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This document summarizes the emerging field of social communication as a scientific inquiry. It discusses how communication has historically been an art practiced by writers, public relations counselors, and advertisers, but is now becoming a field of scientific study. The document outlines four key factors in social communication: (1) the communicator transmitting the message, (2) the stimuli or symbols being transmitted, (3) the individuals receiving the communication, and (4) the responses of the recipients. It also briefly discusses some of the studies analyzing these different factors, such as how the communicator influences responses and content analysis of the stimuli. The field requires cooperation across many disciplines to fully understand social communication.
This document summarizes the emerging field of social communication as a scientific inquiry. It discusses how communication has historically been an art practiced by writers, public relations counselors, and advertisers, but is now becoming a field of scientific study. The document outlines four key factors in social communication: (1) the communicator transmitting the message, (2) the stimuli or symbols being transmitted, (3) the individuals receiving the communication, and (4) the responses of the recipients. It also briefly discusses some of the studies analyzing these different factors, such as how the communicator influences responses and content analysis of the stimuli. The field requires cooperation across many disciplines to fully understand social communication.
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This document summarizes the emerging field of social communication as a scientific inquiry. It discusses how communication has historically been an art practiced by writers, public relations counselors, and advertisers, but is now becoming a field of scientific study. The document outlines four key factors in social communication: (1) the communicator transmitting the message, (2) the stimuli or symbols being transmitted, (3) the individuals receiving the communication, and (4) the responses of the recipients. It also briefly discusses some of the studies analyzing these different factors, such as how the communicator influences responses and content analysis of the stimuli. The field requires cooperation across many disciplines to fully understand social communication.
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Souvce Fvoceedings oJ lIe Anevican FIiIosopIicaI Sociel, VoI. 92, No. 5 |Nov. 12, 1948), pp. 371-375 FuIIisIed I American Philosophical Society SlaIIe UBL http://www.jstor.org/stable/3143048 . Accessed 09/09/2013 0859 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. . American Philosophical Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 130.226.173.82 on Mon, 9 Sep 2013 08:59:48 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions SOCIAL COMMUNICATION CABL I. HOVLANB CIaivnan, Bepavlnenl oJ FscIoIog, YaIe Univevsil |Bead FeIvuav 7, 1948 in lIe Snposiun on BeseavcI Fvonlievs in Hunan BeIalions) COMMUNICATION as an avl Ias Iad a vev Iong Iislov. TIe vvilev, lIe ovalov, lIe puIIic veIa- lions counseIIov, and lIe advevlisev Iave Ieen Ieading pvaclilionevs oJ lIis avl. Connunicalion as a JieId oJ scienliJic inquiv, on lIe olIev Iand, Ias Ieen oJ JaivI vecenl ovigin. WilIin lIe Iasl decade ov so, Iovevev, lIeve Ias deveIoped lIe pvonise oJ a genuine science oJ connunicalion- a sslenalic allenpl lo JovnuIale in vigovous JasIion lIe pvincipIes I vIicI inJovnalion is lvansnilled and opinions and alliludes Jovned. TIe deveIopnenl oJ lIis nev JieId Ias Ieen al Ieasl in pavl a vesponse lo lIe gvoving uvgenc oJ lIe pvoIIen. In induslv lIe incveasing concen- lvalion oJ conlvoI Ias videned lIe gap Ielveen vovIevs and nanagenenl and lIe JeeIing Ias avisen on IolI sides oJ lIe need Jov nove eJJeclive inlev- connunicalions. TIe diJJevenl Jvanes oJ veJev- ence oJ nanagenenl and oJ lIe vovIev Iave in- lensiJied lIis pvoIIen. TIe nexl speaIev on lIe pvogvan viII discuss lIis lopic in conneclion vilI IaIov-nanagenenl sludies. In ouv nalionaI IiJe lIe sane gap Ielveen Iav- naIev and cilizen exisls. FovnaI neans oJ inlev- connunicalion Iave IeIped sonevIal. TIe vadio Ias IvougIl lIe poIilicaI Ieadev cIosev lo lIe volev and lIe puIIic opinion poII Ias IvougIl lIe vievs oJ lIe cilizens nove cIoseI lo lIe allenlion oJ lIe IavnaIev. Bul lIeve is sliII JeIl I nan lIe IacI oJ nove eJJeclive inlevconnunicalion lo vepIace lIe Iosl inlinac oJ lIe lovn neeling in lIe eavI das oJ ouv denocvac. On lIe inlevnalionaI scene lIe sane IacI oJ connunicalion appeavs. I vecenlI Ieavd one oJ ouv inpovlanl Uniled Nalions oJJiciaIs sa IJ onI ve couId connunicale vilI lIe Bussians. TIeve is Ieve nol lIe pvoIIen oJ pIsicaI connunicalion, Iul oJ pscIoIogicaI connunicalion, nol a Ianguage Iavviev aIone Iul ideoIogicaI Iavvievs lo connuni- calion. TIe pvoIIen oJ connunicalions is nade nove cIaIIenging I lIe Jacl lIal il is nol an avea Jov an isoIaled speciaIisl. Adequale undevslanding oJ lIe pvoIIens oJ lIis JieId depends on a videv vaviel oJ laIenl and vange oJ speciaIizalion lIan aInosl an olIev pvoIIen in lIe sociaI sciences. A veaI science oJ connunicalion viII vequive lIe co- opevalion oJ IolI lIe pvaclilionev and lIe scienlisl. TIus lIe nevspapev edilov, lIe vadio Ivoadcaslev, lIe novie pvoducev, as veII as lIe pscIoIogisl, lIe socioIogisl, lIe anlIvopoIogisl, and lIe poIilicaI scienlisl Iave inpovlanl voIes lo pevJovn.' Nunevous deJinilions oJ lIe levn connunica- lion Iave Ieen given Iul Jov puvposes oJ lIe pves- enl discussion I sIouId IiIe lo deJine connunica- lion as lIe pvocess I vIicI an individuaI |lIe connunicalov) lvansnils slinuIi |usuaII vevIaI snIoIs) lo nodiJ lIe IeIaviov oJ olIev indi- viduaIs |connunicalees). TIis deJinilion lIus deJines lIe veseavcI lasI as Ieing lIe anaIsis oJ Jouv Jaclovs |1) lIe con- nnunicalov vIo lvansnils lIe connunicalion: |2) lIe slinuIi lvansnilled I lIe connunicalov: |3) lIe individuaIs vIo vespond lo lIe connuni- calion: |4) lIe vesponses nade lo lIe connunica- lion I lIe connunicalee. In addilion, ve nusl anaIze lIe Iavs and pvincipIes veIaling lIe aIove eIenenls. Nunevous sludies Iave Ieen nade oJ lIe con- nunicalov and Iov Iis cIavaclevislics aJJecl lIe vesponse oJ lIose veceiving lIe connunicalion.2 In lIis calegov IeIong sucI inpovlanl pvoIIens as lIe eJJecl oJ connunicalions in vIicI lIe lvue connunicalov is nol veveaIed, and lIe eJJeclive- ness oJ appeaIs nade I lIe connunicalov in pev- son conpaved vilI lIose in vIicI lIe nessage is lvansnilled lIvougI vadio, nolion picluves ov olIev nedia. AnaIsis oJ lIe second Jaclov, lIe slinuIi, Ias Ieen lIe nosl lIovougII sludied. In Jacl vIen nenlion is nade oJ connunicalion anaIsis, ov oJ inslilules oJ connunicalion, vIicI ave spvinging up on aII sides, lIis is lIe aspecl usuaII neanl. ' TIis is veII iIIuslvaled in lIe divevsil oJ conlviIulovs lo lIe vecenl snposiun Connunicalion and sociaI ac- lion, Yeagev, W. H., and W. E. UllevIacI, ed., AnnaIs Anev. Acad. FoI. and Soc. Sci. 250, 1947. 2 CJ. e. g., SnilI, B. L., TIe poIilicaI connunicalion speciaIisl oJ ouv lines, pp. 31-73, in SnilI, B. L., H. B. LassveII, and B. B. Case, Fvopaganda, connunicalion, and puIIic opinion, Fvincelon Univ. Fvess, 1946. FBOCEEBINOS OF THE AMEBICAN FHILOSOFHICAL SOCIETY, VOL. 92, NO. 5, NOVEMBEB, 1948 371 This content downloaded from 130.226.173.82 on Mon, 9 Sep 2013 08:59:48 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 372 CABL I. HOVLANB [FBOC. AMEB. FHIL. SOC. WilI lIe gvoving conpIexil oJ ouv civiIizalion jusl Inoving vIal naleviaI is Ieing lvansnilled is a giganlic and inpovlanl lasI. AnaIsis oJ lIe naleviaI lvansnilled lIvougI lIe vavious cIanneIs oJ connunicalion Ias vequived lIe deveIopnenl oJ pvecise quanlilalive lecIniques. TIe slud oJ lIe slinuIi lvansnilled I lIe connunicalov enpIos lIe JaniIiav lecInique oJ conlenl anaIsis. Jusl IeJove lIe vav and