JMarte Antinette : TfircC-'Wave feminism, ande flick CuCture

In 2001 Antonia Fraser published a biography of Marie Antoinette, an unsurprising subject given the author's long-time interest in recounting the lives of famed European women, from Mary Queen of Scots to the wives of Henry VIII. What was surprising, however, was the sudden explosion of interest that followed. Suddenly Marie Antoinette was the It Girl. She was featured on hip teen TV shows {Hannah Montana), in advertising (Juicy Couture, Sephota), in couture collections by Jobn Galliano and others, on countless websites, in a PBS documentary, andmost importantly for our purposes herein three attention-getting texts that appeared in 2006: Abundance, a novel by Sena Jeter Naslund; Queen of Fashion, a historical study by Caroline Weber'; and Marie Antoinette, a film by Sofia Coppola. The simultaneous occurrence of popular and scholarly interest suggests the widespread, magnetic nature of Marie Antoinette's current appeal. Not only was Marie Antoinette's pouffed Image popping up everywhere: she had undergone a radical transformation. No longer viewed as a heartless, elitist, antirevolutionary wicked witch, she had now morphed into a sympathetic, unfairly maligned victimone who had successfully made the transition from literal teen queen to mature, elegant wife and mother. As the promotional materials for the 2006 PBS documentary Marie Antoinette and the French Revolution argued, she was "a tenderhearted, complex woman, whose tragic awakening came too late to save her from the guillotine.' What could explain this surprising popularity? Historians argue it stems from "historical illiteracy," that "most Americans don't have even the flimsiest grasp of who she was,' while cultural critics muse that, as consumers, "we're an entire nation of Marie Antoinettes" (qtd. in Knigsberg). However, we think the answer can be found in tbe contemporary popular phenomenon of chick culture. What we refer to as "chick culture ' is a group of mostly American and British popular culture media forms arising in the mid-nineties and focused primarily on twenty- to thirty-something, middleclassand frequently college-educatedwomen. The most prominent chick cultural forms are chick flicks, chick lit, and chick TV programming, although other pop culture manifestations such as magazines, blogs, musiceven car designs and energy drinkscan be included in the chick line-up." In studying the phenomenon of chick culture, we have become interested particularly in the intersection of postfeminism or third-wave feminism,^ consumerism, and popular media. And here is where Marie Antoinette's popular resurrection is located. Marie Antoinette is capturing the Spirit of the Third-Wave-Feminist Age. This is not the first time a revised view of Marie Antoinette has corresponded significantly with the prevailing social and political climate. In the mid-nineteenth century, for example, the Empress Eugnie was admired and imitated for affecting the earlier French queen's lavish style (Weber, "Queen of the Zeitgeist"). At the turn 98

Marie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick CuIturc/99 of the twentieth century, Marie Antoinette, a trendsetter then as now, pops up in novels by Edith Wharton and Virginia Woolf. A character in Wharton's House of Mirth (1905) names her daughter Mary Antoinette, influenced by a then-popular play based on the Queen's life. Her rubies receive reverential mentions in Wharton's Custom of the Country (1913) and Woolf's Mrs. Dalloway (1925). The 1930s saw a similar reevaluation featuring a favorable 1933 biography by Stefan Zweig and a sympatheric 1938 film portrayal starring Norma Shearer. Indeed, as Weber asserts, the attitude toward the infamous queen might provide a clue to the Zeitgeist during any period in Europe and America since her own time ("Queen ofthe Zeitgeist"). Today's revisionist portraits of Marie Antoinette highlight typical third-wave feminist preoccuparions. In her biography. Fraser provides evidence defending the much maligned wife of Louis XYI against the charges of disdain for the masses and lascivious behavior. At the same time Fraser freely admits and details the luxurious hfestyle Marie Antoinette indulged in at the opulent court of Versailles. In Queen of Fashion, Weber extends Fraser's project to argue that the Queen's fashion statements 'were, in every sense, accessories to the campaign she waged against the oppressive cultural strictures and harsh political animosities that beset her throughout her twentythree-year tenure in France" (23). In the fictional texts, both explicitly based on Fraser's book, Naslund and Coppola presented the story to a widerand, presumably in the case of the film, considerably youngeraudience. Together, the revisionist accounts present a third-wave feminist aesthetic focused on youth, fashion, sexuality, celebrity, and consumerism. Teen Queen The third-wave revision of Marie Antoinette hinges primarily on imagining her position as a fourteen-year-old Austrian archduchess separated from her family and forced to live among strangers at a foreign French court. Fraser subtides her biography "The Journey," presenting her life as a series of transitionstemporal, spatial, physical, and psychologicalas she advances through stages of development readily identifiable to a female audience: independence, sexual initiation, marriage, and motherhood. Although audiences realize Marie Antoinette's journey, unlike their own, ended at the guillotine, the revisionist accounts emphasize points of similarity, not difference, creating empathy with, rather than distance from, the teen queen. The fictional accountsNaslund's novel and Coppola's filmemploy typical strategies of chick culture to stress audience identification with the young Marie Antoinette. Abundance, which might be called a chick-lit historical novel, presents her life using the first-person point of view characteristic ofthe genre.'* Claiming to have found her protagonist's voice in the historical queen's letters to her mother ("RS." 13), Naslund imagines an unaffected and nave girl with typical adolescent preoccupations. The novel's opening line invites identification: "Like everyone, I am born naked" (3). The scene she subsequently describes, the remise, or handover ofthe princess from the Austrian to French courts, is hardly everyone's experience. Nonetheless, the narrative envisions a young girl indulging in what one reviewer described as "Barbara-Cartlandissue reveries' (Schillinger) about her future husband: "I try to picture the French boy, whom I have never seen, extending large hands to me, beckoning. What is he doing this

