I. Also known as exocrine glands, the eccrine and apocrine glands are two types of sweat glands.

They secrete their substances directly out to the surface of the body instead of into the bloodstream. Although they are both coiled, tubular glands, there are several differences between the two. The apocrine glands are slightly larger and produce a thicker and more odorous sweat. The eccrine glands are located over almost the entire body, while the apocrine ones are located mainly in the armpits, genital area, and around the nipples.

The sweat produced by the apocrine glands contains proteins, fats, and other substances that result in a thicker and stickier sweat. In addition, the sweat is broken down by the bacteria on the surface of the skin, often causing an unpleasant odor to arise. Even though the glands are present at birth, they do not begin to function until puberty, which is why young children do not need to wear deodorant.

Apocrine glands reach deep into the layer of the dermis and secrete their fluids into the tiny canals of the hair follicles. The eccrine glands, however, do not reach as far into the dermis and secrete their fluids directly onto the skin's surface via the pores. Another key difference between the two glands is the size of the lumen, also known as the opening, which is slightly smaller in the eccrine glands.

Although located in just about all areas of the skin's surface, the eccrine glands have a higher density in the palms, soles of the feet, and scalp areas. Their sweat is usually odorless and contains high amounts of sodium and other electrolytes. As a result, it is important for individuals to consume plenty of electrolyte fluids when the body produces a lot of sweat.

The purpose of the eccrine glands is to help control the temperature of the body. As the body temperature increases, the sweat secretion increases as well, allowing the temperature to drop. Exercise, stress, and excitement can also activate these glands. Another benefit of the sweat produced by these glands is that it helps to protect the body against harmful bacteria and other viruses.

There is no scientific evidence regarding the purpose of the apocrine glands. In animals, they seem to act as scent glands that aid in attracting the opposite sex, which some believe is true for humans as well. In addition, they are also said to have an effect on hormones and can potentially interfere with the menstrual timing in women. These glands are primarily activated by stress or excitement.

II.

Body of a sweat gland cut in various directions Sweat glands are simple tubules consisting of a base rolled into a glomerulum and a duct that carries the sweat away.[14] The base, which forms the secretory coil, is set deep in the hypodermis, and the entire gland is surrounded by adipose tissue.[15][2][8] In apocrine glands, the secretory tubule is branched and single-layered, whereas it is unbranched, coiled, and double-layered in eccrine glands.[7][16] All sweat glands' secretory coils are wrapped in long, rod-like contractile myoepithelial cells.[16][17] In apocrine and eccrine glands, the diameter of the overall coil is around 800 and 500 700 microns respectively. The tubules themselves are also wider in apocrine glands: they have an inner diameter of 80100 microns, versus the 3040 micron diameters in eccrine glands.[18] Excretory ducts, which carry sweat away from the secretory coil, are lined by a double layer of cuboidal cells.[19] Each sweat gland receives several nerve fibers that branch out into bands of one or more axons and encircle the individual tubules of the secretory coil. Capillariesare also interwoven among sweat tubules.[20]

Distribution[edit]
The number of active sweat glands varies greatly among different people, though comparisons between different areas (ex. axillae versus groin) show the same directional changes (certain areas always have an more active sweat glands while others always have fewer).[21] According to Henry Gray's estimates, the palm has around 370 sweat glands per cm2; the back of the hand has 200 per cm2; the forehead has 175 per cm2; the breast, abdomen, and forearm have 155 per cm2; and the back and legs have 6080 per cm2.[2] In the finger pads, sweat glands are somewhat irregularly spaced on the epidermal ridges. There are no pores between the ridges, though sweat tends to spill into them.[21] The thick epidermis of the palms and soles causes the sweat glands to become spirally coiled.[2] Animals[edit] Non-primate mammals have eccrine sweat glands only on the palms and soles. Apocrine glands cover the rest of the body, though they are not as effective as humans' in temperature regulation (with the exception of horses').[8] Prosimians have a 1:20 ratio of follicles with apocrine glands versus follicles without.[22] They have eccrine glands between hairs over most of their body (while humans have them

between the hairs on their scalp.[9] The overall distribution of sweat glands varies among primates: the rhesus and patas monkeys have them on the chest; the squirrel monkey has them only on the palms and soles; and the stump-tailed macaque,Japanese monkey, and baboon have them over the entire body.[23] Dogs and cats have apocrine glands that are specialized in both structure and function located at the eyelids (Moll's glands), ears (ceruminous glands), anal sac,prepuce vulva, and circumanal area.[24]

Types[edit]
Apocrine[edit] Main article: Apocrine sweat gland Apocrine sweat glands are found in the armpit, areola (around the nipples), perineum (between the anus and genitals), in the ear, and in the eyelids. The secretory portion is larger than that of eccrine glands (making them larger overall). Rather than opening directly onto the surface of the skin, apocrine glands secrete sweat into the pilary canal of the hair follicle.[8] Before puberty, the apocrine sweat glands are inactive;[25] hormonal changes in puberty cause the glands to increase in size and begin functioning.[26] The substance secreted is thicker than eccrine sweat and provides nutrients for bacteria on the skin: the bacteria's decomposition of sweat is what creates the acrid odor.[27]Apocrine sweat glands are most active in times of stress and sexual excitement.[28] In mammals (including humans), apocrine sweat contains pheromone-like compounds to attract the opposite sex. Study of human sweat has revealed differences between men and women in apocrine secretions and bacteria.[29] Eccrine[edit] Main article: Eccrine sweat glands In humans, eccrine sweat glands are everywhere except the lips, ear canal, prepuce, glans penis, labia minora, and clitoris. They are ten times smaller than apocrine sweat glands, do not extend as deeply into the dermis, and excrete directly onto the surface of the skin.[8][5][30][4] The proportion of eccrine glands decreases with age.[31]

The clear secretion produced by eccrine sweat glands is termed sweat or sensible perspiration. Sweat is mostly water, but it does contain some electrolytes, since it is derived from blood plasma. The presence of sodium chloride gives sweat a salty taste. The total volume of sweat produced depends on the number of functional glands and the size of the surface opening. The degree of secretory activity is regulated by neural and hormonal mechanisms (men produce volumes of sweat than women). When all of the eccrine sweat glands are working at maximum capacity, the rate of perspiration for a human being may exceed three liters per hour,[32] and dangerous losses of fluids and electrolytes can occur. Eccrine glands have three primary functions:

Thermoregulation: sweat cools the surface of the skin and reduces body temperature.[33] Excretion: eccrine sweat gland secretion can also provide a significant excretory route for water and electrolytes.[34] Protection: eccrine sweat gland secretion aids in preserving the skin's acid mantle, which helps protect the skin from colonization from bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.[35]

Apoeccrine[edit]
Some human sweat glands cannot be classified as either apocrine or eccrine, having characteristics of both; such glands are termed apoeccrine.[36] They are larger than eccrine glands, but smaller than apocrine ones;[37] their secretory portion has a narrow portion similar to secretory coils in eccrine glands as well as a wide section reminiscent of apocrine glands.[38] Apoeccrine, found in the armpits and perianal region, have ducts opening onto the skin surface.[39] They are presumed to have developed in puberty from the eccrine glands,[40] and can comprise up to 50% of all axillary glands. Apoeccrine glands secrete more sweat than both eccrine and apocrine glands, thus playing a large role in axillary sweating.[41] Apoeccrine glands are sensitive to cholinergic activity, though they can also be activated via adrenergic stimulation.[36] Like eccrine glands, they continuously secrete a thin, watery sweat.[41] Others[edit] Specialized sweat glands, including the ceruminous glands, mammary glands, ciliary glands of the eyelids, and sweat glands of the nasal vestibulum, are modified apocrine glands.[42][5] Ceruminous glands are near the ear canals, and produce cerumen

(earwax) that mixes with the oil secreted from sebaceous glands.[43][42]Mammary glands use apocrine secretion to produce milk.[44]

Sweat[edit]
Sweat glands are used to regulate temperature and remove waste by secreting water, sodium salts, and nitrogenous waste (such as urea) onto the skin surface.[34][45]The main electrolytes of sweat are sodium and chloride,[46] though the amount is small enough to make sweat hypotonic at the skin surface.[47] Eccrine sweat is clear, odorless, and is composed of 9899% water; it also contains NaCl, fatty acids, lactic acid, citric acid, absorbic acid, urea, and uric acid. Its pH ranges from 4 to 6.8.[48] On the other hand, the apocrine sweat has a pH of 6 to 7.5; it contains water, proteins, carbohydrate waste material, lipids, and steroids. The sweat is oily, cloudy, viscous, and originally odorless;[48] it gains odor upon decomposition by bacteria. Because both apocrine glands and sebaceous glands open into the hair follicle, apocrine sweat is mixed with sebum.[40] Mechanism[edit]

