1,1) from the plane 2x – y +2z =3 is
a)* 0 b) 1/3 c) 1 d) 2
3. The D.C.s of the normal to the XY-plane are
a) 1,1,1 b) 0,1,0 c)* 0,0,1 d) 1,0,0
4. Which of the following points lie on the same side of the plane 3x – y + 2x – 8 = 0
93
a) (3,0,0) b) (3,0,2) c) (2,0,1) d)* (2,0,0)
5. One of the following planes is perpendicular to the plane 2x – 3y +5z = 1
a) x – y – z = 4 b) 5y - 3z = 1 c) x + y – z = 14 d) 3x – 2y + 5 = 0
True of False
1. The plane 4x – 3y +5 = 12 passes through the intersection of the planes
2x - 5y + z = 6 and x + y + 2z = 3. (T)
2. The point (1, -5,2) lies on the plane 3x + y + z = 1. (F)
3. The Plane 2x + 3y – z + 6 = 0 and 10x - 15y - 5z + 24 = 0 are parallel (F)
Straight Lines:
A curve in space is defined as the set of points common to two intersecting surfaces
and it is represented by two equations - equations of the intersecting surfaces.
A straight line is the curve of intersection of two planes.
Note:
94
1. Any point lying on the straight line whose equations are
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = ,
l m n
is given by (lt + x1, mt + y1, nt + z1) where t is a parameter .
2. The symmetric form of equations to a straight line can be converted to its two-
plane form of equations and vice versa.
3. When the two-plane form of equations to a straight line are given, the D.C.s of the
straight line are proportional to b1c2 – b2c1, c1a2 – c2a1 and a1b2 – a2b1,
since the straight line is perpendicular to the normal to the two intersecting planes.
95
Eliminating a, b, c from this equation, (3) and (4) , we get the condition for
coplanarity of straight lines in the form
x1 − x 2 y1 − y 2 z1 − z 2
l1 m1 n1 = 0
l2 m2 n2
x − x1 y − y1 z −z1
and the equation of the plane containing them is given by l1 m1 n1
l2 m2 n2
= 0.
Note:
If two lines are coplanar, then the lines are either parallel or intersecting. When they
intersect, the point of intersection can be found by solving the equations of the two lines.
Skew Lines:
Two lines are said to be skew when they are non-coplanar. This is so, when they are
neither parallel nor intersecting.
x − x2 y − y 2 z − z 2
and = = -------------(2)
l2 m2 n2
96
Then the D.C.s λ, µ, ν of the line of shortest distance are proportional to
m 1n2 – m2n1, n1l2 – n2l1, l1m2 – l2m1
We observe that the length AB is the projection of the line PQ on the line of shortest
distance.
∴ By the projection formula,
AB = (x2 – x1)λ + (y2 – y1)µ + (z2 – z1)ν
This gives the shortest distance between the two skew lines.
x − x1 y − y1 z −z1 x −x 2 y −y2 z −z 2
λ µ υ =0 and λ µ υ =0
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
These two equations together represent the line of shortest distance between the skew
lines given by (1) and (2).
Exercise:
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
1. The straight line = = is
a b c
a)* Perpendicular b) Parallel to c) lies entirely on d) at an angle of 45o
with
the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 .
x y z x y
2. The point of intersection of the lines = = and = = z is
7 3 −2 3 −4
a) (-5, -13, -37) b) (4, 7, -3) c)* (0, 0, 0) d) (1, -1, 2)
97
x−2 y −5 z +3 x − 4 6 − y 2z + 3
3. The lines = = and = = are
3 −4 2 3 4 4
a) Perpendicular b)* Parallel c) coincident d) Skew
4. The image of the point (1, 1, 1) in the plane x + y + z = 0 is
1 1 1
a) (0, 0, 0) b) (1, -1, -1) c)* (-1, -1, -1) d) ( , , )
3 3 3
True or False
2− y z−3 x−2 y −3 4− z
1. The lines x −1= = and = = are perpendicular
2 2 4 5 2
.
x−4 y−6
2. The point (1, 2, 3) lies on the line = =2− z.
3 4
x −1 z
3. The line = y−2= and the z – axis are skew lines.
0 0
x −1 y − 2
4. The equations = =z−4 and 3x –2y +1 = 0 = y – 3z +10
2 3
represent the same straight line.
x − 2 y +1 z −1
5. The plane 2x + 3y + 3z –1 = 0 contains the line = = .
3 2 −4
6. The shortest distance between the lines
x −1 y − 2 z − 4 x −1 y − 2 z − 4
= = and = = is 0.
2 3 −4 −3 4 5
7. The straight lines which do not intersect are called skew lines.
98
In the case of a cone, the generators are inclined at an angle α with the axis while in a
cylinder, the generators are parallel to the axis.
Note:
The angle α is called the semi-vertical angle of the cone and the point of intersection
of the generators with the axis is called the vertex of the cone.
( x − x1 )l + ( y − y1 ) m + ( z − z1 )n
cos α =
( x − x1 ) 2 + ( y − y1 ) 2 + ( z − z1 ) 2 l 2 + m 2 + n 2
or [ ( x − x ) l + ( y − y ) m + ( z − z ) n]
1 1 1
2
[
cos 2 α = (l 2 + m 2 + n 2 ) ( x − x1 ) + ( z − z1 ) 2
2
]
is the equation of a right circular cone with its vertex at (x1, y1, z1), semi-vertical angle
as α and the D.C.s of its axis proportional to l, m, n.
99
l ( x − x1 ) + m( y − y 1 ) + n( z − z1 )
∴ AM = ( x − x1 ) 2 + ( y − y1 ) 2 + ( z − z1 ) 2 .
∑ (x − x ) l + m + n
1
2 2 2 2
∴ ( x − x1 ) + ( y − y 1 ) + ( z − z1 ) = r
2 2 2 2
+
[ l ( x − x ) + m( y − y ) + n ( z − z )]
1 1 1
2
l 2 + m2 + n2
is the equation of the right circular cylinder.
Exercise
Fill in the blanks :
1. The semi-vertical angle of the right circular cone passing through the origin, vertex at
x y −1 z +1
(1,2,1) with its axis parallel to the line = = is
2 2 −1
____________. π /3
y−7 z +7
2. The vertex of the right circular cone whose axis is the line x= = with the line
−3 2
x +1 y − 3
= =z+2 as one of its generators is _______________ (2,1,-3)
−3 2
3. The radius of the right circular cylinder passing through the origin with its axis lying
x+9 y−4 z −5
along the line = = is _______ units.
10 −2 −3
3.
Questions
1. Find the distance of the point (1, 2, -3) from the middle point of the line segment
joining (-3, 4, -2) and (1, 2, 6)
The mid-point of the given line segment is (-1, 3, 2).
∴ The distance of (1, 2, -3) from this point is 4 + 1 + 25 = 30 units
2. Show that the points A (2, 3, 4), B (3, 4, 2) and C(-1, 0, 10) are collinear.
100
D.R.s of the line AB are 1, 1, -2 and those of the line BC are 4, 4, -8 or 1, 1, -2
∴ The lines AB and BC have proportional D.R.s. The lines have a common point B.
Hence the points A, B and C are collinear.
−1+ 3 +1 2 + 4 + 0 1− 4 + 3
The centroid G is given by , , or (1, 2, 0).
3 3 3
4. Find the angles made by a line with the coordinate axes if it is equally inclined with
the axes.
We know that cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1
1
∴ angle = α = cos
−1
But α = β = γ is given .
3
5. Find the angles of the triangle ABC formed by the vertices
A (3, 0, -1), B(-1, 4, 1) and C(3, 4, 2) .
D.R.s of AB are –4, 4, 2 and D.R.s. of AC are 0, 4, 3.
0 + 16 + 6 11
∴ cos A = =
36 25 15
D.R.s of BA are 4, -4, -2 and D.R.s of BC are 4, 0, 1
7
∴ cos B =
3 17
D.R.s of CA are 0, -4, -3 and D.R.s of CB are –4, 0, -1
3
∴ cos C =
5 17
11 7 3
∴The angles are cos −1 = , cos −1 = −1
and cos =
15 3 17 5 17
101
Fig. 1.10
Let the cube be as shown in the figure with one of its vertices O as the origin of the
coordinate system and the axes along the three sides OA, OB, OC of the cube
respectively.
If d is the length of each side of the cube, then its vertices are given by
O ≡ (0, 0, 0), O’ ≡ (d, d, d),
A ≡ (d, 0, 0), A’ ≡ (0, d, d),
B ≡ (0, d, 0), B’ ≡ (d, 0, d),
C ≡ (0, 0, d), C’ ≡ (d, d, 0),
We can see that the four diagonals of the cube are OO’, AA’, BB’, and CC’.
D.R.s of OO’ and AA’ are d, d, d and –d, d, d respectively
d2 + d2 + d2 1
∴ Angle between these two diagonals is given by cos −1 = = cos −1
3d 2
3d 2 3
(i) The diagonal AA’ of the cube and the diagonal O’A of a face of the cube
intersect.
D.R.s of these two lines are respectively –d, d, d, and 0, d, d .
2d 2 2
∴Angle between them is given by cos −1 = = cos −1
3d 2 2d 2 3
(ii) The diagonal AA’ of the cube and the diagonal B’C’ of a face of the cube do not
intersect. Their D.C.s are respectively proportional to –d, d, d and 0, d, -d. .
−1 0+d2 −d2 π
∴Angle between them is given by cos = =
3d 2
2d 2 2
8. Given a cube as in Fig. 1.10, the diagonals passing through O, of the faces meeting at
O, make angles α, β, γ with the diagonal OO’ of the cube, prove that
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 2.
102
The diagonals of the faces meeting at O and passing through O are OA’, OB’, OC’.
whose D.R.s are 0, d, d; d, 0, d and d, d, 0.
If these lines are inclined at angles α, β, γ with OO’, whose D.R.s are d, d, d ;
2d 2 2 2
then the angles are given by cos α = = or cos α =
2
6d 2
6 3
2 2
Also cos β = and cos γ = .
2 2
Hence the required result.
3 3
9. Find the angle between the two lines whose D.C.s are given by the relations
l+m+n=0 and 2lm + 2nl – mn = 0.
2
m m
Eliminating l from the given relations, we get 2 + 2 + 1 = 0
n n
m m
⇒ + 2 + 2 + 1 = 0.
n n
⇒ m + 2n = 0 or
2m +n = 0
These with l + m + n = 0 give us two sets of l,m,n proportional to –1, -1, 2 and 1,
-2, 1.
−1 −1+ 2 + 2 π
The angle between these two lines is cos = .
6 3
10. Show that the straight liens whose D.C.s are given by ul + vm + wn = 0 and
pl2+qm2+rn2 = 0
are (i) perpendicular if u2(q+r) + v2(r+p) + w2(p+q) = 0
u 2 v 2 w2
and (ii) parallel if + + =0
p q r
103
m2 m
We get ( pv + qu ) 2 + 2 pvw + ( pw 2 + ru 2 ) = 0
2 2
-----------------( 1)
n n
m m1 m2
(i) Equation (1) is quadratic in and has two roots, say, and
n n1 n2
m1 m2 pw 2 + ru 2
Then the product of the 2 roots is given by =
n1 n2 qu 2 + pv 2
m1 m 2 n1 n 2
or =
pw 2 + ru 2 qu 2 + pv 2
Similarly, by eliminating m and n from the given relations and then getting the
product of the roots and simplifying, we get
n1 n 2 ll l1l 2 m1 m 2
= 212 2 and =
qu + pv
2 2
rv + qw rv + qw
2 2
pw 2 + ru 2
m1 m 2 nn ll
∴ = 2 1 2 2 = 2 1 2 2 ---------------(2)
pw + ru
2 2
qu + pv rv + qw
where li, mi, ni ; i= 1, 2 are the two straight lines given by the relations.
When these lines are perpendicular, we have l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0
⇒ pw2 + ru2 + qu2 + pv2 + rv2 + qw2 = 0 from (2)
⇒ u2 (q+r) + v2(r+p) + w2(p+q) = 0
(ii) When the two lines are parallel, they have the same D.C.s.
This is true when equation (1) has two equal roots.
⇒ 4p2v2w2 - 4(pv2 + qu2) (pw2 + ru2 ) = 0
⇒ qru2 + rpv2 + pqw2 = 0
u 2 v 2 w2
⇒ + + =0
p q r
Planes:
11. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (1, 2, 3), (2, 0, -1) and
(-1, 4, 5).
Also find the distance of the point (0, 2, -4) from the plane.
What is the angle made by this plane with 2x-y+z = 6 ?
104
x −1 y − 2 z − 3
The plane through the three given points is 1 −2 − 4 = 0 or 2x+3y-z
−2 2 2
= 5.
0+6+4−5 5
Perpendicular distance of (0,2,-4) from this plane is = .
14 14
The angle between this plane and 2x-y+z = 6 is given by cosθ = 0.
or the two planes are perpendicular.
12. Show that the points (3, 4, 1), (-1, -2, 5), (1, 7, 1) and (1, 10, 0) are coplanar.
Find the equation of the plane containing them and also the intercept made by it on the
x-axis.
Since the point (1, 10, 0) lies on this plane, the four given points are coplanar.
x y z
+ + =1
The equation of the plane in intercept form is 23 23 23
3 2 6
23
∴The x-intercept by the plane is units.
3
13. Find the equation of the plane bisecting perpendicularly the join of the points (2,1,3)
and (4, 3, -1).
105
14. Find the equation to the plane perpendicular to x + y – 4z = 0 and through the
intersection of the planes x +3y –z = 4 and 2x + 2y +2z = 1.
The equation of the plane through the intersection of the given planes is
x + 3y – z – 4 + k(2x + 2y + 2z – 1) = 0
or (1 + 2k) x + (3 + 2k) y + (-1 + 2k) z + (-4 – k ) =0
But this is given to be perpendicular to x + y – 4z = 0
∴ 1 + 2k + 3 + 2k + 4 –8k =0 ⇒ k = 2.
∴ The equation of the required plane is 5x + 7y + 3z =6.
15. The plane 4x + 7y + 4z +81 = 0 is rotated through a right angle about its line of
intersection with the plane 5x + 2y + 5z = 25. Find the equation of the plane in its
new position.
The plane in its new position passes through the line of intersection of the two given
planes.
Fig. 1.11
∴Its equation is given by 4x + 7y + 4z +81 + k (5x + 2y +5z – 25) = 0
or (4 + 5k) x + (7 + 2k) y + (4 + 5k) z + (81 –25k) = 0
But this is perpendicular to the plane 4x + 7y +4z +81 =0
3
∴We have (4 + 5k) 4 + (7 + 2k) 7 + (4 + 5k) 4 = 0. ∴k = − .