\i){)Marie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feministn, and Chick Culture very moment, deep in the heart of France? At fifteen, a year older than myself, he must be tall and strong" (Naslund 3). Tlie voice conveys, in both diction and subject matter, ordinary adolescent thoughts. She is a dutiful daughter, remembering her mother's admonition: "Do so much good to the French people that they can say that I have sent them an angel. So said my mother. Empress of Austria, and I will love them, and they will love me" (5). Her chirpy resolve fades, however, as her little dog Mops is taken from her: "Mops, Mopsl I cry again, while my imploring hands beseech the empty air" (6). Presenting a girlish protagonist, bereft of her mother, her sisters, and her dog, but determined to "present a cheerful countenance to the French" (6), Naslund invites reader sympathy for an innocent teen queen far removed from the adult image of historical accounts. Like Naslund, Coppola found access to the historical queen through her letters to her mother: she could imagine "the real person behind the sarcastic teenage voice in her letters," she claims in her introduction to the published screenplay, and describes her as a "lost girl, leaving childhood behind" who eventually achieved "the final dignity ofa woman." She was a "real girl," Coppola asserts, who "tried to find her own way." Sbe thought Marie Antoinettes loneliness and isolation were "touching." One French reviewer commented, Coppola's film is "plein de vie, de rires et de dcouverte. Tout simplement vu travers les yeux d'enfant de son hrone'' 'full of life, of laughter and of discovery. Quite simply viewed through the childlike eyes of its heroine' (Greuet; translation ours). The wordless opening ofthe film deliberately engages an audience of "real girls," with its use of contemporary music and an identifiable celebrity teen queen.^ While Gang of Four sings lyrics repeating "the problems of the leisure: what to do for pleasure. 1 do love a new purchase" on the soundtrack, the camera reveals the young queen, played by Kirsten Dunst, lounging on a pale blue chaise in a revealing white lace gown as a maid delicately slips her foot into a pink pump. Surrounded by pink conkciions, she silcntJy leans forward to taste icing from a cake poised nearby while looking directly into the camera, then sinks back as though chuckling at her insouciance. By breaking the cinematic fourth wall, she encourages viewers to conceive of themselves as her confidantes, members ofthe sacred circle at court. Simultaneously and cleverly, this title sequence confronts the persistent, but unfounded, assumption that the Queen, indifferent to het subjects' starvation, advised imperiously and

Marie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture/101 flippantly, "Let them eat cake." This is not, in fact, the Marie Antoinette we will come to know in the film. Rather, Coppola is presenting the false image her film will seek to dispel.

The film's title "Marie Antoinette,"flashedboldly in pink and black, introduces a break between this invented moment ftom the adult queens life and the start of Coppolas film narrative. The opening shot presents a young girl asleep in her comfortable bed, her long, straight blond hair tousled and her Face peaceflil and innocent. The accompanying score provides a cheerful pop beat. She awakens and giggles gleefully at the antics ofthe small dog in bed with her. Throughout this initial scene, Coppola ofFets no clue that the film is set in any period other than out own. The effect is the same as the opening of Naslund s narrative: the notorious image ofthe heartless adult queen is deliberately undercut by the cinematic portrait ofthe vulnerable young girl. And the message to contemporary young women is unmistakable: forget what you read in the history books. This is the real story: Marie Antoinette was an ordinary girl caught up in extraordinary circumstances. I The films self-conscious identification with contemporary viewers Is most obvious in the use of a late twentieth- and early twenty-first-century musical score. Pop music is incorporated not only as a non-diegetic element, but as a diegetic one. In a scene at a masked ball, for instance, partygoers dance in a humorous conflation of an eighteenthcentury minuet and a Hollywood-musical-production number to '80s pop band Bow Wow Wow's "Aphrodisiac," underscoring Made Antoinettes new romantic interest, the hunky Count Axel Fersen. As her coach delivers her home to Versailles, Bow Wow Wow's cover of the chick-flick staple "Fools Rush In" echoes her dreamy mood. Marie Antoinette, the film slyly implies, is just like usor at least those of us in the teento twenty-something demographic. Significantly, the film's PG-13 rating ensured that younger members of Coppola's potential third-wave audience wete not excluded. Fashion Icon or Victim? In all ofthe revisionist accounts, a major focus is the issue of Marie Antoinettes concern with fashion. That issue is, in fact, the central key to the French queen's contemporary appeal. Each work identifies fashion not merely as an adjunct to the Queen's character, but as a primary motif in her life. The confluence of fashion and identity, a constant theme of third-wave feminist thought, is directly addressed in the books as well as in Coppola's film. In each account, Antoinette's passage from child of Austria to Dauphine of France is registered through a ceremonial change of dress. At the border with France, for the official "handover" from the Austrian to the French court, the former Maria Antonia