In apocrine secretion (pictured), portions of the cell are pinched off and later disintegrate. It was originally thought that both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands used merocrine secretion, where vesicles in the gland released sweat via exocytosis, leaving the entire cell intact.[36][7] More recent studies have revealed that apocrine glands release sweat in the hair follicle via apocrine secretion, where portions of the cell are actually pinched off, and disintegrate later to excrete sweat.[49][7] In both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, the sweat is originally produced in the gland's coil, where it is isotonic with the blood plasma there.[50] When the rate of sweating is low, salt is conserved and reabsorbed by the gland's duct; high sweat rates, on the other hand, lead to less salt reabsorption and allow more water to evaporate on the skin (via osmosis) to increase evaporative cooling.[51]

Secretion of sweat occurs when the myoepithelial cell cells surrounding the secretory glands contract.[19] Eccrine sweat increases the rate of bacterial growth andvolatilizes the odor compounds of apocrine sweat, strengthening the latter's acrid smell.[52] Normally, only a certain number of sweat glands are actively producing sweat. When stimuli call for more sweating, more sweat glands are activated, with each then producing more sweat.[53][14] Stimuli[edit] Thermal[edit] Both eccrine and apocrine sweat glands participate in thermal (thermoregulatory) sweating,[54] which is directly controlled by the hypothalamus. Thermal sweating is stimulated by a combination of internal body temperature and mean skin temperature.[33] In eccrine sweat glands, stimulation occurs via activation by acetylcholine, which binds to the gland's muscarinic receptors.[55] Emotional[edit] Emotional sweating is stimulated by stress, anxiety, fear, and pain; it is independent of ambient temperature. Acetylcholine acts on the eccrine glands and adrenalineacts on both eccrine and apocrine glands to produce sweat.[36] Emotional sweating can occur anywhere, though it is most evident on the palms, soles of the feet, and axillary regions.[33] Sweating on the palms and soles is thought to have evolved as a fleeing reaction in mammals: it increases friction and prevents slipping when running or climbing in stressful situations.[54] Gustatory[edit] Gustatory sweating refers to thermal sweating induced by the ingestion of food. The increase in metabolism caused by ingestion raises body temperature, leading to thermal sweating. Hot and spicy foods also leads to mild gustatory sweating in the face, scalp and neck: capsaicin (the compound that makes spicy food taste "hot"), binds to receptors in the mouth that detect warmth. The increased stimulation of such receptors induces a thermoregulatory response.[36] Antiperspirant[edit] Unlike deodorant, which simply reduces axillary odor without affecting body functions, antiperspirant reduces both eccrine and apocrine

sweating.[56][48]Antiperspirants, which are classified as drugs, cause proteins to precipitate and mechanically block eccrine (and sometimes apocrine) sweat ducts.[57] The metal salts found in antiperspirants alters the keratin fibrils in the ducts; the ducts then close and form a "horny plug". The main active ingredients in modern antiperspirants arealuminum chloride, aluminum chlorohydrate, aluminum zirconium chlorohydrate, and buffered aluminum sulfate.[48] On apocrine glands, antiperspirants also contain antibacterial agents such as trichlorocarbonilide, hexamethylene tetramine, and zinc ricinoleate.[58][59] The salts are dissolved in ethanol and mixed with essential oils high in eugenol and thymol (such as thyme and clove oils). [59]