2
∴The equation of the required plane is 7x-8y+7z-237 =0.
Straight lines:
16. Find the equations of the straight line of intersection of the planes 2x – y + z = 5
and
x +3y – 2z +1=0
106
If l, m, n are its D.C.s, we have 2l – m + n = 0 and l + 3m – 2n = 0 .
∴l : m : n = -1 : 5 : 7
Choosing z = 0 in the equations of the planes and solving the resulting equations,
we get (2, -1, 0) as a point lying on both the planes.
x − 2 y +1 z
∴ Equations of the straight line are = =
−1 5 7
y z −3
18. Find the image of the point (1, -1, 2) in the line x −1= = .
3 −2
13 − 3 44
∴ M ≡ , , .
14 14 14
107
6 4 30
∴ P' ≡ , , .
7 7 7
x −1 y − 2 z − 3
19. Find the image of the line = = in the plane x + y + z + 3 =0 .
2 3 4
The given line is not parallel to the given plane.
∴It must intersect the plane.
Any point on the given line is (2k + 1, 3k +2, 4k + 3). If this lies on the plane, then k
= -1.
∴(-1, -1, -1) is the point of intersection of the given line and the given plane and
hence is a point lying on the image of the line in the plane.
(1,2, 3) is a point on the given line. Its image in the given plane is (-5, -4, -3) and is
another point on the image of the line.
∴D.R.s of the image line are 4, 3, 2 .
x+5 y+4 z+3
∴Its equations are = = .
4 3 2
20. Find the equation of the plane through the points (1, 0, -1) and (3, 2, 2,) and parallel
to the line
1− y z − 2
x −1= = .
2 3
The equation of the required plane is of the form a(x-1) + by + c (z+1) =0 --------
(1)
This plane also passes through the point (3, 2, 2).
∴We have 2a + 2b + 3c = 0 ----------- --- (2)
y −1 z − 2
The plane is parallel to x −1= = .
−2 3
∴ The normal to the plane with D.R.s a, b, c is perpendicular to the line.
∴ a – 2b + 3c = 0 ---------------------(3)
Evaluating a, b, c from the three equations, we get
108
x −1 y z +1
2 2 3 = 0 or 4x-y-2z-6 = 0 is the equation of the plane.
1 −2 3
x z
21. Find the angle between the lines =y= and 4x – y + z –5 =0 = 14x –
2 2
3y + 4z – 20.
x −1 2z + 3
22. Find the angle that the line = y−2 = makes with the plane x – y
2 4
+ z = 0.
π
The required angle is − cos θ , where θ is the angle between the line
2
and the normal to the plane.
2 −1+ 2 1
Here θ = cos
−1
= cos −1
3 3 3
−1 1
∴ Required angle is sin .
3
23. Find the distance of the point (1, -2, 3) from the plane x – y + z =13 measured
x y z
parallel to the line = = .
2 3 −6
Fig. 1.13
109
Let P ≡ (1, -2, 3). The equations of the line through P parallel to the given line are
x −1 y + 2 z − 3
= = . Let this line intersect the given plane at M.
2 3 −6
Then M ≡ (2k + 1, 3k - 2, -6k + 3).
Since M lies on the plane, we have 2k + 1 –3k + 2 – 6k + 3 = 13 ⇒ k = -1.
∴ M ≡ (-1, -5, 9).
∴ The required distance PM = 7 units .
24. Find the distance of the point (-1, -5, -10) from the point of intersection of the line
x − 2 y +1 z − 2
= = and the plane x - y + z =5.
3 4 12
25. Find the line through (3, -4, 1), parallel to the plane 2x + y –z +8 = 0 and
x − 3 y +1
intersecting the line = = z − 2.
2 −3
x − 3 y + 4 z −1
The equations of the required line are = = , where l, m, n are
l m n
its D.C.s.
This line is parallel to 2x + y – z +8 = 0.
∴We have 2l + m – n = 0 -----------------(1)
x − 3 y +1
The line intersects = =z−2 .
2 −3
110
∴They are coplanar.
l m n
∴ 2 − 3 1 = 0 ⇒ 3l + m − 3n = 0 -----------------------(2)
0 − 3 −1
26. Find the equations of the line through (2, 1, 3) and perpendicular to the line
y+6 z−2
x−5= = .
2 3
Also find the length of the perpendicular from (2, 1, 3).
If M is the foot of the perpendicular from (2, 1, 3) to the given line, M ≡ (k+5, 2k-
6,3k+2).
∴ D.R.s of PM are k + 3, 2k – 7, 3k –1 with P ≡ (2, 1, 3) .
But PM is perpendicular to the given line.
∴ k + 3 + 2 (2k – 7) + 3 ( 3k –1) = 0 ⇒ k =1
x −1 y − 7 x +1 y − 3 z − 5
= = z + 2 and = = . Find the points of intersection and
3 −1 −3 2 4
also the length intercepted.
Let P and Q be the points of intersection of the line with D.R.s 7, 4, -1 with the two
given lines.
Then P ≡ (3k1 + 1, k1 + 7, k1- 2)
and Q ≡ (-3k2 – 3, 2k2 + 3, 4k2 + 5) for some k1 & k2
111
∴ D.R.s of PQ are 3k1 + 3k2 +4, -k1 –2k2 + 4, k1 –4k2 – 7
They are also given by 7, 4, -1.
∴These two sets of D.R.s are proportional .
We get the equations 19k1 + 26k2 = 12 and k1 – 6k2 = 8,
which when solved, yield k1 =2, k2 = -1 .
∴Points of intersection are P ≡ (7, 5, 0) and Q ≡ (0, 1, 1) .
x−4 y −2 z −3
28. Find the shortest distance between the lines = = and
2 −3 4
5x +3y +7z +6 = 0 = 6x +7y -5z +14. Also find the equations of the shortest
distance line.
x −1 y − 2 z − 3
29. Find the shortest distance between the line = = and
2 −4 7
x − 2 y −1 z − 2
= = .
2 5 −6
112
What do you conclude here?
x −1 y −1 z − 3
to the line = = . Hence find the length of the shortest distance
2 −3 4
between the given lines.
Any plane through the given line is (5 + 6k) x + (3 + 7k) y + (7 – 5k) z + (6 +2k) =
0.
x −1 y − 2 z − 3
This is parallel to the line = = .
2 −3 4
∴(5 + 6k) 2 + (3+7k) (-3) + (7-5k) 4 = 0 ⇒ k = 1.
∴ The equation of the required plane is 11x +10y + 2z + 8 = 0.
Now the length of the perpendicular from the point (1, 2, 3) on to this plane gives
the shortest distance between the two given lines.
45
∴It is = 3 units.
15
x −1 y −1 z + 3
vertical angle and its axis along the line = = .
2 3 1
cos 2 30 o =
3
=
[ 2( x − 1) + 3( y − 1) + ( z + 3) ] 2
[
4 14 ( x − 1) 2 + ( y − 2) 2 + ( z + 3) 2 ]
or [
21 ( x − 1) + ( y − 2 ) + ( z + 3)
2 2 2
] = 2[ 2 x + 3 y + z − 5] 2
is the equation.
113
32. Show that the equation of the right circular cone with semi-vertical angle as α and its
axis along the z –axis, is given by x2 + y2 = (z-3)2 tan2 α given that the vertex is at
(0, 0, 3).
cos 2
α=
[ 0( x − 0) + 0( y − 0) + ( z − 3)]
2
x 2 + y 2 + ( z − 3) 2
[ ]
⇒ x 2 + y 2 + ( z − 3) cos 2 α = ( z − 3) 2
2
⇒ x 2 + y 2 = ( z − 3) 2 tan 2 α
33. Given that the vertex of a right circular cone passing through the origin is at the point
x −1 y − 2 z −1
(1,2,1) whose axis is along the line = = . Find its equation.
2 1 −2
cos 2 θ =
[ 2(0 − 1) + 1(0 − 2) − 2(0 − 1)] 2 =
2
9 x6 27
If (x, y, z) is any general point on the surface of the cone, then
2 [ 2( x − 1) + 1( y − 2) − 2( z − 1)]
2
=
[
27 9 ( x − 1) 2 + ( y − 2) 2 + ( z − 1) 2 ]
or [
2 ( x − 1) + ( y − 2 ) + ( z + 1)
2 2 2
] = 3[ 2 x + y − 2 z − 2] 2
is the equation.
34. Find the equation of the right circular cylinder whose axis is along the line
y +1 z −1
x−2= =
−3 2
with the radius of its base as 3 units.
114
∴(x –3y + 2z -7)2 = 14[(x-2)2 + (y + 1)2 + (z - 1)2] –126 is the equation of the
right circular cylinder.
35. Show that the equation of a right circular cylinder whose axis is along x –2 = 0 = z
–1
of radius unity, is x2 + y2 – 4x – 2z + 4 = 0.
x − 2 y − 0 z −1
The equations of the axis are = = .
0 1 0
Here A = (2, 0, 1) and r = 1.
∴We have x2 + z2 – 4x – 2z +4 = 0 as the equation.
x−2 y −3 z −4
36. Find the equation of a right circular cylinder whose axis is = = and
3 4 5
x−4 y −3 z −2
a generator is = =
3 4 5
=4+0+4−
[ 3(2) + 4(0) + 5( −2)]
2
=
192
.
50 25
If P ≡ (x, y, z) is any general point on the surface of the cylinder, then
AL2 = AP2 – PL2, PL perpendicular to the axis.
[ 3( x − 2) + 4( y − 3) + 5( z − 4)] 2
= ( x − 2) 2 + ( y − 3) 2 + ( z − 4) 2 − 192 / 25.
50
or [
50 ( x − 2 ) + ( y − 3) + ( z − 4 )
2 2 2
] − (3x + 4 y + 5z − 38) 2
= 384
is the equation of the right circular cylinder.
115
TEST :
1. If α, β, γ are the angles made by a line with the coordinate axes, the value of sin2α+
sin2 β + sin2 γ is
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4
2. A straight line is inclined at angles 45o and 60o with the y and the z-axes respectively.
Its inclination with x-axes is
a) 60o b) 45o c) 75o d) 90o
3. The D.C.s of the line perpendicular to the plane ABC formed by A≡(1, 1, 1), B≡(3, 4,
-1) and C≡(1, 4, 0) are
3 2 6 3 2 6 3 −2 6
a) 3, 2, 6 b) , , , c) , , d) , ,
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
4. The foot of the perpendicular from the origin to the line joining (1, 2, 3) and (2, 3, 4)
is
a) (1, 0,1) b) (-1, 0, 1) c) (1, 0, -1) d) (-1, 0, -1)
5. The points A(3, 4, 2), B(6, -1, 10) and C(9, 1, 4) are the vertices of a triangle.
Traingle ABC is
a) Isosceles b) Right angled c) equilateral d) Right angled isosceles
6. The perpendicular distance between the planes 2x – 2y + z + 3 = 0 and 4x – 4y +
2y +9 = 0 is
1 1 1 2
a) b) c) d)
2 6 3 3
7. The equation of the plane through the points (2, 3, 4), (-3, 5, 1) and (4, -1, 2) is
a) x-y+z1=0 b) x+y-z+1=0 c) x+y-z-1=0 d) x-y-z-1 =0
8. If the points (1, 1, -1), (7, 1, 2), (λ, -1, 2) and the origin are coplanar, the value of λ is
a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 4) 4
9. The equation of the plane through (1, -2, 4) and parallel to the plane x+2y-3z-7 = 0
is
a) x+2y-2z=0 b) x+2y-3z+7=0 c) x+2y-3z-15=0 d) x+2y-3z+15=0
10. The acute angle between the plane 2x-y+z = 7 and x+y+2z-11 = 0 is
π 2π −1 5 −1 1
a) b) c) cos d) cos
3 3 6 6
116
11. The equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the planes 2x-
3y+4z+1=0 and x+y+z-5=0 and perpendicular to the latter plane is
a) 3x-2y+5z-4=0 b) x-4y+3z+6=0 c) 11x+6y+13z-44=0 d) 12x+7y+14z-
49=0
12. The foot of the perpendicular from (3, 2, 1) to x+3y-2z+7 = 0 is
a) (2, -2, 3) b) (4, 5, -1) c) (2, -1, -1) d) (3, 2, 1)
13. The equations of the straight line joining the points (3, 2, 4) and (4, 5, 2) are
x−3 y−2 z −4 y−2 z−4
a) = = b) x − 3 = =
4 5 2 3 2
x−4 y −5 z −2 y−3 z +2
c) = = d) x − 1 = =
3 2 4 3 −2
14. The equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the planes 3x-4y+5z-10
=0
and 2x+2y-3z-4 = 0 and parallel to the straight line x = 2y = 3z is
a) x+20y –27z=14 b) x-20y-27z+14=0 c) x-20y +27z=14 d) x +20y – 27z
+14=0
15. Equations of the straight line through the point (2, 3,1) and parallel to the line
x-2y-z +5 = 0 = x+y+3z-6 are
x − 2 y − 3 z −1 x − 2 y − 3 z −1
a) = = b) = =
5 −4 −3 5 4 −3
x − 2 y − 3 z −1 x − 2 y − 3 z −1
c) = = d) = =
−5 4 3 5 −4 3
16. Equations of the straight line through the point (2, 1, -3) and perpendicular to the
plane 3x+2y-4y-7=0 are
x − 2 y −1 z + 3 x − 2 y −1 z − 3
a) = = b) = =
3 2 4 3 2 4
x − 2 y −1 z + 3 x − 2 y −1 z −1
c) = = d) = =
3 2 −4 3 2 −4
17. Equations of the straight line through the point (3, 4, -3) and perpendicular to two
lines whose D.C.s are
1:2:2 and 2 : 1 : 3 are
117
x−3 y−4 z +3 x−3 y−4 z −3
a) = = b) = =
4 −1 −3 4 1 −3
x−3 y−4 z −3 x−3 y−4 z +3
c) = = d) = =
−4 1 −3 4 1 −3
18. A(1, 2, 3), B(2, 1, -5) and C(4, -1, 3) are the vertices of a triangle.
The equations of the median through A are
x −1 y − 2 z − 3 x − 2 y −1 z + 5
a) = = b) = =
−1 1 2 −1 −1 2
x − 4 y +1 z − 3 x −1 y − 2 z −1
c) = = d) = =
1 −1 4 1 −1 4
19. The equation of the plane through the point (2, -1, 0) & (3, -4, 5) and parallel to the
line 2x=3y=4z is
a) 29x-27y –22z=85 b) 29x+27y-22z-85=0 c) 29x-27y-22z+85=0 d) 29x-27y+22z-
85=0
x −1 y + 3 z − 4
20. The plane 4x+5y-z+15=0 ______________ the line = =
2 −1 3
a) Perpendicular b) Contains c) Parallel to d) is at 45o with
x −1 y −1 z +1
21. The point of intersection of the straight lines = = and
1 2 3
x+2 y−5 z +2
= = is
2 −1 2
a) (2, 3, 1) b) (2, 3, 2) c) (3, 3, 1) d) (3, 3, 2)
x −1 y − 2 z − 3
22. The straight line = = is non-coplanar with one of the following
2 3 4
straight lines.