\^2/Marie Antoinette-. Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture

must leave all of Austria behind, including not only her cherished lapdog but her clothes. Each work suggests the symbolic importance of the remise as a re-fashioning of self, presenting in great detail the elaborate ceremony literally stripping the teenage Antoine of all physical remnants of her Austrian heritage. Naslund emphasizes the teenage queen's nakedness as a metaphor for her psychic vulnerability and, as expected for a novel, delves beneath surface display to imagine Marie Antoinette's thoughts and feelings. "Having shed all my clothing," she reveals, "I stand in a room on an island in the middle of the Rhine Rivernaked. My bare feet occupy for this moment a spot considered to be neutral between beloved Austria and France. The sky blue of my discarded skirt wreathes my ankles" (3). As she begins "the donning of French clothes," she assumes a new identity: "my French self" (5). This theme of transformation is even more pronounced in Coppola's film, which visually registers the same scene, reinforcing Marie Antoinette's transformation through costume. The young future queen arrives at the ceremony in an elegant gown, but one entirely free of color, suggestive of a blank canvas. We watch as the attendant French ladies remove her clothing revealing a back view of a ver\' young girl clad only in a filmy undergarment and thigh-high stockings. She is then redesigned according to Versailles fashion, emerging in a luxurious, corseted, full-skirted blue gown, with her hair upswept anu Louuuiitd under a jaunty tricorn. Later, in an opulent scene filmed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, Coppola presents her in a splendid wedding gown transformed, finally, into the Dauphine of France.^ While fashion will eventually become the young queens mode of influence and power, the rituals surrounding dress are initially indicative of her status as victim. Weber, in particular, emphasizes Marie Antoinettes early victimization. In Weber's book, the opening scene of the remise emphasizes the young girl's submission co an arbitrarily imposed set of foreign standards visible as dress. In the chapter titled "Stripped," Weber highlights, not her girlish nakedness, as in Ahundance and Coppola's film, but the collusion of the Austrian and French courts in cementing their alliance through and onher body. She notes that the French erasure of her Austrian connections and heritage began before she departed for France. A French dentist corrected her smile, a French hairstylist "tamed the Archduchess's locks into a low, powdered upsweep studded with decorative gems" (16), and French clothing draped her body. Nonetheless, at the handover, she was "stripped naked in front of the entire Austrian delegation" (27). Weber presents her as a "prisoner of the men's appraising glances and the women's officious ministrations" (26)/ In Weber's account, even Marie Antoinette's moment of supposed victory during her wedding ceremony is actually another scene of victimization. And it is, once again, Antoinette's clothing that betrays her. Weber notes that the wedding gown "cut from

Marie Antoinette. Fasiiion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture/103

luminous, white-hued cloth-of-sliver" and enhanced by "masses of white diamonds" could have been a "masterpiece" (42), but was not. Instead, in an eigbteentb-century version of wardrobe malfunction, the dressmakers had made the bodice too small, meaning that the stays and laces of her corset were visible at the back. Weber speculates that this "may have made the girls wedding toilette more upsetting even than the stripping at the border" (42) and imagines "how unnerving it must have been for Marie Antoinette to see them reflected, a million times over, in the halls countless mirrors" (43). Weber and Coppola, along with Fraser and Naslund, note that the court etiquette of dressing rituals requires Antoinette's submission, even as Dauphine, to the most influential women at court to undress in the evening (the coucher) and dress in the morning (the lever), ln tbe film, Coppola demonstrates that while presumably there to attend her, they in fact render her powerless. Awakened after an uneventful wedding night, Marie Antoinette is stripped naked (for a second time in the film) in ber cold bedchamber. She is then redressed in an elaborate ritual confirming tbe ranks of those whofully clothed"serve" her. Shivering as new arrivals necessitate reshuffling the order of attendance, the young Dauphine shyly and smilingly confesses, "This is ridiculous," but is rebuked: "This, Madame, is Versailles." In Webers version, she is more impertinent: "Oh this is odious! What an inconvenience!" (65). But the lesson is the same: "In this rarefied world, the surface was the substance" (Weber 41). Wbile this accurately sums up eighteenth-century Versailles, it may also quite easily be applied to a twenty-first-century world where visual culture continues to rule. Marie Antoinette did soon overcome her submissive position, howeverat least with respect to fashion. Ultimately her savvyand frequently ostentatioususe of fashion becomes a major focus for each of the revisionist works, as for her life. Through fashion she created her image as Queen of France. Naslund's novel traces the Queens investmentsboth psychological and financialin fashion and acknowledges the role of her "Ministry of Fashion," coiffeur Monsieur Lonard and marchande de mode Rose Bertin, essential alliances in her personal and political life. And Naslund grants her protagonist a contemporary insight: her life as queen was a performance, a "visual feast" (426) for the people: "the eye is mightier than the ear. The memory of what is viewed oudasts the memory of what is heard" (427).

\O4/Mari Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture Weber too recognizes and fully develops Marie Antoinette's use of fashion to create her identity as queen, an insight that becomes central to her argument. Indeed, Weber's thesis, that fashion was "a key weapon in her struggle for personal prestige, authority, and sometimes mere survival" (3), can be described as third wave, not as an intenrional political gesture but in the sense that it participates in third-wave recuperations of feminine display as meaningful, rather than simply frivolous. Coppola, herself squarely placed in the third-wave feminist generation, has argued: "You're considered superficial and silly if you're interested in fashion. [... ] But I think you can be substantial and still be interested in frivolity. The girl in Lost in Translation is just about to figure out a way of finding herself, but she hasn t yet. In [Marie Antoinette] she makes the next step. I feel that Marie Antoinette is a very creative person" (qtd. in Kennedy Fraser). Coppola's film most fully captures the uncanny connection between the eighteenth century and our own in recognizing and exploiring dress as a medium of selfdefinition. The film's lavish costuming clearly highlights the significance of fashion in Marie Antoinette's world. The gorgeous sets, the sumptuous food design, the Versailles palace itself where the filming took place, all contribute to its rich sensuous appeal. But the costumesfor which designer Milena Caonero won an Academy Award take center stage throughout. While Caonero made use of historical sources, she also made a number of significant and telling changes. As she explains in the film's "making o f documentary, her costume design followed not history but Coppola's vision for the film. Rather than the "expected classical look," she opted for "stylization." Some ofthe costumes and colors, she reveals, were symbolic, some psychological ("Making of"). As many commentaries noted, the style Caonero developed su^ests a witty blend of "1980s punk-pop sensibility and 18th-century fashion" (FrockFlicks). Most notably Caonero frequently used pinkthe signature color of postfeminism. We see Dunst parading in pink gowns repeatedly in the film; pink ribbons, shoes, fans, hats, flowers, even pink desserts complete the look. The emphasis on pink reached beyond the film itself: promotional stills and materials, including the DVD packaging and the film-tie-in cover of Fraser's book, portray Marie Antoinette in one or another of her luscious pink outfits; the DVD inside the package is graced by a pair of pink high heels. One ofthe wry signature statements of postfeminism applies perfectly to this cinematic Marie Antoinette: "Pink: It's an attitude." In the film, Antoinette herself makes the connection explicit. Perusing a series of rich dress fabrics, the young queen sighs, "I like the pink; it's like candy."" Coppola and Caonero knew what they were doing. Making the color pink Marie Antoinette's signature color had lirtle to do with historical accuracy and much to do with third-wave feminist identification. Even when they are not dressed in pink, Antoinette and her small circle of friends most often appear in girlish pastelsp^e aqua, muted coral, soft: yellow. According to Caonero, the connection between the luscious colors and delectable sweets was literal: at Coppola's suggestion she based her palette on a box of delicately colored French macaroons ("Sofia Coppola's"). The young Marie Antoinette and her circle contrast clearly, on the one hand, with her husband's spinster aunts always attired in beige or gray and, on the other, with the old king's mistress, the Comtesse du Barry, who revels in rich, seductive jewel tones. In the scene ofthe masked ball, Antoinette is dressed