Pathology[edit]
Diseases of the sweat glands include: Fox-Fordyce disease The apocrine sweat glands become inflamed, causing a persistent, itchy rash, usually in the axillae and pubic areas.[60] Heatstroke When the eccrine glands become exhausted and unable to secrete sweat. Heatstroke can lead to fatal hyperpyrexia (extreme rise in body temperature).[58] Hyperhidrosis Also known as hyperidrosis (without the h after hyper). Hyperhidrosis is a pathological, excessive sweating that can be either general or local (the latter of which is sometimes called asymmetrical); it occurs most often on the palms, soles, and axillae. Hyperhidrosis is usually brought on by emotional or thermal stress,[61] but it can also occur or with little to no stimulus.[58] Local (or asymmetrical) hyperhidrosis is said to be caused by problems in the sympathetic nervous system: either lesions[61] or nerve inflammation.[62] Hyperhidrosis can also be caused by trench foot or encephalitis.[62] Milaria rubia Also called prickly heat. Milaria rubia is the rupture of sweat glands and migration of sweat to other tissues. In hot environments, the skin's horny layer can expand due to sweat retention, blocking the ducts of eccrine sweat glands. The glands, still stimulated by high temperatures, continues to secrete. Sweat builds up in the duct, causing enough pressure to rupture the duct where it meets the epidermis. Sweat also escapes the duct to adjacent tissues (a process calledmilaria).[58][63] Hypohydrosis then follows milaria (postmiliarial hypohydrosis).[64]

Osmhidrosis Often called bromhidrosis, especially in combination with hyperhidrosis. Osmohidrosis is excessive odor from apocrine sweat glands (which are overactive in the axillae).[61] Osmidrosis is thought to be caused by changes in the apocrine gland structure rather than changes in the bacteria that acts on sweat.[52] Tumors[edit] Sweat gland tumors include:[65]

Acrospiroma Aggressive digital papillary adenocarcinoma Apocrine gland carcinoma Ceruminoma Cutaneous myoepithelioma Cylindroma Eccrine carcinoma Hidradenoma papilliferum Hidrocystoma Microcystic adnexal carcinoma Mucinous carcinoma Papillary eccrine adenoma Syringadenoma papilliferum Syringofibroadenoma Syringoma

Adenolipomas are lipomas associated with eccrine sweat glands.[66] As signs in other illnesses[edit] Many diseases cause sweat gland dysfunction:

Acromegaly, a result of excess growth hormone, causes the size of sweat glands increase, which leads to thicker skin.[67] Aquagenic wrinkling of the palms, in which white papules develop on the palms after exposure to water, can sometimes come with abnormal aquaporin 5 in the sweat glands.[68] Cystic fibrosis can be diagnosed by a sweat test,as the disease causes the sweat glands ducts to reabsorb less chloride, leading to higher concentrations of chloride in the secreted sweat.[69] Ectodermal dysplasia can present a lack of sweat glands.[70]

Fabry disease, characterized by excess globotriaosylceramide (GL3), causes a decrease in sweat gland function due to GL3 deposits in the eccrine glands.[71] GM1 gangliosidoses, characterized by abnormal lipid storage, leads to vacuolization in eccrine sweat gland cells.[72] Hunter syndrome can include metachromin granules and mucin in the cytoplasm of the eccrine sweat gland cells.[73] Hypothyroidism's low levels of thyroid hormone lead to decreased secretions from sweat glands; the result is dry, coarse skin.[74] KearnsSayre syndrome, a disease of the mitochondria, involves abnormal mitochondria in eccrine sweat glands.[75] Lafora disease is a rare genetic disorder marked by the presence of abnormal polyglucosan deposits. These "Lafora bodies" appear in the ducts of sweat glands, as well as the myoepithelial cells of apocrine glands.[76] Lichen striatus, a self-limited eruption of small, slightly scaly papules, includes a lymphoid infiltrate around eccrine sweat glands.[77] Metachromatic leukodystrophy, a lysosomal storage disease, leads to the accumulation of lipopigments and lysosomal residual bodies in the epithelial cells of sweat glands.[78] Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis causes abnormal deposits of lipopigment in sweat gland epithelial cells (among other places).[79] Neutral lipid storage disease includes abnormal lipid deposits in cells, including those of the sweat gland.[80] NewmannPick type C, another lipid storage disease, includes abnormal lipid storage in sweat glands.[81] Schindler disease causes cytoplasmic vacuoles that appear to be empty or contain filamentous material to manifest in eccrine sweat gland cells.[82]

III.