x − 2 y − 8 z − 11 3x − 5 y − 3 3z − 13
a) = = b) = =
2 −1 2 2 1 4
x−2 y −4 z −5 y +1 z −1
c) = = d) x = =
3 4 5 3 2
23. The shortest distance between the straight lines x+y = 0 = y+z and x+y = 0 =
x+y+z-a is
118
a 2a 2a 2
a) b) c) d) a
6 3 3 3
24. The equation x2+y2-z2=0 represents a
a) Sphere b) Cone c) Cylinder d) Two planes
25. The equation y2+z2=1, in space, represents a
a) Cylinder b) cone c) Sphere d) none of the three
119
Notes by Prof. A.T.Eshwar, PES, Mandya
WEB-BASED EDUCATION
5. Infinite Series
Convergence, divergence and oscillation of an infinite series, Comparison Test, P-series,
D'Alembert's ratio test, Raabe's test, Cauchy's root test, Cauchy's integral test (All tests
without proof) for series of positive terms. Alternating series. Absolute and conditional
convergence, Leibnitz's test (without proof)
120
Text Book:
1. Higher Engineering Mathematics by B.S.Grewal, 36th Edition - July 2001.
Reference book:
2. Advanced Engineering Mathematics: - by E. Kreyszig, John Wiley & Sons, 6th Ed.
• Contents of Part-B
Differential Calculus
(Part-B)
A.T.Eswara, PESCE, Mandya
121
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3
Successive Polar Curves Partial
Differentiation Differentiation
122
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
Fig.1. Slope of the line PQ is
∆x
The derivative of a function y = f(x) is the function f ′(x) whose value at each x is
defined as
dy
= f ′(x) = Slope of the line PQ (See Fig.1)
dx
f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
= ∆xlim
→0 -------- (1)
∆x
= lim (Average rate change)
∆x → 0
The instantaneous velocity and acceleration of a body (moving along a line) at any instant
x is the derivative of its position co-ordinate y = f(x) w.r.t x, i.e.,
dy
Velocity = = f ′(x ) --------- (2)
dx
And the corresponding acceleration is given by
d2y
Acceleration = 2 = f ′′( x) ---------- (3)
dx
• Session - 1
123
d2 f
Input function y ′ = f ′(x) Operation Output function y ′′ = = f ′′( x ) (second order
d
dx
dx 2
derivative)
d3 f
Input function y ′′ = f ′′(x) Operation Output function y ′′′ = = f ′′′( x) (third order
d
dx
dx 3
derivative)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
dn f
Input function y n −1 = f n −1 ( x) Operation Output function y n = n
= f n (x) (nth order
d
dx
dx
derivative)
Animation Instruction
(Successive Differention-A flow diagram)
Output functions are to appear after operating
Operation
d
dx
124
[ ]
y 2 = − tan xy1 + cos 2 xy , using Eqs. (1) and (2)
or y 2 + tan xy1 + cos 2 xy = 0
d2y dy
or 2
+ tan x + y cos 2 x = 0
dx dx
(ax + b)
2. If y = , show that 2 y1 y 3 = 3 y 2
2
(cx + d )
(ax + b)
Solution: We rewrite y = , by actual division of ax+b by c x+d, as
(cx + d )
ad 1 a ad
y = a + b − = + k ( cx + d ) ---------- (1)where k = b −
−1
c
c cx + d c c
Differentiating (1) successively thrice, we get
dy
= y1 = − kc( cx + d )
−2
---------- (2)
dx
d2y
= y 2 = −2kc 2 ( cx + d )
−3
2
---------- (3)
dx
d3y
= y 3 = −6kc 3 ( cx + d )
−4
3
---------- (4) From (2), (3) and (4) we get
dx
[{ }{
2 y1 y 3 = 2 − kc(cx + d ) −2 − 6kc 3 (cx + d ) −4 }]
2 y1 y 3 = 12k 2 c 4 (cx + d ) −6
[
2 y1 y 3 = 3 − 2kc 2 (cx + d ) −3 ] 2
Therefore 2 y1 y3 = 3 y 2 , as desired.
2
d2y dy
3. If x = sin t , y = sin pt , Prove that (1 − x 2 ) 2
− x + p2 y = 0
dx dx
Solution: Note that the function is given in terms a parameter t. So we find,
dy dy
= cos t and = p cos pt , so that
dt dt
dy dy dt p cos pt
y1 = = = . Squaring on both sides
dx dx dt cos t
cos t 1 − sin t 1− x
( )
∴ 1 − x ( y1 ) = p 1 − y .
2 2 2
( 2
)
Differentiating this equation w.r.t x, we get
( )
1 − x 2 2 y1 y 2 + ( y1 ) 2 ( −2 x) = p 2 (−2 yy1 ) .
125
( )
or 1 − x 2 y 2 − xy1 + p 2 y = 0
d2y dy
i.e. (1 − x 2 ) 2
− x + p2 y = 0
dx dx
d2y
4. If x = a (cos t + t sin t ) , y = a (sin t − t cos t ) , find
dx 2
dy
Solution: = a( − sin t + t cos t + sin t ) = at cos t
dt
dy
= a( cos t + t sin t − cos t ) = at sin t
dt
dy dy at sin t
∴ = dt = = tan t
dx dx dt at cos t
d2y dt 1 1
Hence, 2
= sec 2 t = sec 2 t = 3
dx dx at cos t at cos t
( )
5. If y = a cosh x a , prove that a 2 y 22 = 1 + y12
Solution: y1 =
dy
dx a a
( )( )
= a sinh x 1 = sinh x , and
a
( )
( )( )
2
d y
y 2 = 2 = cosh x 1 ,
dx a a
( )
∴ ay 2 = cosh x , so that a 2 y 22 = cosh 2 x
a a
( )
i.e. a y 2 = 1 + sinh
2 2 2 x
a
( )
= 1 + y1 , as desired.
2
(
1. If y = e ax sin bx , prove that y 2 − 2ay1 + a 2 + b 2 y = 0 )
2
d y h − ab 2
126
d2y
7. Find 2
, when x = a cos 3 θ , y = b sin 3 θ Ans:
dx
b cos ecθ sec 4 θ
3a 2
d3y x 1 + 2x 2
8. Find 3 , where y = tan
−1
Ans:
dx 1− x
2
(1 − x )
2
5
2
d2y π
9. If x = 2 cos t − cos 2t , x = 2 sin t − sin 2t , Find 2 x = Ans: -3/2
dx 2
d2y dy
10. If xy = e x + be − x , prove that x 2 + 2 − xy = 0
dx dx
• Session -2
• Below, we present a table of nth order derivatives of some standard functions for
ready reference.
Table : 1
127
Sl. y = f(x) dny
No yn = n
= Dn y
dx
1 e mx m n e mx
2 a mx m n ( log a ) a mx
n
3 ( ax + b ) m i. m( m − 1)( m − 2 )....( m − n + 1) a n ( ax + b )
m− n
for all m .
ii. 0 if m < n
iii. ( n!) a n if m = n
m!
iv. x m −n if m < n
( m − n )!
4 1 (−1) n n ! n
a
( ax + b ) (ax + b) n +1
5. 1 ( −1) n (m + n − 1) ! n
a
( ax + b ) m (m − 1) !(ax + b) m + n
6. log(ax + b) (−1) n −1 (n − 1) ! n
a
(ax + b) n
7. sin( ax + b) a n sin( ax + b + n π )
2
8. cos(ax + b) a cos(ax + b + n π )
n
2
9. e ax sin(bx + c) r e sin(bx + c + nθ ) , r = a 2 + b 2
n ax
θ = tan −1 ( b a )
10. e ax cos(bx + c ) r n e ax cos(bx + c + nθ ) , r = a 2 + b 2 θ = tan −1 ( b a )
• We proceed to illustrate the proof of some of the above results, as only the above
functions are able to produce a sequential change from one derivative to the
other. Hence, in general we cannot obtain readymade formula for nth derivative
of functions other than the above.
128
…………….
And hence we get
dn
yn = m n e mx ∴ n e mx = m n e mx .
dx
[ ]
2. ( ax + b ) m (See Sl. No-3 of Table-1 )
let y = ( ax + b ) m Differentiating w.r.t x,
y1 = m ( ax + b ) m −1 a . Again differentiating w.r.t x, we get
y2 = m ( m − 1) ( ax + b ) m− 2 a 2
Similarly, we get
y3 = m ( m − 1) ( m − 2) ( ax + b ) m−3 a 3
………………………………….
And hence we get
yn = m ( m − 1) ( m − 2) ………. ( m − n + 1) ( ax + b ) m − n a n for all m.
Case (i) If m = n (m-positive integer),then the above expression becomes
yn = n ( n − 1) ( n − 2 ) ……….3.2.1 ( ax + b ) n −n a n
i.e. y n = ( n!) a
n
Case (ii) If m<n,(i.e. if n>m) which means if we further differentiate the above
expression, the
right hand site yields zero. Thus D n ( ax + b ) m = 0 if ( m < n ) [ ]
If m>n, then y n = m( m − 1)( m − 2 )......( m − n + 1)( ax + b ) a n becomes
m−n
Case (iii)
m( m − 1)( m − 2 )......( m − n + 1)( m − n ) !
= ( ax + b ) m−n a n
( m − n) !
m!
. i.e yn = ( ax + b ) m−n a n
( m − n) !
1
3. (See Sl. No-5 of Table-1 )
( ax + b ) m
1
= ( ax + b )
−m
Let y=
( ax + b ) m
Differentiating w.r.t x
y1 = −m( ax + b ) a = ( − 1) m( ax + b )
− m −1 − ( m +1)
a
[
y 2 = ( − 1)( m ) − ( m + 1)( ax + b )
− ( m +1) −1
]
a = ( − 1) m( m + 1)( ax + b )
2 −( m+2 )
a2
y 3 = ( − 1) m( m + 1)( m + 2 )( ax + b )
3 − ( m+ 3 )
Similarly, we get a3
y 4 = ( − 1) m( m + 1)( m + 2 )( m + 3)( ax + b )
4 − ( m+ 4 )
a4
……………………………
y n = ( − 1) m( m + 1)( m + 2).....( m + n − 1)( ax + b )
n −( m+n ) n
a
129
This may be rewritten as
yn =
( − 1) n ( m + n − 1)( m + n − 2).....( m + 1) m( m − 1) ! ( ax + b ) −( m+n ) a n
( m − 1) !
yn =
( − 1) ( m + n − 1) ! n
n
a
or
( m − 1) !( ax + b ) m+n
1
4.
( ax + b ) (See Sl. No-4 of Table-1 )
Putting m = 1, in the result
1 (−1) n (m + n − 1) ! n
Dn m
= m+n
a
( ax + b) ( m − 1) !(ax + b)
n 1 (−1) n (1 + n − 1) ! n
we get D = 1+ n
a
(ax + b) (1 − 1) !(ax + b)
n 1 (−1) n n ! n
or D = 1+ n
a
( ax + b) (ax + b)
[ ]
(b) Let y = log ( 4 x + 3)e 5 x +7 = log(4 x + 3) + log e 5 x +7
= log(4 x + 3) + (5 x + 7) log e e ( log A B = B log A )
∴ y = log(4 x + 3) + (5 x + 7) ( log e e = 1 )
(−1) n −1 (n − 1) ! n
∴ yn = ( 4) + 0 D(5 x + 6) = 5
(4 x + 3) n
D 2 (5 x + 6) = 0
D n (5 x + 1) = 0 (n > 1)
130
(3 x + 5) 2 (2 − 3 x)
(c) Let y = log10
( x + 1) 6
1 (3 x + 5) 2 (2 − 3 x) log e X
= log10 X =
log e 10 ( x + 1) 6 log e 10
1 1 (3 x + 5) 2 (2 − 3 x)
= log log A B = B log A
log e 10 2 ( x + 1) 6
A
log = log A − log B
B
1
=
2 log e 10
{
log(3 x + 5) 2 + log(2 − 3x ) − log( x + 1) 6 }
1
∴ y= { 2 log(3x + 5) + log(2 − 3x) − 6 log( x + 1)}
2 log e 10
Hence,
131
hence, yn =
2
[
1 n 4x
]
1
[
4 e + (−4) n e − 4 x + 8 n e 8 n + (−8) n e −8 n + 0
4
]
(c) Let y = e − x sinh 3 x cosh 2 x
−x e 3 x − e −3 x e 2 x + e −2 x
=e
2 2
−x
=
e
4
{
(e 3 x − e −3 x )(e 2 x + e − 2 x )}
e −x 5x
=
4
{
e − e − x + e x − e −5 x }
{
1 4x
= e − e − 2 x + 1 − e −6 x
4
}
1
{
y = 1 + e 4 x − e −2 x − e −6 x
4
}
Hence,
1
{
y n = 0 + (4) n e 4 x − (−2) n e − 2 x − (−6) n e −6 x
4
}
1 1
(d) Let y = + + (6 x + 8) 5
(4 x + 5) (5 x + 4) 4
Hence, y n =
dn 1 dn
+
1
dx (4 x + 5) dx (5 x + 4) dx
n n
dn
4
{
+ n ( 6 x + 8)
5
}
(−1) n n ! (−1) n (4 + n − 1) !
= n +1
(4) +
n
4+ n
(5) n + 0
(4 x + 5) (4 − 1) !(5 x + 4)
(−1) n n ! (−1) n (3 + n) ! n
i.e y n = (4) +
n
(5)
(4 x + 5) n +1 3!(5 x + 4) n + 4
• Session - 3
• 1.2.2 Worked examples:-
132
1 1 x2
1. (i) (ii) (iii)
x 2 − 6x + 8 1 − x − x 2 + x3 2x 2 + 7x + 6
x + 2
(iv) + 2
1
x + 1 4 x + 12 x + 9
−1
( ) −1 1 + x
(v) tan x a (vi) tan −1 x (vii) tan
1− x
• In all the above problems, we use the method of partial fractions to reduce
them into standard forms.
1 1
Solutions: (i) Let y = 2 . The function can be rewritten as y =
x − 6x + 8 ( x − 4)( x − 2)
• This is proper fraction containing two distinct linear factors in the denominator.