Marie Anttnette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feniinism, and Chick Culture/105 uncharacteristically in a striking black gown, a black net "mask" covering her eyesa formal-wear choice more in tune with our times than hers. Color, however, was not the only significant issue guiding Coppola and Canonero's fashion decisions. The constant costume changes also become one of the film's hallmarks. The plethora of costumes Dunst wears is almost overwhelming. She appears in over sixty gowns, none for more than a few minutes, many for only seconds.'^ At times, the film's set becomes little more than an eighteenth-century fashion-show runway: And here we have a lovely pistachio ensemble embellished with creamy lace; next, a full-skirted aqua gownnote the matching feathers in the pillbox hat. The shoes appearing in the film also have a strong chick-culture connection: they were designed by Manolo Blahnik, the king of girly footwear fashion, most famously thanks to the devotion ofthe characters on the Sex and the G'i)'TV series. Still, Coppola, fully aware of her purpose, does not expect the audience to be fooled by her playful mix of styles. When she includes an anachronistic pair of Converse high-tops in the film's central "shopping" montage, Coppola consciously admits and laughs at her own use of contemporary fashion imagery. Naslund, Weber, and Coppola all present fashion as central to the Dauphine's transformation. But they also capture the postfeminist paradox: standards of beauty are both rigorous and capricious. They offer a portrait of Marie Antoinette first submitting to Versailles fashionunderstood simultaneously as dress and standards of conduct and then rebelling against entrenched court style to fashion herself as Queen of Fashion and of France. Sartorial and Sexual Excess In spite of her dtess-for-success approach, Marie Antoinette never fiilly overcame the suspicion that greeted her arrival in Versailles. Her penchant for luxury and fashion, simultaneously and ironically, increased both her popularity and the dangerous envy and mistrust embodied in the vicious rumors that followed her everywhere. Most of these rumors focused on sex. At Versailles, Weber argues, "matters of costume were monitored as closely and taken as seriously as royal sex (whether recreational or dynastic)" (73). The Dauphine's body was no longer her own, given over to the ladies at court for rituals of dressing but also to the nation for the production of an heir. Perhaps inescapably, then, fashion and sexuality were intertwined. This confluence is highlighted in the revisionist versions targeting a contemporary audience, one trained by popular media to accept such a pairing as natural. Each ofthe revisionist portraits emphasizes the pressure imposed on the young girl to consummate her marriage to Louis XVI. Naslund incorporates letters from her mother to highlight the political imperative of their alliance, alongside the girls reveries to describe her sexual awakening and personal desire for connection to her husband. Tlie novel also dramatizes her encounter with thefishwivesof Paris on hand, as was custom, to witness royal births. Following the Comtesse d'Artois's delivery ofa child, they taunt Marie Antoinette, for the King's brother, rather than the King, has produced a son: They are angry that their Queen has not produced an heir. They speak roughly and loudly
to me: "Where is your babe?" "Why have you not given us an heir?" "You spend your nights dancing." "You have neglected your business as a wife." "We are mothers! Why not you?" (234) i

\06/Marie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture With effort, she remains "serene," until she is drawn into the arms of her friend Madame Campan and comforted by another friend, Henriette. With their encouragement, she calms herself and envisions one day nursing her own child, "as I am told Rousseau advocates" (237). The novel pointedly presents Marie Antoinette as frustrated in fulfilling her maternal duty and desires. Coppola's fiim depicts the same scene, but in this cinematic version the Queen turns to her friends and to fashion as oudets for frustrated sexual desire. Coppola stages Marie Antoinette's passage through the hall crowded with fishwives who hiss, "Give us an heir." Far from serene, the screen queen struggles to retain her composure, eventually collapsing in a heap behind a closed door, weeping alone. The film then cuts to a montage reminiscent of the shopping scenes in scores of chick flicks: the teenaged Antoinette appears with her ladies trying on countless pairs of shoes (as the camera pans by the humorously anachronistic pair of Converse sneakers), examining fabrics and modeling jewelry, while drinking champagne and indulging in lavish pink-andwhite-frosted sweets, to the strains of Bow Wow Wow's "1 Want Candy." The scene closes with an army of the Dauphine's coiffeurs affixing the finishing touches to her towering headdress. The film, however, far from condemning her lavish consumption, defends it, considering it evidence of her playful, endearing, queen-next-door charm. The contemporary song, with its repetitive, upbeat mantra of juvenile desire"I want candy. I want candy"reinforces the childish innocence ofthe young women's actions. If Louis (Jason Schwartzman) finds an oudet for his masculine energies in swordplay and stag hunting, Marie Antoinette finds the feminine counterparts in coiffures, clothing, and cakes. The film, like the revisionist books, acknowledges that "decadent lovely things," "her Fabrics and trinkets" (Coppola) provided the backdrop For Marie Antoinette's journey but not the key to her character. Naslund's title. Abundance, she explains, invokes both the luxuriousness of Versailles before the Revolution and Marie Antoinette's "generosity and graciousness of spirit" ("ES." 6). As each work reveals, Marie Antoinette's contemporaries were less forgiving. Public condemnations ofthe Queen's extravagances in the press and pamphlets Fused sartorial excess with sexual deviance. Her elaborate coifliires and jewels recalled images oF the previous king's mistresses, Madame Pompadour and Madame du Barry, especially her signature hairstyle, \cpoufJ Her more "modish splurges [..,] appeared better suited to a king's mistress than to a king's wife" (Weber 119). As Forclothing,her dressmaker Bertin's preference forusing"provocative nomenclature" for her trimmings and fabrics, such as "stifled sighs' and "masked desire" (127), may have augmented the associations, as did the young queen's frequent appearances at the Paris Opra, which Weber argues, equated her with "the 'kept women,' actresses and prostitutes also in attendance" (129). She was blamed For leading young women to raid their dowries to follow her fashionable example, eighteenth-century tashionistas who, it was reported, "were just as happy [buying] pou as [getting] a husband" (qtd. 124). Marie Antoinette was, a journalist wrote, "a danger to the morals of the people": "In the passionate desire to copy her example, women's dress has become so enormously expensive, that husbands, generally, are unable to pay for what is required, so lovers have become the fashion" (125).