Epidermis

The epidermis is a stratified squamous epithelium that contains discrete layers of proliferating, differentiating, and differentiated cells called keratinocytes. It is divided into four layers that have different structural appearances:

Basal Cell Layer - Keratinocytes begin in the deepest layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale, which is a row of columnar cells resting on the basal lamina that separates the epidermis from the dermis. Mitosis occurs exclusively at the basal cell layer and allows for the replacement of cells lost from the surface. Stratum Spinosum - After forming in the basal cell layer, keratinocytes migrate upwards into the stratum spinosum. In this layer, they develop short projections that attach via desmosomes to adjacent cells. The stratum spinosum is also known as the "prickly layer" because of these characteristic spines. The cells in this layer produce cytokeratin, an intermediate filament precursor to keratin. Stratum Granulosum - The third layer is the stratum granulosum. In this layer, the keratinocytes have become squamous cells that contain granules of keratohyaline, a precursor to the extracellular keratin that protects the skin tissue from abrasion. Stratum Corneum - The most superficial layer of the epidermis is the aceullar stratum corneum. It is the most functionally important layer of the skin and consists of flat, keratinized scales that are shed and replaced continuously. This is the layer that includes the final keratin product, which is a combination of cytokeratin and keratohyaline. Recall from the Laboratory of Epithelia that epithelia differ in their degree of keratinization - those exposed to abrasion and desiccation are heavily keratinized, but those that form mucous membranes do not have much keratin. For example, the skin is highly keratinized, but the esophagus, anal canal,and vagina are not. Instead of protection by keratin, these mucous membranes are kept moist by glandular secretions. Mucous membranes lack a stratum granulosum and stratum corneum.

The epidermis contains several characteristic cell types:

Melanocytes occur at intervals among the basal keratinocytes and produce melanin pigment, which is most abundant in sun-exposed skin and in areas surrounding body openings. Melanin is synthesized from tyrosine and transferred as melanin granules to the surrounding epithelial cells. While the number of melanocytes is the same in lightand dark-skinned people, they are far more active in the latter. Langerhans cells are typically located in the stratum spinosum and are the equivalent of macrophages in the skin tissue.

Merkel cells are attached to keratinocytes by desmosomes and are most commonly found in highly sensitive areas like the fingertips - these serve as touch receptors. Dermis and Hypodermis

The dermis consists of two layers:

Papillary layer - The most superficial layer of the dermis is the papillary layer, which consists of loose connective tissue immediately beneath the epidermal basement membrane. Reticular layer - The reticular layer is composed of dense, irregular collagenous connective tissue. Most blood vessels, nerves, and sensory receptors occur in the papillary layer. This region also contains Meissner's corpuscles, which sense light touch.

The hypodermis is the fatty layer beneath the dermis. It is thickest in the abdominal wall and virtually absent in the eyelid, scrotum, penis, and the dorsal side of the hand. This layer contains a significant number of fibroblasts, which synthesize collagen and elastin. The hypodermis contains Pacinian corpuscles, which sense deep touch.

Epidermal Derivatives

Many structures are derived from epidermal tissue. Keep in mind that just because a structure is derived from the epidermis does not mean that it is located in the epidermis.

Hair follicles are encased by an invagination of the epidermis into the dermis known as the external root sheath. They contain specially organized keratin built into long

tubular structures. Remember that hair follicles have generous blood and nerve supplies. There are three states of hair follicles:

Anagen - Growing follicles synthesize hair. They are long and most numerous in the scalp. Catagen - Resorbing follicles are in a short phase of regression that signals the end of active hair growth. Telogen - Resting follicles contain a fully formed hair. Sebaceous glands are pear-shaped alveolar glands that secrete an oily substance called sebum, which moisturizes and waterproofs hair. They are usually attached to hair follicles near the arrector pili muscle, which allows the hair to "stand up." An extensive capillary plexus characterizes sebaceous glands.

Eccrine sweat glands occur throughout most of the skin. They consist of long tubules extending from the epidermis deep into the dermis or hypodermis. The secretory portion of each gland is tightly wound and appears as a collection of cross-sectioned tubules. It is encased by myoepithelial cells, which contain actin filaments. These cells receive input from nerve fibers, which cause them to contract and expulse the sweat from the gland. Keep in mind the organs that do not have eccrine sweat glands: the glans penis, the inner surface of the foreskin, the clitoris, and the labia minora.

Apocrine sweat glands are much larger than eccrine glands and produce a thicker secretion. They have straight, narrow ducts that run parallel to hair follicles and frequently open into the pilosebaceous canal. These sweat glands occur in the axilla, the areola of the nipple, the labia majora, and the circumanal region.

Mammary Glands

Mammary glands are one of the most complex epidermal derivatives. These glands are present in both sexes, but only develop fully in females after parturition. They begin to undergo dramatic structural changes at puberty.