So, it can be split into partial fractions as
1 A B
y= = + Where the constant A and B are found
( x − 4)( x − 2) ( x − 4) ( x − 2)
as given below.
1 A( x − 2) + B ( x − 4)
=
( x − 4)( x − 2) ( x − 4)( x − 2)
∴ 1 = A( x − 2) + B ( x − 4) -------------(*)
Putting x = 2 in (*), we get the value of B as B = − 1 2
1 (−1) n n ! n 1 (−1) n n !
= n +1
(1) − n +1
(1) n
2 ( x − 4) 2 ( x − 2)
1 1 1
= (−1) n n ! n +1
− n +1
2 ( x − 4) ( x − 2)
1 1 1
(ii) Let y = = =
1− x − x + x
2 3
(1 − x) − x (1 − x) (1 − x)(1 − x 2 )
2
133
1 1
ie y = =
(1 − x)(1 − x)(1 + x) (1 − x) 2 (1 + x)
Though y is a proper fraction, it contains a repeated linear factor (1 − x) 2
in its
denominator. Hence, we write the function as
A B C
y= + + in terms of partial fractions. The constants
(1 − x) (1 − x) 2
1+ x
A, B, C
are found as follows:
1 A B C
y= = + +
(1 − x) (1 + x)
2
(1 − x) (1 − x) 2
1+ x
1 1 1 1 ( −1) n (n + 1) !
= (−1) n n ! n +1
+ +
4 (1 − x ) (1 + x) n +1 2 (1 − x) n + 2
x2
(iii) Let y = (VTU July-05)
2x 2 + 7x + 6
This is an improper function. We make it proper fraction by actual division
and later
spilt that into partial fractions.
1 (− 7 x − 3)
i.e x ÷ ( 2 x + 7 x + 6) = + 2 2
2 2
2 2x − 7x + 6
1 −7 x − 3
∴y= + 2
Resolving this proper fraction into partial fractions,
2 ( 2 x + 3)( x + 2)
we get
134
1 A B
y= + + . Following the above examples for finding A &
2 (2 x + 3) ( x + 2)
B, we get
1 92 (−4)
y= + +
2 2 x + 3 x + 2
9 (−1) n n ! n ( −1) n n !
Hence, y n = 0 + n +1
( 2 ) − 4 n +1
(1) n
2 (2 x + 3) ( x + 2)
9 2 ( 2) n 4
y
i.e n = ( − 1) n
n ! n +1
−
(2 x + 3) ( x + 2) n +1
( x + 2) x
(iv) Let y = + 2
( x + 1) 4 x + 12 x + 9
(i) (ii)
Here (i) is improper & (ii) is proper function. So, by actual division (i)
becomes
x + 2 1
= 1+ . Hence, y is given by
x +1 x + 1
1 1
y = 1+ + [ (2 x + 3) 2 = 4 x 2 + 12 x + 9 ]
x + 1 (2 x + 3)
2
(v) tan x a
−1
( )
Let y = tan x
−1
( a)
1 1 a
∴ y1 = = 2
1+ x( a) 2
a x +a
2
a
y n = D n y = D n −1 ( y1 ) = D n −1 2 2
x +a
135
a a
Consider =
x +a
2 2
( x + ai )( x − ai )
A B
= + , on resolving into partial fractions.
( x + ai ) ( x − ai )
=
(
−1
2 i +
) ( )
1
2i , on solving for A & B.
( x + ai ) ( x − ai )
a n −1 − 2 i n −1
1 1
∴ D n −1 2 = D + D
2i
x +a x + ai x − ai
2
1 (−1) (n − 1) ! 1 (−1) (n − 1) !
n −1 n −1
= − + -----------(*)
2i ( x + ai ) 2i ( x − ai )
n n
• Since above answer containing complex quantity i we rewrite the answer in terms of
real quantity, We take transformation x = r cos θ a = r sin θ where r = x 2 + a 2 ,
a
θ = tan −1
x
x + ai = r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = re iθ
x − ai = r ( cos θ − i sin θ ) = re − iθ
1 1 e inθ 1 e −inθ
= = , =
( x − ai ) n r n e −inθ r n ( x + ai ) n r n
=
( − 1) ( n − 1)! inθ
n −1
[e − e −inθ ]
now(*) is y n n
2ir
yn =
( − 1) n −1 ( 2 i sin nθ ) ⇒ ( − 1) n−1 ( n − 1)! sin nθ
2 i rn rn
1 1
∴ r = cot 2 θ + 1 = cos ecθ ⇒ n = = sin n θ
r cos ec θ
n
n
( −1
)
D tan x = ( − 1) ( n − 1) ! sin θ sin nθ where θ = cot −1 x
n −1 n
−1 1 + x
(vii) Let y = tan
1− x
put x = tan θ θ = tan −1 x
1 + tan θ
∴ y = tan −1
1 − tan θ
136
= tan −1 [ tan(π 4 + θ )] (
tan π
4
) 1 + tan θ
+θ =
1 − tan θ
π
=π +θ = + tan −1 ( x)
4 4
π
y= + tan −1 ( x)
4
y n = 0 + D n (tan −1 x )
1 (−1) (n − 1) ! 1 (−1) (n − 1) !
n −1 n −1
= − +
2i ( x + ai ) 2i ( x − ai )
n n
x3 2x 1 + x2 −1
7. tan
−1 −1
5. 2 6. tan 2
x − 3x + 2 1− x x
137
• Session 4
1. sin( ax + b) .(See Sl. No-7 of Table-1 )
Let y = sin( ax + b) . Differentiating w.r.t x,
π
y1 = cos(ax + b).a As sin( X + ) = cos X
2
We can write
y1 = a sin(ax + b + π / 2).
Again Differentiating w.r.t x,
π
y 2 = a cos(ax + b + π / 2).a Again using sin( X + ) = cos X ,we get
2
y 2 as
y 2 = a sin( ax + b + π / 2 + π / 2).a
i.e. y 2 = a 2 sin( ax + b + 2π / 2).
Similarly, we get
y 3 = a 3 sin(ax + b + 3π / 2).
y 4 = a 4 sin( ax + b + 4π / 2).
……………………………
y n = a n sin( ax + b + nπ / 2).
2. e ax sin ( bx + c ). (See Sl. No-9 of Table-1 )
Let y = e ax sin ( bx + c ).....(1)
Differentiating using product rule ,we get
y1 = e ax cos( bx + c ) b + sin ( bx + c ) ae ax
i.e. y1 = e ax [ a sin ( bx + c ) + b cos( bx + c ) ] . For computation of higher order
derivatives
it is convenient to express the constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ in terms of the
constants r and
θ defined by a = r cos θ & b = r sin θ ,so t r = a 2 + b 2 and
( )
θ = tan −1 b a .thus,
y1 can be rewritten as
y1 = e ax [ ( r cos θ ) sin ( bx + c ) + ( r sin θ ) cos( bx + c ) ]
or y1 = e ax [ r{sin ( bx + c ) cos θ + cos( bx + c ) cos θ }]
i.e. y1 = re ax [ sin ( bx + c + θ ) ]...........(2)
Comparing expressions (1) and (2), we write y 2 as
y 2 = r 2 e ax sin ( bx + c + 2θ )
y 3 = r 3 e ax sin ( bx + c + 3θ )
138
Continuing in this way, we get
y 4 = r 4 e ax sin ( bx + c + 4θ )
y 5 = r 5 e ax sin ( bx + c + 5θ )
…………………………….
y n = r n e ax sin ( bx + c + nθ )
[ ]
∴ D n e ax sin ( bx + c ) = r n e ax sin ( bx + c + nθ ) , where r = a 2 + b 2 &
( )
θ = tan −1 b a
2 2
(iii) sin 3 x = 3 sin x − 4 sin 3 x (iv) cos 3 x = 4 cos 3 x − 3 cos x
1 − cos 2 x 1
Solutions: (i) Let y = sin x + cos x = + ( cos 3 x + 3 cos x )
2 3
2 4
1
2
[
n
( 2
1
)] [ (
∴ y n = 0 − ( 2 ) cos 2 x + nπ + ( 3) cos 3 x + nπ + 3 cos x + nπ
4
n
2 2
) ( )]
3
sin 2 x sin 3 2 x 1 − sin 6 x + 3 sin 2 x
(ii)Let y = sin x cos x =
3 3
= =
2 8 8 4
1
= [ 3 sin 2 x − sin 6 x ]
32
1 n nπ n nπ
yn = 3.2 sin 2 x + − 6 sin 6 x +
32 2 2
139
1
2
[
( cos 4 x + cos 2 x ) cos 2 x = 1 cos 4 x cos 2 x + cos 2 2 x
=
2
]
1 1 1 − cos 4 x
= ( cos 6 x + cos 2 x ) +
2 2 2
1 cos 2 x 1
= cos 6 x + + (1 − cos 4 x )
4 4 4
nπ nπ
2 n cos 2 x + 4 cos 4 x +
n
1 n nπ 2 2
∴ y n = 6 cos 6 x + + −
4 2 4 4
(iv) )Let y = sin 3 x sin x sn 2 x
1
= [ sin ( 2 x ) − sin 4 x ] sin 2 x
2
1
[
= sin 2 2 x − sin 4 x sin 2 x
2
]
1 1 − cos 4 x 1
= − ( sin 2 x − sin 6 x )
2 2 2
1 − cos 4 x 1
= − ( sin 2 x − sin 6 x )
4 4
1 n nπ nπ nπ
yn = 4 cos 4 x + − 2 sin 2 x +
n
+ 6 sin 6 x +
n
4 2 2 2
2
]
1 − cos 2 x 1
+ [ cos 3 x + 3 cos x ]
4
[ ] 1 − cos 2 x e
2x
∴ y = e 2 x sin 2 x + cos 3 x = e 2 x + 4 [ cos 3 x + 3 cos x ]
2
1
[ ] 1
[
∴ y = e 2 x − e 2 x cos 2 x + e 2 x cos 3 x + 3e 2 x cos x
2 4
]
Hence,
1
[ 1
] [
y n = 2 n e 2 x − r1n e 2 x cos( 2 x + nθ1 ) + r2n e 2 x cos( 3 x + nθ 2 ) + 3r3n e 2 x cos( x + nθ 3 )
2 4
]
where r1 = 2 2 + 2 2 = 8 ; r2 = 2 2 + 3 2 = 13 ; r3 = 2 2 + 12 = 5
2 3 1
θ1 = tan −1 ;θ 2 = tan −1 ;θ 3 = tan −1 ;
2 2 2
140
Problem set No. 1.2.2 for practice
Find nth derivative of the following functions:
1. (sin 3 x + cos 2 x) 2. sin 2 x cos 3 x 3. cos 2 x. sin 3 x 4. cos x cos 2 x
5. sin x sin 2 x 6. e 3 x (sin 3 x + cos 2 x) 7. e x cos 2 x cos 4 x 8. e − x sin 2 x cos 2 x
.9. e −3 x cos 3 x (VTU Jan-04)
• Session - 1
• Leibnitz’s theorem is useful in the calculation of nth derivatives of product of two
functions.
• Statement of the theorem:
If u and v are functions of x, then
D (uv) = D n uv + n C1 D n −1uDv + n C 2 D n −2 uD 2 v + ....+ n C r D n − r uD r v + ...uD n v ,
n
d n n( n − 1) n!
, C1 = n , C 2 = ,........, n C r =
n
where D =
dx 2 r!( n − r )!
• Worked Examples
1. If x = sin t , y = sin pt prove that
( )
1 − x 2 y n + 2 − ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 + p 2 − n 2 y n = 0 ( )
(VTU July-05)
Solution: Note that the function y = f (x) is given in the parametric form with a
parameter t.
So, we consider
dy dy dt p cos pt
= = (p – constant)
dx dx dt cos t
2
dy p 2 cos 2 pt p 2 (1 − sin 2 pt ) p 2 (1 − y 2 )
or = = =
dx cos 2 t 1 − sin 2 t 1− x2
(
or 1 − x 2 y12 = p 2 1 − y 2 ) ( )
(
So that 1 − x 2 y12 − p 2 1 − y 2 ) ( )
Differentiating w.r.t. x,
[( )
1 − x ( 2 y1 y 2 ) + y1 ( − 2 x ) − p ( − 2 yy1 ) = 0
2 2 2
]
( )
1 − x 2 y 2 − xy1 + p 2 y = 0 --------------- (1) [ ÷ 2 y1 , throughout]
Equation (1) has second order derivative y 2 in it. We differentiate (1), n times,
term wise,
using Leibnitz’s theorem as follows.
[(
D n 1 − x 2 y 2 − xy1 − p 2 y = 0 ) ]
141
{ }
i.e D n (1 − x 2 ) y 2 − D n { xy1 } − D n p 2 y = 0( ) ---------- (2)
D n ( p 2 y) = p 2 D n ( y) = p 2 yn --------- (5)
Substituting these values (3), (4) and (5) in Eq (2) we get
{( ) }
1 − x 2 y n + 2 − 2nxy n +1 − n(n − 1) y n − { xy n +1 + ny n } + p 2 y n = 0 { }
ie (1 − x ) y − (2n + 1) xy n +1 − n y n + ny n − ny n + p y n = 0
2 2 2
n+2
∴ (1 − x ) y
2
n+2 ( )
− (2n + 1) xy n +1 + p 2 − n 2 y n = 0 as desired.
2. If sin −1 y = 2 log( x + 1) or
[
y = sin[ 2 log( x + 1)] or y = sin log( x + 1) 2 ]
or y = sin log( x 2 + 2 x + 1) , show that
( x + 1) 2 y n+ 2 + ( 2n + 1)( x + 1) y n+1 + ( n 2 + 4) y n
= 0 (VTU Jan-03)
Out of the above four versions, we consider the function as
sin −1 ( y ) = 2 log( x + 1)
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
142
1 2
( y1 ) = ie ( x + 1) y1 = 2 1 − y 2
1− y 2
x + 1
Squaring on both sides
( x + 1) 2 y12 = 4(1 − y 2 )
Again differentiating w.r.t x,
( x + 1) 2 ( 2 y1 y 2 ) + y12 ( 2( x + 1) ) = 4(−2 yy1 )
or ( x + 1) 2 y 2 + ( x + 1) y1 = −4 y (÷2 y1 )
or ( x + 1) 2 y 2 + ( x + 1) y1 + 4 y = 0 -----------*
Differentiating * w.r.t x, n-times, using Leibnitz’s theorem,
n n(n − 1) n − 2
n −1
D y 2 ( x + 1) + nD ( y 2 )2( x + 1) +
2
2!