Marie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Cuiture/l7 But most popular condemnation focused on the Queen's own sexual behavior. One ofthe earliest pamphlets against her, "Le Lever de l'aurore," targeted an occasion when the Queen and a small group of courtiers stayed up all night to see the sunrise. The pamphlet presented this innocent moment of nature worship as a "crazed sexual freefor-all" (Weber 127). The Queen's closest confidantes, the Princesse de Lamballe and the Duchesse de Polignac, it was further speculated, were actually her own mistresses. The Queen s supposed lesbianism, "the German vice" ( 142), explained her childlessness. To Weber, Marie Antoinette appears as a modern-day celebrity unfairly excoriated in the eighteenth-century equivalent of the tabloids or Access Hollywood. She actively promoted her own image, but "the young queen failed either to consider or to grasp the scandal that her personal splendor represented to her people" (115). Coppola's film also invokes popular distortions of the Queen's behavior, subtly, as in the films faithful representation of the innocent sunrise party, and direcdy, most notably in a scene showcasing Marie Antoinette's apocryphal retort to revolutionary unrest. A close-up shot reveals the head and shoulders of the Queen, lying back in a bathtub wearing only a d i a m o n d necklace and earrings and reciting the line"Let them eat cake" flirtatiously to the camera." The scene is pointedly at odds in style to the rest ofthe film: Dunst wears anachronistically dark lipstick and the shot, drained of other color, uses stark lighting and a spare set design. A cut returns us to the film world to show a long shot of a fiilly dressed Marie Antoinette surrounded by her ladies. She protests, "Thats such nonsense. I would never say that." And indeed the Marie Antoinette we have come to know in the film would not. The line is presented as tabloid-like fodder, the imaginary creation of antiroyalist rumormongers circulating compromising stories in the popular press. The visual allusion to a diamond necklace in the scene is by no means incidental, llie infamous Diamond Necklace Affair was another case in which Marie Antoinette was, historians agree, more sinned against than sinning. It was this single incident that, however unfairly, solidified popular resentment against her. Ihe diamond necklacealong with any reference to cakerepresents the condemnation of popular opinion.'" Coppola's presentation of this sceneevoking simultaneously two ofthe greatest unjust charges against the young queenstrikes us as a particularly ingenious use of film iconography. Still, Coppola reveals an underlying irony: Marie Antoinette and her friends appear in the "real-life" scene completely cut off from the troubled outside world, indulging in a lifestyle of luxurious leisure. Coppola creates further audience identification with the unfairly maligned Queen by frequently presenting Dunst walking or standing alone, either in long camera shots or isolated within close-ups. Repeatedly we see her walking down a long hallway or avenue as we hear not real conversation, but (literally) ungrounded, whispered rumors Boating around her, often those of the courtiers themselves. Are

\ 08/Marie Aatoifiete. Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture they real or simply her imagination? Coppola has chosen to set aside historical accuracythe opportunity for a French queen to remove herself from the constant press of required companions, court flatterers, and curious observers was largely non-existent, after allto invoke our compassion. The strategy is effective: what girl or woman who has ever attended high school can fail to feel her pain? While Marie Antoinette does eventually enlist her BFFstbe Princesse de Lamballe and the Duchesse de Polignacin her cause, she remains an outsider in her own court. The sole situation of Marie Antoinette's life in which the rumors against her might have been justified was her relationship with the dashing Count Fersen, a Swedish military officer and frequent court visitor. Ironically, while rumors connected the Queen sexually to almost everyone else she came in touch with, from her brothers-inlaw to her female friends and her own children, few rumors linking her with Count Fersen actually surfaced (Antonia Fraser 203; Weber 142). Most interesting for our purposes may be the discrepancy in the approaches taken by the four revisionist works considered here: each one chooses to treat the relationship in a different way. Fraser and Weber, as historians, openly acknowledge the impossibility of discovering the nature and degree of intimacy between tbe Queen and ber chevalier. Much of Fersens personal correspondence was destroyed, and none of the Queen's letters to him survive. Although historians past and present have devoted considerable energy to the question, they concur that no firm evidence exists (Weber 328, note 25). Weber, taking a scholarly approach, simply leaves it at that: while it's possible Marie Antoinette and Fersen consummated their relationship, we cannot know for sure. Still, she calls Fersen "the great love of her life" (136). Fraser, as a popular writer, is willing to go a step further. In spite of her admission that the evidence is inconclusive, she chooses to believe that the two conducted a discteet, clandestine sexual affair for several years. She asks, "But did the Queen in fact sleep with the handsome Count? On balance of probabilities, the answer must be yes. The idea of a great pure love that is never consummated, although propagated by some sympathetic historians, does not seem to fit the facts of human nature" (203). Fraser continues, "What he did offer was exactly what she wanted: romantic devotion, accompanied from time to time, one must believe, with physical proof of it" (203). Tbe two fictional works, by contrast, provide definitive, but entirely different interpretations. Naslund's novel, narrated by the Queen herself, puts forward the "great pure love" theory: the romantic liaison between the narrator and her cavalier is strictly an affair of the heart and soul. They are the purest, most perfect of friends and soul mates, blissful in one another's presence and never truly separated. The last time they meet, their eternal devotion is sealed by a single chaste embrace: I think that we both have a premonition that we will never see each other again. But it is our disposition and determination to forbid the occasion to be sad. No, every moment that weare together hasalwaysbeenand is to befilledvi'irhjoy,justasthe bee perpetuallyfillsthe honeycomb. With exquisite grace, he draws me a step forward and meets me in a holy kiss. (489) Still, Naslund provides one small opening for readers who would like to believe the affair went further. The young Queen reveals that she has returned to a hidden grotto