The basic structure of the mammary glands involves alveoli that contain two layers of cells: an inner cuboidal epithelium and an outer layer of myoepithelial cells. The alveoli make up tubuloalveolar glands, or lobes, which connect via lactiferous ducts to the base of the nipple. After milk is produced, it is secreted and travels through the ducts into spindle-shaped enlargements beneath the areola known as lactiferous sinuses.

Important structural changes occur in the mammary glands over the course of the female's lifetime:

In a nonpregnant, sexually mature female, the glandular tissue consists of ducts with small terminal alveoli embedded in an abundant connective tissue stroma that contains many adipose cells. During pregnancy, hormonal stimulation results in the proliferation of the intralobar ducts and terminal alveoli. The epithelial cells become enlarged and vacuolated, as milk fat production increases. After parturition, the gland enters its active secretory phase and produces watery milk containing membrane-bound lipid droplets, as well as milk proteins, lactose, and cellular debris. Suckling causes release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary and oxytocin from the posterior pituitary (processes that you will study in detail during Physiology). Prolactin maintains milk production and oxytocin causes the contraction of myoepithelial cells and ejection of milk. Types of Exocrine Secretion

In your study of Histology, you may hear three different terms to describe exocrine cells. These can often be confusing.

Merocrine, or eccrine, secretion occurs by exocytosis. This is the mode of secretion of both eccrine and apocrine glands, which can be very confusing. Apocrine secretion occurs when a portion of the plasma membrane containing the secretion buds off from the cell. This is the mode of secretion of the mammary glands and mucous-producing cells, but not the apocrine sweat glands. Holocrine secretion occurs when the entire cell disintegrates in order to release its secretion. Sebaceous glands exhibit holocrine secretion, as the sebum is released with remnants of dead cells. Pre-Lab Quiz

Name the four layers of the epidermis and the state of keratin associated with each. Answer: What are the important differences between sebaceous glands, eccrine sweat glands, and apocrine sweat glands? Answer: What is the structure of the mammary gland, and what key differences do you expect to see between active and inactive mammary tissue? Answer: Name the three types of exocrine secretion, their key characteristics, and an example of a cell that demonstrates each one. Answer: Slides

Skin Epidermis Stratum Basale and Stratum Spinosum Stratum Basale and Stratum Spinosum EM Stratum Granulosum and Stratum Corneum Melanocytes and Langerhans Cells Pacinian Corpuscle Meissner's Corpuscle Hair Hair Follicle Sebaceous Glands Eccrine Sweat Glands Apocrine Sweat Glands Inactive Mature Breast Active Mature Breast Breast Acini Virtual Microscope Slides

Layers of the Skin At low magnification, distinguish the epidermis, dermis an hypodermis. In which layers do you find blood vessels? Zoom in to identify the four layers of the epidermis. Which layer appears granulated and why? Which layer appears prickly and why? Hair Follices

Focus on a single hair follicle at high magnification. Can you identify the medulla and cortex? Try to find the hair papilla and hair bulb. Mammary Gland At low magnification, differentiate between glandular lobules and connective tissue. Is this sample from an inactive or active breast? Pathology

Basal Cell Carcinoma Melanoma Epidermolysis Bullosa Quiz

Name the layer on the left.

Answer: What cell type synthesizes the brown material? In what cell type does most of the melanin reside?

Answer: Identify this tissue.

Answer: Identify the structure on the left and its primary function?

Answer: What type of glands are these, what is their function, and what is their mode of secretion?

Answer: This slide shows a sweat gland. Identify A and B, and explain their different functions.

Answer: Is there anything abnormal in the epidermis? If so, what might it indicate.

Answer: This image is an example of psoriasis that is an inflammatory disorder that results in increased scaling and shedding of the skin. What differences from normal skin do you observe?

Answer: It is thought that acne results from alterations in hair follicles, and particularly their secretions. If this were the case, what type of glands would be responsible for acne? Answer: You want to tag each layer of the epidermis with a fluorescent antibody for a study that you are conducting. Name antigens that would allow you to tag each layer of the epidermis separately. Answer:

IV. he integument is composed of the skin, which covers the entire body, in addition to accessory organs derived from skin. The accessory organs include the nails, hair, and glands of various kinds.