D ( y 2 )(2) + D n ( g1 )( x + 1) + nD n −1 y1 (1) + 4 D n y = 0 { }
On simplification, we get
( x + 1) 2 y n+ 2 + ( 2n + 1)( x + 1) y n+1 + n 2 + 4 y n = 0 ( )
3. If x = tan(log y ) , then find the value of
( )
1 + x 2 y n +1 + ( 2nx − 1) y n + n(n − 1) y n −1 (VTU July-04)
Consider
x = tan(log y )
−1
i.e. tan −1 x = log y or y = e tan x
Differentiating w.r.t x,
−1 1 y
y1 = e tan x . =
1+ x 2
1+ x2
(
∴ 1 + x 2 y1 = y )
ie 1 + x 2 y1 − y = 0 -----------* ( )
We differentiate * n-times using Leibnitz’s theorem,
We get
[(
D n 1 + x 2 y1 − D n ( y ) = 0 ) ]
ie.
{ D ( y1 )(1 + x 2 )+ n C1 D n −1 ( y1 ) D(1 + x 2 ) + n C 2 D n − 2 ( y1 ) D 2 (1 + x 2 ) + .... − D n y = 0
n
} { }
n(n − 1)
ie y n +1 (1 + x ) + ny n (2 x) + y n −1 (2) + 0 + .... − y n = 0
2
2!
( )
1 + x y n +1 + ( 2nx − 1) y n + n(n − 1) y n −1 = 0
2
4. If y
1
m
+ y−
1
m
= 2x , [
or y = x + x 2 − 1 or y = x − x 2 − 1 ] m
[ ] m
Show that x − 1 y n + 2
2
( ) ( )
+ (2n + 1) xy n +1 + n 2 − m 2 y n = 0 (VTU Feb-02)
Consider
1
+ y− = 2x ⇒ + = 2x
1 1 1
y m m
y m
1
ym
⇒ (y ) 1
m
2
− 2x y ( ) + 1 = 0 Which is quadratic equation in y
1
m
1
m
143
− (−2 x) ± (−2 x ) 2 − 4(1)(1) 2 x ± 4 x 2 − 4
∴ y 1m = =
2(1) 2
=
2x ± 2 x 2 − 1
2
(
= x ± x2 −1 ⇒ y m = x ± x2 −1
1
) ( )
( )
∴ y = x ± x 2 − 1 . So, we can consider
m
y = [ x + x − 1] y = [ x − x − 1]
m m
or 2 2
Let us take y = [ x + x − 1]
m
2
∴ y = m( x + x − 1 ) 1 +
1 m −1
1 (2 x)
2
2 x −1
2
y1 = m x + x 2 − 1 (
m −1
x 2 − 1 + x
x 2 − 1
)
or
( )
x 2 − 1 y1 = my . On squaring
( )
x 2 − 1 y12 = m 2 y 2 . Again differentiating w.r.t x,
(x 2
)
− 1 2 y1 y 2 + y12 (2 x) = m 2 (2 yy1 )
or
(x 2
)
− 1 y 2 + xy1 = m 2 y (÷2 y1 )
or
(x )
− 1 y 2 + xy1 − m 2 y = 0
2
------------(*)
Differentiating (*) n- times using Leibnitz’s theorem and simplifying, we get
( )
x 2 − 1 y n + 2 + (2n + 1) xy n +1 + n 2 − m 2 y n = 0 ( )
Problem set 1.3.1
In each of the following, apply Leibnitz’s theorem to get the results.
d n log x (−1) n n! 1 1 1
1. show that n = n +1 log x − 1 − − − ......... Hint: Take
dx x x 2 3 n
1
v = log x; u =
x
2. If y = ( x − 1) , Show that y n satisfies the equation
2 n
(1 − x ) ddx y − 2 x dy
2
2
+ n(n + 1) y = 0 Hint : It is required to show that
2
dx
(1 − x ) y − 2 xy + n( n + 1) y = 0
2
n+2 n +1 n
3. If y = a cos(log x) + b sin(log x ),
x 2 y n + 2 + ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 + n 2 + 1 y n = 0 ( )
144
−1
4. If y = e m sin x , Prove That
( ) ( )
1 − x 2 y n + 2 − ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 − n 2 + m 2 y n = 0
n
y x
5. If cos −1 = log , Show that
b n
x y n + 2 + ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 + 2n 2 y n = 0
2
(
6. y = sin m sin −1 x , Pr ove That )
( ) ( )
1 − x 2 y n + 2 − ( 2n + 1) xy n +1 − n 2 + m 2 y n = 0
(
7. If y n = D x log x , Prove That
n n
)
1 1 1
(i) y n = ny n −1 + (n − 1)! (ii) y n = n! log x + 1 + + + ......... +
2 3 n
n!
8. If y = x n log x, Show that y n +1 =
x
• Summary:- The idea of successive differentiation was presented. The computation
of nth derivatives of a few standard functions and relevant problems were discussed.
Also, the concept of successive differention was extended for special type of
functions using Liebnitz’s theorem.
145
Chapter – 2 : POLAR CURVES
• Session-1
2.1.0 Introduction:- We are familiar with Cartesian coordinate system for specifying a
point in the xy – plane. Another useful system for similar purpose is Polar coordinate
system, and the curves specified by these coordinates are referred to as polar curves.
ө=
ө= ө=
ө=π ө=0
ө=
146
2.1.1 Important results
• Theorem 1: Angle between the radius vector and the tangent.: Y T
L
dθ φ
i.e. With usual notation prove that tan φ = r
dr P(r, ө)
φ
• Proof:- Let “ φ ” be the angle between the radius vector OPL r
ψ
Ө A
and the tangent TPT 1 at the point `P` on the polar O T
r = f(ө)
curve r = f (θ ) . (See fig.2)
From Fig.2, Fig.2. Angle between radius
ψ = θ +φ vector and the tangent
tan θ + tan φ
tanψ = tan (θ + φ ) =
1 − tan θ tan φ
dy tan θ + tan φ
i.e. = ................. (1)
dx 1 − tan θ tan φ
On the other hand, we have x = r cos θ ; y = r sin θ differentiating these,
w.r.t θ ,
dx dr dy dr
= r ( − sin θ ) + cos θ & = r ( cos θ ) + sin θ //NOTE//
dθ dθ dθ dθ
dr
dy r ( cos θ ) + sin θ
dy d θ dθ dr
= = dividing the Nr & Dr by cos θ
dx dx dr dθ
dθ r ( − sin θ ) + cos θ
dθ
dy
=
( r dθ
dr
)
+ tan θ
dx − ( rdθ dr ) tan θ + 1
(
dy tan θ + r dr
dθ )
i.e. =
dx 1 − tan θ rdθ ( )
dr
………………….(2)
147
• Theorem 2: The length “p” of perpendicular from pole to the tangent in a
polar curve i.e.
1 1 1 dr 2
(i) p = r sin φ or (ii) = 2 = 4
p 2
r r dθ
• Proof:- In the Fig.3, note that ON = p, the length of the perpendicular from the
pole to
the tangent at p on r = f (θ ) .from the right angled triangle OPN,
ON
sin φ = ⇒ ON = ( OP ) sin φ
OP
φ
i.e. p = r sin φ ..............(i )
1 1 1 P(r, ө)
Consider = = cos ecφ r φ
p r sin φ r Ψ
O Ө
1 1 1
∴ 2 = 2 cos ec 2φ = 2 (1 + cot 2φ ) r = f (ө)
p r r
P
Fig.3 Length of the perpendicular N
from the pole to the tangent
1 1 dr
2
1
= 1 +
p 2 r 2 r dθ
2
1 1 1 dr
∴ 2 = 2 + 4 ............(ii )
p r r dθ
2
1 1 du
• Note:-If u = , we get 2 = u 2 +
r p dθ
• Session-2
• In this session, we solve few problems on angle of intersection of polar curves
and pedal equations.
2.1.2 Worked examples:-
• Find the acute angle between the following polar curves
1. r = a (1 + cos θ ) and r = b(1 − cos θ ) (VTU-July-2003)
3. ( 2 ) and r = 25 cos ec (θ 2 )
r = 16 sec 2 θ 2
148
Solutions:
1. Consider Consider
r = a (1 + cos θ ) r = b(1 − cos θ )
Diff w.r.t θ Diff w.r.t θ
dr dr
= − a sin θ = b sin θ
dθ dθ
dθ a (1 + cos θ ) dθ b(1 − cos θ )
r = r =
dr − a sin θ dr b sin θ
tan φ1 = −
2 cos( )
2 θ
2 tan φ1 = −
2 sin 2 θ
2
( )
2 sin ( ) ( )
θ
2
cos θ
2
2 sin θ
2
cos θ ( ) ( )
2
= − cot θ = tan θ
2 2
( ) (
i.e tan φ1 = tan π 2 + θ 2 ⇒ φ1 = π 2 + θ 2 ) tan φ1 = tan θ ⇒ φ1 = φ2
2
Angle between the curves
( )
φ1 − φ2 = π 2 + θ 2 − θ 2 = π 2
Hence ,the given curves intersect orthogonally
2. Consider Consider
r = ( sin θ + cos θ ) r = 2 sin θ
Diff w.r.t θ Diff w.r.t θ
dr dr
= cos θ − sin θ = 2 cos θ
dθ dθ
dθ sin θ + cos θ dθ 2 sin θ
r = r =
dr cos θ − sin θ dr 2 cos θ
tan θ + 1
tan φ1 = (÷ Nr & Dr cos θ ) tan φ2 = tan θ
1 − tan θ
i.e tan φ1 =
tan θ + 1
1 − tan θ
(
= tan π + θ
4
) ⇒ φ2 = θ
⇒ φ1 = π + θ
4
∴ Angle between the curves = φ1 − φ2 = π ( 4
)
+θ −θ = π
4
3. Consider Consider
r = 16 sec 2 θ ( 2) ( 2)
r = 25 cos ec 2 θ
Diff w.r.t θ Diff w.r.t θ
149
dr
dθ
( ) ( )
= 32 sec 2 θ tan θ . 1
2 2 2
dr
dθ
( ) ( )
= −50 cos ec 2 θ cot θ . 1
2 2 2
( ) ( )
= 16 sec θ tan θ
2 2
= −25 cos ec 2 θ
( ) ( )
2
cot θ
2
dθ 16 sec ( )
2 θ
2 dθ ( )
25 cos ec 2 θ
2
r =
dr 16 sec 2 θ
( ) ( )
2
tan θ
2
r =
dr − 25 cos ec 2 θ
( ) ( )
2
cot θ
2
tan φ1 = cot θ
2
= tan( π
2
)−θ
2
tan φ2 = − tan θ
2
(
= tan − θ
2
)
⇒ φ1 = π ( 2
−θ
2
) ⇒ φ2 = −θ
2
( ) ( )
Angle of intersection of the curves = φ1 − φ2 = π 2 − θ 2 − θ 2
=π
2
4. Consider Consider
r = a log θ r= a
log θ
Diff w.r.t θ Diff w.r.t θ
dr a dr
= − a ( log θ ) . 1
2
=
dθ θ dθ θ
( log θ ) 2 θ
r
dθ
dr
= a log θ θ ( )
a
r
dθ
dr
= − a
log θ a
tan φ1 = θ log θ ..........(i ) tan φ 2 = −θ log θ ..........(ii )
We know that
tan φ1 − tan φ 2
tan ( φ1 − φ 2 ) =
1 + tan φ1 tan φ 2
θ log θ − ( − θ log θ )
=
1 + (ϑ log θ )( − θ log θ )
2θ log θ
i.e tan ( φ1 − φ 2 ) = ............(iii )
1 − (θ log θ )
2
150
2e log e 2e
tan ( φ1 − φ 2 ) =
1 − ( e log e )
2
= 2
1− e
( log ee = 1)
2e
∴ φ1 − φ 2 = tan −1 2
1− e
5. Consider Consider
aθ aθ
r= as r=
1+θ 1+θ 2
1 1+θ 1 1
r
=
aθ
=
a θ
+1 ( ) ∴ (1 + θ 2 ) = a
r
Diff w.r.t θ Diff w.r.t θ
− 2
1 dr 1 1
r dθ a
= −
θ2
( ) 2θ = − a
dr
r 2 dθ
1 dr r − 2 rθ 1 dr
= =
r dθ aθ 2 a r dθ
dθ aθ 2 dθ − a
r = i.e r =
dr r dr 2rθ
aθ 2 a 1+θ 2
tan φ1 = tan φ2 = −
aθ 2θ
(1 + θ ) a
∴ tan φ1 = θ (1 + θ ) tan φ2 = −
1
2θ
(1+θ 2 )
Now, we have
aθ
⇒ aθ (1 + θ 2 ) = a (1 + θ )
a
=r=
1+θ 1+θ 2
or θ + θ 3 = 1 + θ ⇒ θ 3 = 1 or θ = 1
∴ tan φ1 = 2 & tan φ2 = ( − 1)
tan φ1 − tan φ2
Consider tan ( φ1 − φ2 ) =
1 + ( tan φ1 )( tan φ2 )
2 − ( − 1)
= = −3 = 3
1 + ( 2 )( − 1)
∴ φ1 − φ2 = tan −1 ( 3)
Problem Set No. 2.1.1 for practice.
151
3. r = aθ and r = a θ (ans: π 2 )
152
Eliminating “ θ ” between (i) and (ii)
1 − cosθ r 2a
2
p 2 = r 2 sin 2 θ = r 2 = [See eg: - (i)]
2 2 2 r
p 2 = ar.
This eqn. is only in terms of p and r and hence it is the pedal equation of the polar
curve.
2. Consider r = eθ cot α
Diff. w.r.t θ
= eθ cot α ( cot α ) = r cot α ( r = eθ cot α )
dr
dθ
We use the equation
2
1 1 1 dr
= +
p 2 r 2 r 4 dθ
1 1
= 2 + 4 ( r cot α )
2
r r
= 2 + 4 ( cot 2 α ) = 2 (1 + cot 2 α ) = 2 cos ec 2α
1 1 1 1
r r r r
1 1
2
= 2 cos ec 2α
p r
2
p2 = r or r 2 = p 2 cosec 2α is the required pedal equation
cosec 2α
a m cos mθ − b m sin mθ
cot φ =
a m sin mθ + b m cos mθ
1 1
Consider p = r sin φ , = cos ecφ
p r
1 1
2
= 2 cos ec 2φ
p r
= 2 (1 + cot 2 φ )
1
r
153
1 a m cos mθ − b m sin mθ
2
= 2 1 + m
r a sin mθ + b m cos mθ
1 ( a m sin mθ + bm cos mθ ) + ( a m cos mθ − bm sin mθ )
2 2
= 2
r
( a m
sin m θ + b m
cos m θ ) 2
1 1 a 2m + b 2m
= Note
p 2 r 2 r 2m
r 2 ( m + 1)
⇒ p2 = 2m is the required p-r equation
a + b2m
4. Consider l r = (1 + cosθ )
Diff w.r.t θ
1 dr dr
l − 2 = − e sin θ ⇒ l r 1 r = e sin θ
r dθ dθ
l ( cot φ ) = e sin θ
r
( )
∴ cot φ = r e sin θ
l
l−r
e cosθ =
r
2 l − r 2
2 2
l + e r 1 −
1 1 re l −r
= cosθ =
p2 r2 l2
re
sin 2 θ = 1 − cos 2 θ
1 e2 − 1 2 l −r
2
On simplification 2 = 2 + = 1−
p e lr re
154
1. r n cos nθ = a n and r n sin nθ = b n
2. r = aθ and r = a θ
3. r = a cos θ and r = a 2
4 . r m = a m cos mθ and r m = b m sin mθ
Chapter-3: PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Lesson-1: Euler’s Theorem
Session-1
3.1.0 Introduction: We often come across qualities which depend on two or more
variables. For e.g. the area of a rectangle of length x and breadth y is given by
Area = A(x,y) = xy. The area A(x, y) is, obliviously, a function of two variables.