Marie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture/19

to dream about a prior meeting there with her beloved count (439-40). Was this the point at which the two soul mates became more than spiritual lovers? For the most part, however, Naslund presents a relationship carried on through stolen looks, quiet conversations, and secret letters: the eighteenth-century equivalent of an online romance. Not surprisingly, Coppola goes furthest in inventing details ofthe royal relationship. She allows Marie Antoinette a full-blown affair replete with a meet cute at a masquerade ball, romantic trysts in the countryside, and a playfully seductive bedroom scene, reminiscent of an earlier scene between Louis XV and his sultry mistress. Her appearance at the ball cannily exploits the possibilities of clothing as cover for her flirtation with the seductive Count Fersen. In the bedroom scene, by contrast, she appears stretched out on a bed, naked except for her stockings and a strategically placed outspread fan. The use of this image in promotional stills, ads, and on the cover ofthe accompanying CD, gives a clear message: This is not your grandmother's Marie Antoinette. Still Coppola's decision to present the affair as a clearly adulterous one may initially seem puzzling, given her avowed purpose to exonerate the misjudged queen. By including the affair, however, she manages to place her heroine squarely in the romande chick-flick tradition extending from The Bridges of Madison County [X'^^')) to The Duchess (2008). Coppola thus provides the swoon-inducing romance third-wave audiences expect; at the same time, she garners the audience's sympathy when Marie Antoinette is farced by circumstance, family loyalty, and a sense of responsibility to sacrifice her one true love. The Final Stage Finally, over seven years after their wedding, the King and Queen were able to consummate their marriage and produce childrenincluding a potential heir. As all of the revisionist texts relate, Marie Antoinette wholeheartedly adopted the role of motheranother choice embraced by third-wave women. Influenced by the backto-nature movement Rousseau had inspired, she changed her lifestyle along with her clothing style. She gave up most ofthe late-night parties, balls, operas, gambling, and public court life, opting instead to spend her time at the PetitTrianon, the small private palace attached to Versailles, and Saint Cloud, her country estate, surrounded by close firiends and family. Like today's film stars, she claimed that motherhood and family were her priorities and perhaps managed, to about the same extent, to convince both herself and her fans. And where today's star mothers adopt Juicy sweats, our eighteenthcentury star adopted white muslin dresses, forgoing the extravagant silks, hoop skirts, extreme corsets, and over-the-top hairstyles she had formerly displayed. In much the same way, then, that a change of wardrobe signaled her transition from young girl to teen queen and from fashion follower to fashion icon, her transition to the role of devoted mother was reflected in a new style. In all four works, Marie Antoinette directly addresses a desire to "dress myself more simply" (Naslund 344). By this time, however, the damage was done. Marie Antoinette's lavish spending habits were well known, and her detractors ridiculed her efforts to play shepherdess. They denounced her simpler style as immodest and morally corrupt for, as Weber notes, the less structured chemises presumably provided easier access to breasts and genitals ( 152). A portrait by Louise Elisabeth Vige-Lebrun, the Queen's favorite coun

1X0/Marie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture painter, portraying her in a lovely white gown and beribboned straw hat was severely criticized by an unappreciative public as too informal for a queen of France (Fraser 223). Some of the Queens efforts at simplicity do appear ridiculousthough not maliciousfrom a present-day perspective. Her creation of a miniature farm stocked with real animals for her amusement and her penchant for performing the role of country lass in plays she and her friends performed were hardly likely, given the situation beyond the walls of Versailles, to inspire respect. Still, her devotion to her family was realand highly unusual. But revolutionary fervor was growing and Marie Antoinette's early popularity was never regained. In all three revisionist books discussed here, the Queen's journey ends at the guillotine. And in each case fashion continues to make a clear statement. Webers study and Naslund's novel present an imprisoned queen whose radically altered dress reflects political and psychological transformation. Naslund claims Marie Antoinette's decision to simplify her dress stemmed from the "spirit of change" (344) grasping the nation, allying her withnot againstthe Revolution. Weber argues that Marie Antoinette was not following but directing Revolutionary style, that, paradoxically. Revolutionary fashion came "from her own repertoire of once controversial, simplified ensembles to make the opposite claim: that all women were created equal" (203). Weber describes the Queen's final moments as poignant eifotts to appear regal even in death: she notes that Marie Antoinette kept a "special white chemise at the ready" and that her serving girl recalled "it was her intenrion to appear in public as decently dressed as her impoverished circumstances allowed" (qtd. 286). Her choice ofthe simple white dress is, to Weber, "the most brilliant fashion statement of her entire career" (287), proving that "even as she faced execution, Marie Antoinettes will to control her image, to manage it through her clothing, had not left her" (287). Coppola, by contrast, while ending her treatment of Marie Antoinette on a sad note, does not include the end of het life. Instead, she follows the Queen only to the point at which her life of pleasurable extravagance has come to an end, with the royal couple's forced departure from Versailles. In the final scenes the sets are dark, the colors of Marie Antoinette's gowns muted. No longer focusing on finery and frivolity, Coppola portrays the Queen's calm acceptance ofthe approaching disaster and above all, her desire to protect her family. Twice Marie Antoinette insists, in spite of the obvious danger, on remaining where she belongs: by her husband s side. One of her last appearances in the film shows her emerging on the balcony before the vicious mob storming the palace, bowing down wordlessly before them as a supplicant for mercy. Her eventual death at their hands, the film implies, is not a moral object lesson on the evils of over-indulgence but an envy-induced travesty of jusrice. We all know the final end of her story; Coppola allows Marie Antoinette to remain in the film's created world, young, fresh, beautiful, and finally, courageous: the ideal thitd-wave heroine. Consumer Culture * Not surprisingly, Coppola's film, of the revisionist works considered here, is most sttongly associated with issues of consumerism. In fact, the film itself, like its subject, was attacked for a self-indulgent focus on style. While both English- and French-