Skin serves many important functions: (1) It is an impervious barrier that excludes harmful substances and prevents desiccation; (2) it plays an important role in the regulation of body temperature; (3) it readily repairs itself; (4) it receives sensory stimuli (touch, pressure, temperature, and pain); (5) sweat glands excrete waste products; (6) lacrimal glands produce an isotonic saline bathing solution for the eyes; (7) sebaceous and ceruminous glands secrete sebum and cerumen ("wax"), respectively; and (8) mammary glands secrete milk.

Skin consists of two layers: (1) the epidermis, which is classified as keratinized stratified squamous epithelium; and (2) the dermis (corium), which is composed of connective tissue (Plate 135). Beneath the dermis is the hypodermis or subcutaneous superficial fascia, which may be composed primarily of fatty connective tissue, a stored energy reserve.

The exposed surface of skin is not smooth but creased by flexion folds around skeletal joints, and it is also pitted by openings of hair follicles and sweat gland ducts. In addition, a characteristic surface pattern exists on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, which are often used legally for positive individual identification (e.g., fingerprints).

Epidermis

The most abundant cells in the epidermis (epithelium) are termed keratinocytes because they synthesize keratin in increasing amounts as they progress toward the free surface and exfoliation. Keratin constitutes about 85 per cent of the total protein of the uppermost layer (stratum corneum). Only three other cell types are found in the epidermis; they are not abundant but have significant functional activity, which will be described here. The epithelium varies in thickness in different regions of the body but is usually 0.1 mm thick (given ranges are from 0.07 to 0. 12 mm). In the skin of the palms and soles, however, it may be 0.8 to 1.4 mm in thickness. The epidermis of the palm and sole is thick (so-called thick skin) and has five

morphologically distinct layers. From the deepest outward, the layers are (1) stratum basale, (2) stratum spinosum, (3) stratum granulosum, (4) stratum lucidum, and (5) stratum corneum.

The strata basale and spinosum are also referred to as the Malpighian layer. The cells of stratum basale constitute a single layer of columnar or cuboidal cells in contact with the basement membrane and connective tissue of the dermis. The stratum basale is often referred to as the stratum germinativum. Melanin pigment granules are richly concentrated in the basal layer but may be found throughout the stratum Malpighii (Plate 11). Above the basal layer is the stratum spinosum, which is composed of polyhedral cells, the so-called prickle cells (Plate 137). The stratum granulosum is composed of a layer of three to five cells that contains keratohyalin granules of irregular shape that stain with basic dyes. The stratum lucidum consists of a tightly packed layer of cells without nuclei containing a refractile substance called eleidin. This layer is strongly eosinophilic. The most superficial layer, the stratum corneum, is composed of many dead cells without nuclei, which are filled with keratin. The surface cells of this layer are continually being desquamated and replaced by cells that arise from mitotic activity in the basal layer. This activity results in the outward displacement of higher cells toward the free surface until they, too, are exfoliated.

Over most of the body, the epidermis is much thinner and simpler in composition. The strata Malpighii and corneum are always present, and the stratum granulosum, consisting of two or three layers of cells, can usually be seen. The stratum lucidum is rarely seen in thinner epidermis. The epidermis is devoid of blood vessels but is nourished by diffusion from capillaries in the underlying dermis (Plates 138 and 157).

Three additional cell types are found in the epidermis: (1) melanocytes, (2) Langerhans cells, and (3) Merkel's cells.

Melanocytes are found in the basal layer of the epidermis and junctional zone of the dermis, but their long slender processes containing melanin extend outward between keratinocytes. Keratinocytes contain melanin granules, but they are produced only in melanocytes and are transferred to keratinocytes by a process called cytocrine secretion. The number of melanocytes is believed to be similar in all races, differing only in the rate of production and transfer of melanosomes to keratinocytes.

Some dendritic cells located in the upper layers of the epidermis were first described by Langerhans in 1868. In routine sections, they have a dark staining nucleus and a pale cytoplasm. Their dendritic processes can only be seen by special methods (Gairn's gold chloride). These cells are believed to play an important role in contact allergic responses and other cellmediated skin reactions.

Merkel's cells are found only in the basal layer of the epidermis. These pale staining cells are believed to be paraneurons involved in sensory reception.