Similarly, the distances of the point (x, y, z) from the origin in three-dimensional space is
an example of a function of three variables x, y, z.
155
∂2z ∂2z
=
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
• The third and higher order partial derivatives of f(x,y) are defined in an analogous
way Also, the second and higher order partial derivatives of more than two
independent variables are defined similarly.
( )
1. Evaluate ∂z ∂x and ( ∂x ∂y ) , if
z = x 2 y − x sin xy
(a)
x + y + z = log z
(b)
1 ∂z ∂z ∂z 1
− = 1 + 0 ⇒ − 1 = 1
Constant, z ∂x ∂x ∂x z
∂z 1 − z ∂z z
=1 =
i.e.
∂x z or
∂x 1 − z
156
1 ∂z ∂z ∂z 1
− = 1 + 0 or − 1 = 1
z ∂x ∂x ∂x z
∂z z
=
⇒ ∂x 1 − z
∂z ∂z z
∴ = =
∂x ∂y 1 − z
1 ∂ 2 ∂θ ∂θ
−
r2
r = ?
2. .If θ = t n
e 4t
, what value of n will make
r 2
∂r ∂r ∂t
r2
−
Solution: Consider θ = t e ------------------------------------------------- (*)
n 4t
1 ∂ 2 ∂θ ∂θ
r = ,
Since, r 2
∂ r ∂r ∂ t equation (1) and (2) yield,
−r 2
− 3 n −1 r n −2 4t n −1 r 2 n − 2 −r 2 4t
2
t + t e = nt + t e
2 4 4
i.e.
(n + 3 2 ) t n −1
e
−r 2
4t
=0⇒ n+ 3 ( 2
) = 0 or n = − 3 2
∂z ∂z
+a = 2abz b
3. If z = e f ( ax − by ) , prove that ∂x
ax + by
∂y (VTU-Jan-2004)
Solution: Consider z = e
ax + by
f ( ax − by ) ,
------------------- (*)
Differentiating (*) w.r.t x using product and chain rules, we get
∂z
∂y
{ } {
= e ax +by f 1 ( ax − by )( − b ) + f ( ax − by ) e ax +by ( b ) }
157
∂z
= be ax +by { f ( ax − by ) − f 1 ( ax − by ) }
∂y ------------------- (2)
Multiplying eq (1) by b and eq(2) by a, and adding we get
b
∂z
∂x
+a
∂z
∂y
[
= abe ax +by f 1 ( ax + by ) + f ( ax − by ) + f ( ax − by ) − f 1 ( ax − by ) ]
= abe ax +by [ 2 f ( ax − by ) ]
[
= 2ab e ax +by f ( ax − by ) ]
= 2abz ,as desired
∂u 1 ∂v
=
4.Given u = e
r cosθ
cos( r sin θ ) , v = e r cosθ
sin ( r sin θ ) prove that ∂r r ∂θ and
,
∂v 1 ∂u
=−
∂r r ∂θ
Solution: Consider u = e
r cosθ
cos( r sin θ ) , Differentiating u w.r.t. r and θ partially, we
get,
∂u
= e r cosθ { − sin ( r sin θ )( sin θ )} + cos( r sin θ ) {e r cosθ ( cos θ ) }
∂r
∂u r cosθ
e {cos( r sin θ ) cos θ − sin( r sin θ ) sin θ }
i.e. ∂r
∂u
= e r cosθ {cos( r sin θ + θ ) }
or
∂r --------------(1)
∂u
= e r cosθ { − sin ( r sin θ )( r cos θ ) } + cos( r sin θ ) {e r cosθ ( − r sin θ ) }
and ∂θ
= − re r cosθ {sin ( r sin θ ) cos θ + cos( r sin θ ) sin θ }
1 ∂u
− = e r cosθ {sin ( r sin θ + θ ) }
i.e. r ∂ θ ---------------------(2)
Next consider,
v = e r cos θ sin(r sin θ )
Differentiating v w.r.t r & θ , Partially we get
∂v
∂r
{
= e r cos θ { cos( r sin θ ) sin θ } + sin ( r sin θ ) e r cos θ ( cos θ )}
= e r cosθ {sin ( r sin θ ) cos θ + cos( r sin θ ) sin θ }
∂v
= e r cosθ {sin ( r sin θ + θ ) }
i.e ∂r --------------------(3);
∂v
= e r cosθ {cos( r sin θ )( r cos θ ) } + sin ( r sin θ ) {e r cosθ ( − r sin θ ) }
∂θ
= re r cosθ {cos( r sin θ ) cos θ − sin ( r sin θ ) sin θ }
158
1 ∂v
= e r cos θ { cos( r sin θ + θ )}
i.e. r ∂θ ----------------------------- (4)
∂u 1 ∂v
Thus, from eqs (1) and (4), we obtain = , and from eqs (2) and (3) we obtain
∂r r ∂θ
∂v 1 ∂u
=− .
∂r r ∂θ
Session-2
• 3.1.3 Worked Examples:- In each of following examples, we try to
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
show that = , where u = f ( x, y ) is a function of two variables.
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
1. u = x y ; 2. u = e x ( x sin y − y sin y )
3. u = sin x
−1 y
Solution: - 1. Differentiating u = x y partially w.r.t y, we get
∂u
∂y
= x y log x
d x
( a ) = a x log x
dx
differentiating the above partially w.r.t x, we get
∂ ∂u ∂ y
=
∂x ∂y ∂x
( x log x )
∂ 2u
= x y + log x ( yx y −1 )
1
i.e ∂x∂y x
∂ 2u
= x y −1 (1 + y log x )
or ∂x∂y ---------------(1)
∂u
Next, differentiating u = x y partially w.r.t. x, we get = yx y −1 so that
∂x
∂ ∂u ∂
=
∂y ∂x ∂y
( yx y −1 )
∂ 2u
= y ( x y −1 log x ) + x y −1 (1)
i.e ∂y∂x
∂2u
= x y −1 (1 + y log x )
or
∂y∂x ---------------(2)
159
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
=
from (1) and (2), we get ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂u 1 − y = −y
= 2 2
∂x x x x2 − y2
1 − y
x
x x 2 − y 2 (1) − y x 1 ( − 2 y )
2 x − y
2 2
∂ ∂u
∴ =−
∂y ∂x x2 (x2 − y2 )
∂ 2u x ( x 2 − y 2 ) + xy 2 x
= − =−
∂y∂x x 2 ( x 2 − y 2 ) 2 ( )
3 3
i.e. x 2
− y 2 2
----------------(1)
∂u
∂y
=
1
2
( )
1 =
x
1
x2 − y2
1 − y
x
1
x 2 − y 2 ( 0) − (1) ( 2x)
∂ ∂u 2 x − y2
2
∴ = −
∂x ∂y x2 − y2
∂ 2u x
=−
i.e.
∂x∂y ( x 2 − y 2 ) 32 ------------- (2)
∂ u ∂ 2u 2
=
From (1) and (2), we get ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂u
= e x ( x cos y − y cos y − sin y )
∂y
Differentiating w.r.t x, we get
∂ ∂u
= e x ( − x sin y + cos y − 0 − 0) + ( x cos y − y cos y − sin y ) e x
∂x ∂y
∂ 2u
= e x ( − x sin y + cos y + x cos y − y cos y − sin y )
i.e. ∂x ∂y
∂ 2u
= e x { (1 + x − y ) cos y − (1 + x ) sin y}
Or ∂x∂y ----------------- (1)
160
Next, differentiating w.r.t x, we get
∂u
= e x { x cos y + sin y} + ( x sin y − y sin y ) e x
∂x
∂u
= e x { x cos y + (1 + x − y ) sin y}
∂x
Differentiating this w.r.t. y, we get
∂ ∂u
= e { x ( − sin y ) + 0 + (1 + x − y ) cos y + sin y ( − 1) }
x
∂y ∂x
= e x { (1 + x − y ) cos y − (1 + x ) sin y}
----------------- (2)
from (1)and (2),we get
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
=
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
3.1.4 In the following few examples involve equations where partial derivatives of
higher order occur. These equations frequently appear is engineering applications.
−1 2 xy ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
1. If u = tan 2
2 , prove that + =0
x −y ∂x 2 ∂y 2
−1 2 xy
Solution:- Differentiating u = tan 2
2
x −y
partially w.r.t.x, we get
∂u 1 ( x 2 − y 2 ) ( 2 y ) − 2 xy ( 2 x )
= 2
∂x 2 xy
1 + 2
( x2 − y2 )
2
2
x −y
∂u − 2y
= 2
i.e. ∂x ( x + y ) Differentiating Partially this w.r.t. x, we get
2
∂ 2 u ∂ − 2 y ( x 2 − y 2 ) ( 0) − ( 2 y )( 2 x )
= =
∂x 2 ∂x x 2 + y 2 ( x2 + y 2 )2
∂ 2u 4 xy
=
i.e.
∂x 2
( x 2
+ y )
2 2
-------------------------- (1)
−1 2 xy
Next differentiating u = tan 2
2
x −y
partially w.r.t. y, we get
∂u 1 ( x 2 − y 2 ) ( 2 x ) − 2 xy ( − 2 y )
= 2
∂y 2 xy
1 + 2
( x2 − y2 )
2
2
x −y
∂u 2x
= 2
∂y ( x + y 2 ) Differentiating partially this w.r.t.y, we get
161
∂ 2 u ∂ 2 x ( x 2 − y 2 ) ( 0) − ( 2 x )( 2 y )
= =
∂x 2 ∂x x 2 + y 2 ( x2 + y 2 )2
∂ 2u − 4 xy
=
i.e.
∂y 2
( x 2
+ y )
2 2
-----------------------(2)
∂ u ∂ 2u 2
Adding eqs (1) and (2) we get + = 0 , as desired
∂x 2 ∂y 2
Note:
∂ 2u ∂ 2u
(a) The equation + = 0 is known as Laplace’s equation in two dimension
∂x 2 ∂y 2
which has variety of applications in potential theory.
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
(b) A similar equation viz, + + = 0 is known as Laplace’s equation in
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
three- dimensions where u = u ( x, y , z )
∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2
2. If u = f ( x + ay ) + g ( x − ay ) , show that = a
∂y 2 ∂x 2
Solution:- Differentiating u = f ( x + ay ) + g ( x − ay ) , partially w.r.t.x, we get
∂u
= f 1 ( x + ay )(1) + g 1 ( x − ay )(1)
∂x
Again differentiating partially w.r.t.x, we see that
∂ 2u
= f 11 ( x + ay )(1) + g 11 ( x − ay )(1)
∂x 2
∂ 2u
[ ]
a 2 2 = a 2 f 11 ( x + ay ) + g 11 ( x − ay ) -----------(1)
∂x
Next, differentiating u = f ( x + ay ) + g ( x − ay ) , partially w.r.t.y
∂u
∂y
( )
= f 1 ( x + ay ) a 2 + g .1 ( x − ay ) a 2 ( )
Again differentiating partially w.r.t.y, we see that
∂ 2u
= f 11 ( x + ay ) ( a 2 ) + g 11 ( x − ay ) ( a 2 )
∂x 2
∂ 2u
∂y
[2 11 11
]
i.e 2 = a f ( x + ay ) + g ( x − ay ) ------------------(2)
162
from eqs (1) and (2), we see that
∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2
= a
∂y 2 ∂x 2
∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2
∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2
Note:- (a). The equation = a or the equation = a is known as
∂y 2 ∂x 2 ∂t 2 ∂x 2
one-dimensional wave equation
∂ 2u 2 ∂ u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
2
∂u ∂ 2u
3. If u = e −2 t cos 3x , find the value of ‘c’ such that = c2 2
∂t ∂x
−2 t
Solution:- Differentiating u = e cos 3x , partially w.r.t. t we get
∂u
= −2e −2 t cos 3x --------------- (1)
∂t
Next, differentiating u = e −2 t cos 3x partially w.r.t.x,
∂u
= −3e −2 t sin 3x
∂x
Again differentiating partially w.r.t x,
∂ 2u −2 t
= − 9 e cos 3 x
∂x 2
∴
∂u
∂t
∂ 2u
∂x
( )
= c 2 2 ⇒ −2e −2 t cos 3x = 9e −2 t cos 3x ⇒ c 2 = 9 or c = 9 2
2
∂u ∂ 2u
Note (a) The equation = c 2 2 is called one-dimensional heat equation
∂t ∂x
∂u 2 ∂ u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
2
163
∂u 3x 2 − 3 yz
= 3
∂x x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz
∂u 3 y 2 − 3zx
=
∂y x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz
∂u 3z 2 − 3xy
= 3
And ∂z x + y + z − 3xyz adding these partial derivatives we get
3 3
∂u ∂u ∂u 3( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx ) 3( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx )
+ + = =
∂x ∂y ∂z x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz ( x + y + z ) ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx )
3
=
x+ y+z
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂u ∂u ∂u
= + + + +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂ 3
= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z x + y + z
∂ 3 ∂ 3 ∂ 3
+ +
∂x x + y + z ∂y x + y + z ∂z x + y + z
=
−3 −3 −3 9
=
2 +
2 +
−
2 =
( x + y + z) ( x + y + z) ( x + y + z) ( x + y + z)2
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u 2
5. If u = f ( r ) , where r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , show that + 2 + 2 = f 11 ( r ) + f 1 ( r )
∂x 2
∂y ∂z r
Solution:- By data r = x + y + z Differentiating this partially w.r.t x, we get
2 2 2 2
∂r ∂r x ∂r y ∂r z
2 r = 2 x or = Similarly, we get = and =
∂x ∂x r ∂y r ∂z r
Now, differentiating u = f ( r ) , partially w.r.t.x,
∂u ∂r ∂r x
= f 1( r) As = , we get
∂x ∂x ∂x r
∂u x ∂u f 1 ( r)
= f 1 ( r ) Differentiating = x partially w.r.t.x, we get
∂x r ∂x r
164
∂ 2u 1 11 ∂r 1 ∂r f ( r )
1
= x f ( r ) + f 1
( r ) − + (1)
∂x 2 r ∂x r ∂x
2
r
∂ 2u 1 11 x 1 x f ( r )
1
i.e. 2 = x f ( r ) + f ( r ) − 2 +
1
∂x r r r r r
∂ 2u x f ( r ) f ( r ) f ( r )
11 1 1
or = x − +
∂x 2 r r r2 r
∂2 u x 2 11 f 1(r) x2
= f ( r ) + 1 −
…………. (1)
∂x 2 r2 r r2
Similarly, we get
(r ) + f (r ) 1 − y2 ....(2 ) and
∂2u y2 1
2
= 2 f 11
∂y 2
r r r
∂2 u z 2 11 f 1 (r) z2
= f ( r ) + 1 − .....( 3)
∂z 2 r2 r r2
Adding eqs (1) ,(2) and (3), we get
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u f 11 ( r ) 2 f 1( r ) x2 + y2 + z 2
+ +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
=
r2
( x + y 2
+ z 2
) +
r
3 −
r2
f 1( r )
= f 11 ( r ) + { 3 − 1}
r
f 1(r)
= f (r) + 2
11
∂2 z ∂2z
1. Verify = where
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
( )
(i) z = x 3 + y 3 − 3axy (ii) z = tan −1 x 2 + y 2 (iii) z = log( x sin y + y sin x )
−1 y
2. If u = x tan x − y tan x y , prove that
2 2 −1
∂u2
x −y
2 2
∂ 2u ∂ ∂
= 2 Hint =
∂y∂x x + y 2
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x
2
x2 + y2 ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
3. If, z = , show that − = 41 − − (VTU-Jan-2005)
x +y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
165
∂u ∂u ∂u
4. If u = ( x − y )( y − z )( z − x ) , show that + + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ 2 z ∂ 2 z 1 ∂z ∂z
2 2
5. If z = e , prove that
xy + = +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 z ∂x ∂y 2
y z ∂u ∂u ∂u
6. If u = + , prove that x + y +z =0
z x ∂x ∂y ∂z
7. If x = r cosθ , y = r sin θ , show that
∂ 2 r ∂ 2 r 1 ∂r ∂r
2 2
+ 2 = + (Hint: By data x 2 + y 2 = r 2 )
∂x 2
∂y r ∂x ∂y
Session –3
• 3.1.5: Introduction to homogenous functions:-
n −1 n−2 2
An expression of the form a 0 x + a1 x y + a 2 x y + ............ + a n y
n n
In which every term is of the nth degree, is called homogenous function of order n. This
can be rewritten as
2 n
x n a 0 + a1 y + a 2 y + ............. + a n y
x x x
= x nφ y .