Marie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture/111 language reviews were almost evenly split between admiration and condemnation, many suggest that in Coppola's retelling, "style [...] takes precedence over plot and character development" {Rotten Tomatoes). Detractors saw the film as "almost pornographically obsessed with fashion, jewelry and desserts" (Dudek). Two reviews that we came across, however, looked more deeply into Coppola's revisionism. L. V. JeflPrey makes the insightful comment that "Coppola continues to fascinate hy giving professional creative voice to all the girly-girls in the world, ever arguing that they Ve a major subset of society," one that we "would be foolish to offhandedly dismiss." And Lisa Schwarzbaum recognized that the film "is the work of a mature filmmaker who has identified and developed a new cinematic vocabulary to describe a new breed of postpostpostfeminist woman. And that contemporary creature is also of the artist's own invention." Coppola's "cinematic vocabulary" is ironic and self-aware. While putting forward a serious revisionist view of Marie Antoinette, the film is constantly winking at its audience. Coppola's use of ironic film asides, especially in the wordless scene preceding the opening credits and the "Let them eat cake" scene, highlights the artifice of filmmaking as well as biography. The film is reminding the audience, that, like the popular pamphlets of the eighteenth century, it has constructed a Marie Antoinette of its owna sweet, girlish, pink-and-white confection now replacing the debauched, uncaring vixen oF earlier popular legend. In a similarly self-knowing vein, the film, which simultaneously celebrates and gently mocks lavish consumerism, signals its own participation in a consumerist culture. While Antoinette and her ladies indulge in luscious delicacies. Fountains of champagne, and rows of brightly colored shoes, we indulge in a film portraying those tempting goodies, bubbly drinks, and stylish high heels. A consumerist item itself, the film both acknowledges and satisfies our consumerist fantasies. New York Times critic A. O. Scott rightly described it as "a thoroughly modern confection, blending insouciance and sophistication, heartfelt longing and self-conscious posing with the guileless self-assurance oFa great pop song. What to do For pleasure? Go see this movie. For starters." And why not? In its admittedly ironic message oFconsumerism as innocent Fun, the film easily justifies its participation in such indulgence. We may well dismiss the diamonds and pass over the pastries, Coppola might suggest, but we can easily invest in a movie ticketa treat ringing up at less than SlO and entirely calorie-Free.And, unlike Marie Antoinette, For our harmless indulgence we will not lose our heads. Apparently the film's director, producers, and marketers were not shy about capitalizing on the consumerist possibilities inherent in such a production." A companion CD, Coppola's published script, and a new cover for Fraser's book Featuring Kirsten Dunstdressed in pinkall accompanied or shortly followed release ofthe film. The film's celebration of fashion was also exploited to sell both movie tickets and contemporary consumer goods in the September 2006 Vogue magazine spread that coincided with the film's release. While the spread did include one image oF the cast in their sumptuous costumes, it consisted largely of images of Dunstincluding on the covercaptured by celebrity photographer Annie Leibovitz on the grounds ofthe newly renovated Grand Trianon at the Chteau de Versailles modeling eighteenthcentury-inspired corseted gowns by contemporary designers Alexander McQueen and

112/Mrie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture others. And the girly Juicy Couture line followed shortly with a pink-poufed model advertising its latest fragrance. This innocent stance provides a strong contrast to the condemnation of the Queen both in her own time and in subsequent generations. Still, Marie Antoinette is by no means alone in her role as a scapegoat sacrificed on the altars of lavish consumerism. And the association of women, in particular, with such evils is nothing new. Thorstein Veblen made that connection clear in his 1899 Theory ofthe Leisure Class. Women with political connections are particularly susceptible to the charge, as those old enough to remember the immolation of Imelda Marcos and her 300 pairs of shoes can attest. But some periods are quicker than others to send such figures to the slaughter symbolic or literal. Even as savvy a self-promoter as Lady Diana Spencer could, in Antoinette's time, have suffered the Queen's fate. Indeed in her poise and grace, her status as fashion icon, and her lack of interest in politics, her resemblance to the French Queen is almost uncanny.'"* But Diana lived in a world more favorably disposed towardand forgiving ofsuch inclinations, and saw herself enshrined as a postfeminist heroine. Marie Antoinette, by contrast, has had to wait some three centuries to garner the same favorable acceptance.''' Marie Antoinette herself had recognized that consumption was essential to her efforts to establish prestige and power. She actively sought publicity for her fashions. Bertin and LeonaiJ were encouraged to keep their shops and other clients in Paris, rather than, as was traditional, required to work exclusively for the monarch at Versailles (Weber 110). And, as Weber notes, in language reflecting our own popular culture, the Queen was "an active and zealous manipulator of her own Lc!cbii\ wlio discovered that her audience was "an avid market for her iconoclastic, exciting image" (110). Unfortunately for the ill-fated Marie Antoinette, however, the Age of Revolution provided a disastrously inappropriate setting for her performance. In our Age of Consumption, refashioned in popular culture as a well-intentioned but misunderstood young wife and mother, she has found a more appreciative third-wave audience, who clearly would not condemn her for having a great sense of style and the means to pull it off.