Dermis

The dermis or corium underlying the epidermis is 0.3 to 4.0 mm in thickness and may be divided into two layers, papillary and reticular. The papillary layer includes the ridges and papillae, which protrude between the epidermal pegs. The papillae contain tactile corpuscles of Meissner and small blood vessels (Plate 138). The papillary connective tissue is composed primarily of collagenous and elastic fibers. The reticular layer is composed of coarse interlacing collagenous fibers and an elastic network. Hair follicles and smooth muscle (arrector pili), sweat and sebaceous glands, and Pacinian corpuscles are located in the reticular layer (Plates 143, 145, 146 and 147). in the face and neck, striated muscle fibers (muscles of facial expression) terminate in the dermis.

Subcutaneous Layer

This layer, not part of the skin, is also called superficial fascia and is a loose network of connective tissue bundles and septa, which blend indistinctly with the dermis. This arrangement of the connective tissue of the superficial fascia allows the movement of skin except on the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, where the skin is firmly anchored to deeper structures. In most places, particularly the abdominal wall, lobules of fat may be abundant; the layer may then also be called the panniculus adiposus.

Epidermal Derivatives

The epidermal derivatives include the nails, hair, and glands.

The fingernails, found only in man and other primates, are convex rectangular specializations of the epidermis called nail plates. Underlying the nail plate is the nail bed, composed of the germinative layer of the epidermis.

Hair is a characteristic of mammals. These elastic, horny filaments may grow to a length of 5 feet or longer and vary in thickness from 0.005 to 0.2 mm. Hair is found on all parts of the skin except the palm and sole, and the oral, anal, and urogenital orifices. Hair consists of a free shaft and a root located in the dermis and superficial fascia. The hair is surrounded by a tubular epithelial follicle. Associated with the follicle are sebaceous glands and the arrector pili smooth muscle fiber bundle (Plates 83, 145, and 147).

Cutaneous glands include the sebaceous, sweat, lacrimal, and mammary glands. The sebaceous glands produce sebum, an oily substance formed by the degeneration of cells rich in lipid droplets and cellular remnants. The glands discharge their contents by the contraction of the arrector pili muscle and by any pressure applied to the gland. Sweat glands are coiled tubular glands, which are widely distributed and vary regionally. There are approximately 100 per cm3 on the palm and sole. The merocrine sweat gland consists of a coiled secretory tubule and duct. At the periphery of the coiled secretory tubule and enclosed within the basement membrane, spindle-shaped myoepithelial cells wind in longitudinal spirals around the tubule. Myoepithelial cells resemble smooth muscle fibers, and it is believed that their contraction empties the contents of the gland, sweat, onto the surface of the skin (Plate 144).

Another variety of sweat gland is the apocrine gland, which is less widely distributed. These glands are large, branched, and less coiled than the ordinary merocrine glands. The lumen of the secretory tubule is wide, the cells are larger and with distinctive projections from their surfaces, and the myoepithelial cells are larger and more numerous than in ordinary sweat glands. The axillary apocrine glands develop their large size at puberty (Plate 140). In women, apocrine sweat glands show periodic changes with the menstrual cycle.

The glands that produce ear "wax" or cerumen are located in the external auditory meatus (Plate 142). They are similar to axillary apocrine sweat glands but are unusual because the ducts may branch and open into hair sacs along with the sebaceous glands.

The differences between eccrine and apocrine sweat glands follow: (1) Eccrine sweat glands are never connected to hair follicles, whereas apocrine sweat glands are. (2) Eccrine sweat glands produce a watery secretion, whereas apocrine secretion is more viscid. (3) Eccrine sweat glands are innervated by cholinergic (parasympathetic) nerves, whereas apocrine glands are innervated by adrenergic (sympathetic) nerves.

The lacrimal gland is a compound tubuloalveolar serous gland and is an outgrowth of the upper lateral margin of the conjunctiva. The secretion is a clear, salty liquid (tears) that moistens, flushes, and protects the conjunctiva and cornea (Plates 300 and 310).

The mammary glands are specialized cutaneous glands that develop rapidly but incompletely at puberty. Additional differentiation begins during pregnancy, and functional activity begins after childbirth. Marked regression of the glandular tissue occurs when nursing ceases. The gland is made up of 15 to 20 lobes, each with its own duct system surrounded by interlobar connective tissue and fat cells. The glandular epithelium resembles that seen in apocrine sweat glands.