x
n y
Thus any function f ( x, y ) which can be expressed in the below x φ x , is called
homogenous function of order n (or derivative n) in x and y
3
2 3
For example: (i) f ( x, y ) = x + x y − xy + y = x 1 + x − x − x
3 2 2 3 y y y
n
Note: - (1) Any function, which can be expressed as, y φ x y is also a homogenous
function of degree n.(or order n)
(2) In general, a function f ( x, y, z, t ,.........) is said to be a homogenous function
166
of order n in x, y, z, t… if it can be expressed as
x nφ y , z , t ,................
x x x
3.1.6: Euler’s Theorem:-
The following theorem, named in honour of the great Swiss mathematician
L. Euler (1707-1783) gives a very useful formula for a particular combination of
partial derivatives of homogenous functions.
= − x n −1 yφ 1 y + nx nφ y + x n −1 yφ 1 y
x x x
= nx φ x
n y
Since u = x φ x
= nu . n y
167
• Corollary to Euler’s theorem:- If u is homogenous function of x and y with
2 ∂ u ∂ 2u 2 ∂ u
2 2
• Session - 4
• 3.1.7: Worked Examples
1. Verify Euler’s theorem for
xy
i). u = ii) u = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2
x + y
xy x 2 ( y x) y x
Solution:- (i) Consider u = = = x = xφ y = x 1φ y
x + y x (1 + y x ) 1 + y x x x
xy
This shows that u = is a homogenous function of degree1 (1=n).
x+ y
Hence, Euler’s theorem when applied to u becomes
∂u ∂u
x +y = (1)u ………….(*) (n=1)
∂x ∂y
we verify the equation (*) by showing actually LHS=RHS
168
xy ∂u y2 ∂u x2
now as u = , = & =
x + y ∂x ( x + y ) ∂y ( x + y ) 2
2
∂u ∂u
∴ LHS of (*) = x +y
∂x ∂y
y2 x2 xy ( x + y ) xy
= x
2
+ y
( x + y) 2
=
( x + y ) 2 = ( x + y ) =RHS
( x + y )
This verifies the result(*)
2 y2
(ii) Consider u = ax + 2hxy + by = x a 2 + 2h x + b
2 2 y
x x2
= x 2φ y ,which means u is a
x
homogenous function of degree 2. Hence, on applying Euler’s theorem
to u, we get
∂u ∂u
x +y = 2u ………….(*)
∂x ∂y
∂u
Now, as u = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 , we see that = 2( ax + hy ) &
∂x
∂u
= 2( ay + hx )
∂y
∂u ∂u
Consider, LHS of (*) x +y
∂x ∂y
= x( 2( ax + hy ) ) + y ( 2( ay + hx ) )
(
= 2ax 2 + 2hxy + 2hxy + 2ay 2 = 2 ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 )
= 2u = RHS
This verifies the result (*)
x y
2 2
∂u ∂u
(2) If sin u = , show that x +y = 3 tan u (VTU July-2005)
x+ y ∂x ∂y
x2 y2
Solution:- Consider sin u = = f ,say We note that
x + y
2
x y
4
x2 y2 x
f = = = x 3φ y .Thus, `f` is a homogenous function of degree 3.
x + y x1 + y x
x
Applying Euler’s theorem to f, we get
∂f ∂f
x +y = 3 f As f = sin u ,we see that
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂
x ( sin u ) + y ( sin u ) = 3( sin u )
∂x ∂y
169
∂u ∂u
i.e. x ( cos u ) + y ( cos u ) = 3 sin u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
or we get x +y = 3 tan u as desired
∂x ∂y
x3 + y3 ∂u ∂u
2. If
3 x + 4 y , show that x +y = 2u log u (VTU july-2004)
u=e
∂x ∂y
x 3 +y 3
x3 + y3
Solution: - Consider 3 x +4 y ∴ log u = = f ,say
u =e
3x + 4 y
3 y3
x 1 +
x3 + y3 x3
∴f = = = x 2φ y .Thus, f is a homogenous function of degree 2.
3x + 4 y x
x 3 + 4 y
x
Applying Euler's theorem to f, we get
∂f ∂f
x +y =2f
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂
i.e x ( log u ) + y ( log u ) = 2( log u )
∂x ∂y
1 ∂u 1 ∂u
or x + y = 2 log u
u ∂x u ∂y
∂u ∂u
or x +y = 2u log u
∂x ∂y
x+ y ∂u ∂u 1
4. If cos u = Prove that x +y = − cot u (VTU- Jan-2004)
x+ y ∂x ∂y 2
x1 + y 1
x+ y x
Solution:- Let cos u = = = x φ y = f ,say Hence, f is a
2
x+ y x
x 1 + y
x
homogenous function of degree ½
On applying Euler's theorem to f, we get
∂f ∂f 1
x +y = f Since f = cos u
∂x ∂y 2
∂ ∂ 1
x ( cos u ) + y ( cos u ) = cos u
∂x ∂y 2
∂u ∂u 1 ∂u ∂u 1 cos u
or x sin u + y − sin u = cos u or x +y =−
∂x ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y 2 sin u
∂u ∂u 1
or x +y = − cot u
∂x ∂y 2
170
−1 x + y
3 3
x3 + y3
Solution: - Consider u = tan
−1
x+y
x3 + y3
∴ tan u = = f , say
x+ y
3 y3
x
1 +
x3 + y 3 x 3
Now, ∴ f = = = x 2φ y .So, f is a homogenous function of
x+ y y x
x1 +
x
degree2. Applying Euler’s theorem to f we get
∂f ∂f
x +y = 2 f As f = tan u , we see that
∂x ∂y
∂ ∂
x ( tan u ) + y ( tan u ) = 2 tan u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
x sec 2 u + y sec 2 u = 2 tan u
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 2 tan u
x +y = = 2 sin u cos u
∂x ∂y sec 2 u
∂u ∂u
x +y = sin 2u …………….(*),as required.
∂x ∂y
To get the value of x u xx + 2 xyu xy + y u yy we proceed as follows Differentiating (*)
2 2
171
−1 y −1
6. If u = x tan x − y tan x y , show that
2 2
∂ u
2
∂ u2
∂ u
2
x2 + 2 xy + y 2 2 = 2u
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
−1 y −1
Solution:- We note that u = v − w where v = x tan x & w = y tan x y
2 2
So that v and w are homogenous functions of degree 2. Applying the corollary to the
Euler’s theorem to v and w, we obtain
2 ∂ v ∂ 2v 2 ∂ v
2 2
x + 2 xy +y = 2( 2 − 1) v = 2v
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y 2
∂2w ∂2w 2 ∂ w
2
y 2
+ 2 xy +y = 2( 2 − 1) w = 2 w
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y 2
Taking the difference of these two expressions, we get
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
x2 + 2 xy + y 2 2 = 2u
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
−1 x y ∂u ∂u
2 2
1. If u = sin
x + y ,show that x ∂x + y ∂y = tan u
x2 y2 ∂z ∂z
2. If z = log ,show that x + y =1
x+ y ∂x ∂y
−1 x+ y ∂z ∂z 1
3. If u = cot ,prove that x + y = − sin 2u
x+ y ∂x ∂y 4
−1 x y ∂u ∂u 3
3 3
4. If z = tan
x 3 + y 3 ,prove that x ∂x + y ∂y = 2 sin 2u
172
Chapter - 3 : PARIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Session-1
dz ∂f dx ∂f dy
= + -------------------------(2)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
∂f ∂f ∂f
du = dx + dy + dz -----------------(3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
du ∂f dx ∂f dy ∂f dz
= + + ---------------(4)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
173
dz ∂f ∂f dy df ∂f ∂f dy
= + or = + , and hence
dx ∂x ∂y dx dx ∂x ∂y dx
∂f
∂f ∂f dy dy ∂x
0= + , so that we get = − ----------- (5)
∂x ∂y dx dx ∂f
∂y
(c) Differentiation of composite functions:-
Let z be an function of x and y and that x = φ (u, v ) and y = ϕ (u, v ) are functions
of u and
v then,
∂z ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
= +
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
∂z ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
& = + -------------------(6)
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
∂z ∂f ∂u ∂f ∂v
= +
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x
∂z ∂f ∂u ∂f ∂v
& = + --------------------------(7)
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
Note:-1) The above formulae can be extended to functions of three are more
variables and formulas (6) and(7) are called Chain rule for partial differentiation.
174
(ii) Let z = f ( x, y, z ) = e xyz Then
∂u ∂u ∂u
= ( yz ) e xyz ; = ( xz ) e xyz ; = ( xy ) e xyz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∴ Total differential of z = f ( x, y, z ) is (see formula (3) above)
∂u ∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
= e xyz ( yzdx + zxdy + xydz )
dz
2. Find if
dt
(i) z = xy 2 + x 2 y ,where x = at 2 , y = 2at
−1 y
(ii) u = tan x ,where x = e t − e −t , y = e t + e −t (VTU-Jan 2003)
Ans:- (i) Consider z = xy 2 + x 2 y
∂z ∂z
= y 2 + 2 xy & = 2 xy + x 2
∂x ∂y
dx dy
Since x = at 2 & y = 2at , We have = 2at , = 2a
dt dt
Hence, using formula (2), we get
dz ∂z dx ∂z dy
= +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
( ) ( )
= y 2 + 2 xy ( 2at ) + 2 xy + x 2 ( 2a )
( ) ( )
= y 2 + 2 xy y + 2a 2 xy + x 2 , Using y = 2at
dz
= y 3 + 2 xy 2 + 4axy + 2ax 2
dt
dz
To get explicitly in terms of t, we substitute
dt
x = at 2 & y = 2at , to get
dz
(
= 2a 8t + 5t
3 3
)
4
dt
(ii) Consider
u = tan −1 y
x
∂u −y ∂u x
= 2 2 ,
= 2
∂x x + y ∂y x + y 2
Since x = e t − e −t & y = e t + e −t ,we have
175
dx dy
= e t + e −t = y = e t − e −t = x
dt dt
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
Hence = + ( see Eqn (2))
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
−y x x2 − y2
= 2
2
y +
x2 + y2 x = 2
2
x +y x +y
Substituting x = e t − e −t & y = e t + e −t , we get
du −2
= 2t
dt e + e − 2t
Session-2
dy
3. Find if (i) x y + y x =Constant
dx
(ii) x + e y = 2 xy
Ans: - (i) Let z = f ( x, y ) = x y + y x =Constant. Using formula (5)
∂f
dy
= − ∂x -----------------(*)
dx ∂f
∂y
∂f ∂f
But = yx y −1 + y x log y and = x y log x + xy x−1 Putting those in(*), we get
∂x ∂y
dy yx y −1 + y x log y
= − y x −1
dx x log x + xy
(ii) Let z = f ( x, y ) = e x + e y − 2 xy =Constant
∂f ∂f
Now, = ex − 2y ; = e y − 2 x Using this in (8),
∂x ∂y
∂f
dy e x − 2 y
= − ∂x = − y
dx ∂f e − 2x
∂y
4. (i) If z = f ( x, y ) ,where x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ show that
2 2 2 2
∂z ∂z ∂z 1 ∂z
+ = + 2 (VTU July-2005)
∂x ∂y ∂r r ∂θ
176
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
= cos θ , = −r sin θ ; = sin θ & = r cos θ . Using Chain rule (6) & (7) we
∂r ∂θ ∂r ∂θ
have
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
= + = ( cos θ ) + ( sin θ )
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
= + = ( − r sin θ ) + ( r cos θ )
∂θ ∂x ∂θ ∂y ∂θ ∂x ∂y
Squaring on both sides, the
above equations, we get
2 2 2
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
= cos θ + sin θ + 2 sin θ cos θ
2 2
∂r ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
2 2 2
1 ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
= cos θ + sin θ − 2 sin θ cos θ
2 2
2
r ∂θ ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
= eu , = −e − v , = −e − u & = −e v
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
Using Chain rule (6) we get
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z u ∂z −v
= + = ( )
e − e ( )
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z
= + =( )
− e −v − − ev( )
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂z u ∂z −u
∴ − = ( e + e −v −) e − ev ( )
∂u ∂v ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z
= x− y
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u ∂u
5. (i) If u = f ( x, z, y / z ) Then show that x −y −z = 0 (VTU-July-2004)
∂x ∂y ∂z
(ii) If H = f ( x − y, y − z , z − x ) , show that
∂H ∂H ∂H
+ + =0 (VTU-July-2003)
∂x ∂y ∂z
177
Ans: - (i) Let u = f (v, w) , where v = xz and w = y z
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w 1 ∂w − y
=z, =0, =x & = 0, =
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y z , ∂z = z2
Using Chain rule,
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂w ∂u
= + = ( z ) + ∂u ( 0) = z ∂u
∂x ∂v ∂x ∂w ∂x ∂v ∂w ∂v
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂w ∂u
= +
∂y ∂v ∂y ∂w ∂y ∂v
=
∂w
( )
( 0) + ∂u 1 z = 1 ∂u
z ∂w
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂w ∂u
= + = ( x ) + ∂u − y z 2 = x ∂u − y2 ∂u
∂z ∂v ∂z ∂w ∂z ∂v ∂w ∂v z ∂w
From these, we get
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u y ∂u ∂u y ∂u
x −y −z = xz − − z x −
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂v z ∂w ∂v z 2 ∂w
=0
(ii) Let H = f (u , v, w) Where u = x − y, v = y − z, w = z − x
∂u ∂u ∂u
Now, = 1, = −1, =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v
= 0, = 1, = −1
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂u
= −1, = 0, = 1 Using Chain rule,
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂H ∂H ∂u ∂H ∂v ∂H ∂w ∂H
= + + = (1) + ∂H ( 0) + ∂H ( − 1)
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂w ∂x ∂u ∂v ∂w
∂H ∂H ∂u ∂H ∂v ∂H ∂w ∂H
= + + = ( − 1) + ∂H (1) + ∂v ( 0)
∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y ∂w ∂y ∂u ∂v ∂w
∂H ∂H ∂u ∂H ∂v ∂H ∂w ∂H
= + + = ( 0) + ∂H ( − 1) + ∂H (1)
∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v ∂z ∂w ∂z ∂u ∂v ∂w
Adding the above equations, we get
∂H ∂H ∂H
+ + = 0 , as desired.