Marie Antoimlte". Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture/113 Suzanne Ferriss Nova Southeastern University, Florida Mallory Young Tarleton State University, Texas Acknowledgment
Mallory Young would like to thank the University Research Committee at Tarleton State University for an Organized Research Grant that supported her work on this article.

Notes
' Weber's is not the only scholarly work to focus entirely or partly on Marie Antoinette in the past few years. Numerous dissertations also appeared in several disciplines including English, history, music, art, and even archilecture. . i ^ Sec Ferriss and Young, Chick Fkks 1-2. ' VChile some sources conflate the terms posfeminsm and ihirri-uave feminim, otheis distinguish dearly between them. Although we don't make as pronounced a distinction as some do, we do prefer the term third-wavefetuinism., suggesting not a rejection of the earlier feminist views but rather a development and transformation, I*or further discussion of the terms, see Holmlund and Mazza. * F'or a thorough Introduction to chick-lit conventions, see Ferriss and Young, Chick Lit, especially p. 4. ' Kf^fput the star on its Sept, 2006 cover with the headline: "Kirsten Dunst as the Teen Queen Who Rocked Versailles." '' The gown worn by Kirsten Dunst in the wedding scene has already achieved iconic status. It ft-as included in a 2006 exhibit in japan curated by Hollywood costume designer Mary Rose, Star-Stnck: h\ollynr>od Costumes and Designen, /P-/-200. The exhibit, a condensed version of which u-asshouTi at The \X'omen's Museum of the State Fair of Texas in 2007, also featured such iconic costumes as Claudette Colbert's re\'eaHng 1934 costume for Cleopatra and Kate Winslett's gown from the famous "I'm the King f)f the World!" scene in Tittinic (Svokos). ' Fraser, by contrast, points out that eighteenth-centur\' attitudes toward prn-acywhich u-as largely non-existentwould have made the occasion of the remise far less humiliating than it appears to our modern sentiments (60), Weber does not admit that difference of perspective, choosing instead to increase the ctmtemporar)' audience's sympathies for the ^-ulnerable young royal. " This isn't the first time the film assiKiiates Marie Antoinette's fashion sense with sweet confections: one of the court ladies, in an earlier scene, looks at the newly arrived Dauphine dressed in frothy peach and comments, with only slightly feigned admiration, "She looks like a little piece of cake." ' On its ^^Marie Antoinette' page, the website Costumer's Guide to Movie Costumes {www.costumersguide. com) prondes tluimbnail sdlls of Dunst in 65 different gouTis, wrappers, and dressing gowns appearing in the film, as well as numerous others that didn't make the final cut.

WA Marie Antoinette: Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture

"' "Built on scaffolding made from wire, cloth, gauze, horsehair, faite hair and the wearer's own tresses, teased high off the forehead" (Vt'eber 104),^u;^ were then powdered and ornamented with decorations intended to express a feeling {pouf an sentiment} or commemorate an event [pot^' ia mnstance). In fact, the \^Tetched excess of these designs provoked some of the first attacks against the Queen in the popular press (VC'eber 114). Weber speculates that the/w///may be directly related to the spurious "l-et them eat cake" rumor: "it is not implausible that the lasting association between her callousness and baked edibles in faa originated uith her habit of parading her powdered, wedding-cake hairstyles before a breadstarved nation" (114). Flour was an ingredient used in the powder. " The necklace is presumably an allusion to the infamous twenty-ei^t-hundred-carat collar of the Diamond Necklace Affair. See below. '" The necklace, called "the Slave's Collar" (Weber 166), here appears as the shackles of public opinion and a foreboding reference to the guillotine, which "sliced its own bloody version of a necklace into the Queen's throat" (Weber 8), '^ Even in the absence of big-budget HoUj-wood marketing, Naslund's novel also managed to capital2e on Marie Antoinette's image, with its reflective, embossed cover and reading group guide aoss-promodon. '^ Several fevorable reviews of Coppola's film noted the comparison. See, for example, Ebert, Hoberman, and Scholer. Less favorable reviews, on the other hand, such as Brian Holcomb's, suggested a connection to Paris Hilton. Still others, both more and less complimentarj; identified the overprivileged queen with Coppola herself. ' ' Weber originally intended her book to locate the Queen in "a longer genealogy of prominent women who were recognized and evaluated more for how thej* dressed than for what they 'did,"' including not only Diana but the nineteenth-century empresses Josphine and Eugnie, and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis'(290-91).

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\\(> Marie Antoinette. Fashion, Third-Wave Feminism, and Chick Culture Schwarzbaum, lisa. "Marie Aiitoineite." EW.Com 18 OcL 2006. Web. <http://www.ew.com/ew/article/ 0,,1547540,00,htmI>. Scott, A. O. "A Lonely Petit Four of a Queen." New York Times 13 Oct. 2006. Web. <http://movies. nytimes.com/2006/10/13/movies/13mari.html>. "Sofia Coppola's Marit Antoinette!' Tims Onlim 7 Oct. 2006, Web. <http://women.timesoniine.cauk/toi/ [ife_and_style/women/ceiebrit}-/articie667128.ece>. Stoller, Debbie. "Sex and the Thinking Girl." The Bust Gm to tbe New Girl Order. Ed. Marcelle Karp and Debbie Stoiler. New York: Penguin, 1999.75-124. Print. Svokos, Heather. "Design Stars." Foii Toiih Siar-Te/egrm 30 Sept. 2007: IG. Print

VC'eber, (Caroline. Queen of fashion: What Marie Antoinette Wort to ihe Rsfoluiion. New York: Holt, 2006, Print,
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