∂x ∂y ∂z
3.2.2: Problem Set No: 3.2.1
178
(iii) u = xy + yz + zx, x = 1 t , y = e , z = e
t −t
Session - 1
3.3.0 Jacobians:-
Jacobians were invented by German mathematician C.G. Jacob Jacobi (1804-
1851),
who made significant contributions to mechanics, Partial differential equations and
calculus
of variations.
Definition:- Let u and v are functions of x and y, then Jacobian of u and v w.r.t x and
y,
denoted by
179
u, v ∂( u, v )
J or J or
x, y ∂ ( x, y )
is defined by
∂u ∂u
u, v ∂x ∂y
J
x, y
= ∂v
∂v
∂x ∂y
Similarly, if u, v, w are functions of three independent variables of x, y, z, then
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z
u , v, w ∂v ∂v ∂u
J = J =
x, y, z ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z
Remark:- In a similar way, Jacobian of n functions in n-variables can be defined
∂( u, v )
Note:- (i) If J = , then the "inverse Jacobian" of the Jacobian J,
∂ ( x, y )
denoted by J ′ ,is defined as
∂( x, y )
J =
∂( u , v )
∂ ( u , v, w ) ∂ ( x, y , z )
(ii) Similarly, "inverse Jacobian" of J = is defined as J ′ =
∂ ( x, y , z ) ∂ ( u , v, w )
∂( u, v ) ∂ ( x, y )
Property 1:- If J = and J ′ = then JJ ′ = 1
∂ ( x, y ) ∂( u, v )
Proof:- Consider
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂x
∂ ( u , v ) ∂ ( x, y ) ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂v
JJ 1 = × = ×
∂ ( x, y ) ∂ ( u , v ) ∂v ∂v ∂y ∂y
∂x ∂y ∂u ∂v
180
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
+ +
∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v 1 0
= = =1
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y 1 0
+ +
∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
Property 2:- (Chain rule for Jacobians):- If u and v are functions of r&s and r,s
are functions x&y,then
u, v u, v r , s
J = = J × J
x, y r , s x, y
Proof:- Consider
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂r
u , v r , s ∂r ∂s ∂x ∂y
J × J = ×
r , s x, y ∂v ∂v ∂s ∂s
∂r ∂s ∂x ∂y
∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s
+ +
∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y
=
∂v ∂r ∂v ∂s ∂v ∂r ∂v ∂s
+ +
∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y
∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y u, v
= = J
∂v ∂v x, y
∂x ∂y
181
∂x ∂x
∂ ( x, y ) ∂r ∂θ cos θ − r sin θ
∴ = =
∂ ( r , θ ) ∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
( )
= r cos 2 θ + r sin 2 θ = r cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = r
∂x ∂y ∂z
Proof of 2 :-we have = cos φ , = sin φ , =0
∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
∂x ∂y ∂z
= − ρ sin φ , = ρ cos φ , =0
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∂z ∂z ∂z
=0, = 0, = 0
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
cos φ − ρ sin φ 0
∂ ( x, y , z ) ∂y ∂y ∂y
∴ = = sin φ ρ cos φ 0 =ρ
∂ ( ρ , φ , z ) ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
0 0 1
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
Session – 2
3.3.3:-Worked Examples:-
1. If u = x 2 − 2 y 2 , v = 2 x 2 − y 2 , where
x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ show that
182
∂( u, v )
= 6r 3 sin 2θ (VTU-Jan-2006)
∂ ( r ,θ )
Consider u = x 2 − 2 y 2 = r 2 cos 2 θ − 2r 2 sin 2 θ
v = 2 x 2 − y 2 = 2r 2 cos 2 θ − r 2 sin 2 θ
∂u ∂v
∴ = 2r cos 2 θ − 4r sin 2 θ , = 4r cos 2 θ − 2r sin 2 θ
∂r ∂r
∂u
= −2r 2 cos θ sin θ − 4r 2 sin θ cos θ
∂θ
∂v
= −4r 2 cos θ sin θ − 2r 2 sin θ cos θ
∂θ
∂u ∂u
∂ ( u , v ) ∂r ∂θ 2r cos 2 θ − 4r sin 2 θ − 2r 2 cos θ sin θ − 4r 2 sin θ cos θ
= =
∂ ( r ,θ ) ∂v ∂v 4r cos 2 θ − 2r sin 2 θ − 4r 2 cos θ sin θ − 2r 2 sin θ cos θ
∂r ∂θ
( )(
= 2r cos 2 θ − 4r sin 2 θ − 4r 2 cos θ sin θ − 2r 2 sin θ cos θ )
( )(
= − 2r cos θ sin θ − 4r 2 sin θ cos θ 4r cos 2 θ − 2r sin 2 θ)
= 6r 3 sin 2θ
x, y 1 x , y
2. If x = u (1 − v ) , y = uv, Prove that J × J = 1 (VTU-2001)
u, v u, v
∂x ∂x
Consider = 1 − v , = −u
∂u ∂v
∂y ∂y
= v, =u
∂u ∂v
∂x ∂x
x, y ∂u ∂v 1 − v − u
∴J = =
u , v ∂y ∂y v u
∂u ∂v
= (1 − v ) u − ( − uv ) = u − uv + uv = u
x, y
∴J = u − − − (1)
u, v
Further, as x = u (1 − v ) , y = uv,
= u − uv
We write, x = u − y ∴u = x + y and
y y y
v = = ∴ v =
u x+ y x+ y
183
∂u ∂u
∴ = 1, = 1 and
∂x ∂y
∂v y ∂v x
=− , =
∂x ( x + y ) ∂y ( x + y ) 2
2
∂u ∂u
1 1
1 u, v ∂ x ∂y
∴ J = = y x
x, y ∂ v ∂ v −
( x + y) 2 ( x + y) 2
∂ x ∂y
x y 1 1
= + = =
( x + y) 2
( x + y) 2
x+ y u
1
∴ JJ 1 = u =1
u
∴ = =
∂ ( u, v ) ∂y ∂y e u sin v e u cos v
∂u ∂v
∂ ( x, y )
i.e = e 2u − − − − − (1)
∂( u, v )
Again Consider x = e u cos v, y = e u sin v,
1
∴ x 2 + y 2 = e 2u or u = log x 2 + y 2
2
( )
y −1 y
& = tan v or v = tan x
x
∂u x ∂u y
Hence = 2 ,; = 2 ,;
∂x x + y 2
∂y x + y 2
∂v −y ∂v x
& = 2 ; = 2
∂x x + y ∂y x + y 2
2
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∂u ∂u x y
∂( u, v ) ∂x ∂y x +y x + y2
2 2 2
∴ =
∂ ( x, y ) ∂v ∂v
=
−y x
= 2
1
x + y2
(
= x2 + y 2 ) −1
∂x ∂y x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
∂( u, v )
i.e = e − 2u − − − − − − − (2)
∂ ( x, y )
∂ ( x, y ) ∂ ( u , v )
∴ × = e2u × e− 2u = 1
∂ ( u , v ) ∂ ( x, y )
yz zx xy ∂ ( u , v, w )
4. If u = , v = , w = , Show that =4
x y z ∂ ( x, y , z )
∂u ∂u ∂u yz z y
− 2
∂x ∂y ∂z x x x
∂ ( u , v, w) ∂v ∂v ∂v z − zx x
Now, = =
∂ ( x, y, z ) ∂x ∂y ∂z y y2 y
∂w ∂w ∂w y x − xy
∂x ∂y ∂z z z z2
∂ ( u , v, w) yz − zx − xy z z − xy y x
= − − −
∂ ( x, y, z ) x 2 y 2 z 2 x y z 2 z y
i.e
y z x y − zx
+ − 2
x y z z y
= 4, as desired.
∂ ( x, y , z )
5. If x = r sin θ cos φ , y = r sin θ sin φ , z = r cosθ ,show that = r 2 sin θ
∂( r , θ , φ )
Now, by definition
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
∂ ( x, y, z ) ∂y ∂y ∂y
=
∂ ( r , θ , φ ) ∂r ∂θ ∂φ
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂r ∂θ ∂φ
sin θ cos φ r cos θ cos φ − r sin θ sin φ
∂ ( x, y , z )
i.e = sin θ sin φ r cos θ sin φ r sin θ cos φ
∂( r , θ , φ )
cos θ − r sin θ 0
185
{ (
= sin θ cos φ 0 − r 2 sin 2 θ cos φ )}
− r cos θ cos φ { 0 − ( r sin θ cos θ cos φ )}
{
− r sin θ sin φ − r sin 2 θ sin φ − r cos 2 θ sin φ }
( )
= r 2 sin 2 θ sin θ cos 2 φ + r 2 sin θ cos 2 θ cos 2 φ
( )
= r 2 sin θ sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ cos 2 φ + r 2 sin θ sin 2 φ
(
= r 2 sin θ cos 2 φ + sin 2 φ )
= r 2 sin θ , as required
3.3.6:-Definition:-
186
∂z ∂z
δz = δx + δy -------------(1)
∂x ∂y
Note:- The following results similar to that of differentials will also be useful.
3.3.7:-Worked Examples:-
1. Find the percentage error in measuring the area of a traingle if 1% error (each) is
made in measuring its base as well as height.
Area A of a traingle is given by
1
A= ah ---------- (1)
2
where `a`and `h` are base and height of the triangle respectively. Therefore, the
change ∂A due to a change δa in a, and a change δh in h, is given by
1 1
δA = δ ( ah ) = [ aδh + hδa ]
2 2
1 [ aδh + hδa ]
δA
∴ = 2
A 1
ah
2
δA δh δa
∴ = +
A h a
δA δh δa
∴ × 100 = × 100 + × 100
A h a
=1 % +1% (by data)
=2%
The percentage error in A is 2%
187
1 1 1
2. The focal length f of a lens is given by = + where p and q are the
f p q
distances of the lens from the object and the image respectively. For a certain lens
p and q are each 25cms with a possible error of almost 0.5cm. Find the
approximate value of the maximum error in f.
1 1 1
Consider = + . By data p = q = 25 and δp = δq = 0.5
f p q
1 1 1
Now, δ = δ +
f p q
1 1 1
δ = δ + δ
i.e f p q
1 1 1
− 2
δf = − 2 δp − 2 δq
f p q
2 δp δq
i.e δf = f 2 + 2
p q
As p = q, and δp = δq, we have
2δp 1 1 1
δf = f 2 2 Since = + = 0.08
p f 25 25
we have f=12.5. Hence,
0.5
δf = (12.5) 2 2 = 0.25
2
( 25 )
∴ The maximum error in f=0.25
∴
δc k sec θ 2
= δθ
c k tan θ
δc 2
or = δθ -----------(*)
c sin 2θ
δc
The relation error in c being is maximum when the denominator of RHS of
c
(*) is maximum and the maximum of sine function is unity.
∴ sin 2θ = 1 ⇒ 2θ = 900 ⇒ θ = 450
188
Thus, the relative error in c is minimum when θ = 450 .
1 2
4. If T = mv is the kinetic energy, find approximately the change in T as m
2
changes From 49 to 49.5 and V changes from 1600 to 1590.
=-1,44,000
5. If the sides of a triangle ABC vary in such a way that its circum radius remains
constant, Prove that
δa δb δc
+ + =0
cos A cos B cos c
If the triangle ABC is inscribed in a circle of radius R and if a,b,c respectively denotes
the sides opposite to the angles A,B,C we have the sine rule given by
a b c
= + = 2R
sin A sin B sin c
189
=0
1. Find the percentage error in the evaluation of the area of an ellipse if 1% error is
made while measuring the major and minor axis
.
2. The time T of a Complete oscillation of a simple pendulum is given by the
formula T = ( 2π ) l g , where g is constant .If there is an error of 3% in the value
of l, Find the percentage value of T.
3. The radius of a Sphere is found to be 10cms with possible error of 0.02cm. What
is the relative error in computing the volume?
4
( Hint: Volume of the Sphere= π r )
3
3
4. The pressure p and the volume v of a gas are concentrated by the relation
pv1.4=constant. find the percentage increase in pressure corresponding to a
1
dimension of % in volume
2
190