duving lIe vav vovI on lIis pvoIIen nade vapid slvides. TIe sludies oJ Lass- veII, Kvis, and Speiev on anaIsis oJ enen pvopa- ganda lIvougI nevspapevs, vadio, and novies conslilule good exanpIes oJ lIe deveIopnenls oJ lIe Iasl Jev eavs in lIis avea. TIese nelIods pvovide anaIsis in levns oJ lIe suIjecl nallev oJ a connunicalion, ils lIenalic conlenl, lpe oJ snIoIizalion, Iinds oJ vIelovicaI devices used, snlaclicaI cIavaclevislics, elc.3 WilIoul lIe lIovougI descviplion nade possiIIe I lIese nev and nove pvecise nelIods oJ descviIing lIe con- lenl aspecl oJ lIe slinuIi lIe lasI oJ JovnuIaling pvincipIes and genevaIizalions vouId Ie nosl diJ- JicuIl. Because lIe slinuIi used in connunicalion ave pvinaviI vevIaI snIoIs il is inpovlanl lo undev- sland lIe voIe oJ Ianguage in connunicalion. Be- cenl deveIopnenls in lIe anaIsis oJ Ianguage and lIe JieId oJ senanlics pvonise inpovlanl appIica- lion lo lIe science oJ connunicalion. TIe anaI- sis oJ lIis pvoIIen vequives laIing inlo accounl nol onI lIe diJJevences Ielveen lIe Ianguages oJ diJJevenl nalions Iul lIe equaII cvilicaI pvoIIen oJ lIe diJJevences in Ianguage Ielveen gvoups vilIin ouv ovn sociel-e. g., Ielveen lIe scienlisl and lIe Ianan ov Ielveen IaIov and nanagenenl. ScienliJic sludies oJ lIe naleviaI lvansnilled lv lo Ie oIjeclive and uninlevesled in lIe vaIues oJ lIe naleviaI lvansnilled. So il is al lIis poinl lIal veseavcI nusl Ie suppIenenled I sludies oJ olIev gvoups-oJ lIe veguIalion oJ connunicalion, lIe nainlenance oJ a Jvee pvess, and lIe vaviel oJ lopics suvveed I lIe Connission on Fveedon oJ lIe Fvess.5 Heve lIe pIiIosopIev, lIe sludenl oJ govevnnenl, and lIe Iavev, aII Iave a signiJi- canl pIace. BeseavcI can pvovide lIen vilI oI- jeclive dala Iasic lo lIeiv anaIsis pavlicuIavI in 3 LassveII, H. B., BescviIing lIe conlenls oJ connuni- calions, pp. 74-94, in SnilI, B. L., H. B. LassveII, and B. B. Case, op. cil. 4 CJ. e. g., JoInson, W., FeopIe in quandavies: lIe se- nanlics oJ pevsonaI adjuslnenl, N. Y., Havpev, 1946. 5 CIaJee, Z., Oovevnnenl and nass connunicalion, 2 v., Univ. oJ CIicago Fvess, 1947. conneclion vilI evaIualing lIe eJJecl oJ vavious connunicalion poIicies. We nov luvn lo lIe lIivd oJ ouv pvoIIens-lIe anaIsis oJ lIe individuaI vIo veceives lIe con- nunicalion. Heve ve Iave lIe cove oJ lIe pvoI- Ien oJ individuaI pscIoIog. WIal ave lIe no- lives oJ lIe individuaIs, vIal ave lIeiv capacilies, Iov do lIeiv pvedisposilions inJIuence lIe va in vIicI lIe veacl lo vavious slinuIi pvesenled? WIiIe pscIoIog is nosl concevned vilI lIese pvoIIens, olIev adjacenl discipIines Iave nade signiJicanl conlviIulions lo ouv undevslanding. FscIialv and pscIoanaIsis Iave conlviIuled lo lIe anaIsis oJ lIe conpIex nolives oJ lIe in- dividuaI. AnlIvopoIogicaI veseavcI in ouv ovn cuIluve Ias sIovn us Iov lIe doninanl nolives and pallevns oJ an individuaI can Ie pvedicled Jvon Jaclovs sucI as Iis occupalion and sociaI cIass. TIus inpovlanl inJovnalion aIoul lIe in- dividuaI lo Ie aJJecled I lIe connunicalion is JuvnisIed I census-lpe dala. Jusl Inoving lIal an individuaI is lvenl-one eavs oJ age, veaIlI, and Ias a IigI inleIIigence lesl scove pevnils us lo naIe IigII signiJicanl pvediclions oJ lIe indi- viduaI's nolives, IaIils, and capacil lo Ieavn, vIicI ave exlveneI veIevanl lo lIe lpe oJ con- nunicalion used. Fvoceduves devived Jvon cIini- caI pscIoIog and Jivsl-Iand InovIedge oJ lIe individuaI pevnil sliII Iellev pvediclion. TIis JieId appeavs vev pvonising Jov Juluve deveIop- nenls in ouv undevslanding oJ connunicalion. Sludies oJ olIev cuIluves and olIev nalionaI pal- levns is an inlegvaI pavl oJ lIis pvoIIen. Bellev undevslanding oJ lIe counlvies oJ Easlevn Euvope, Jov exanpIe, and consequenl Iellev connunica- lion vilI lIen vequives exlensive veseavcI on lIe pvedisposilions oJ individuaI in vavious cuIluves oJ lIe vovId. WovI on lIis pvoIIen is nov Ieing Iegun al a nunIev oJ cenlevs. TIe JouvlI Jacel oJ anaIsis is lIal oJ vesponses lo connunicalion. Sone aspecls oJ lIis pvoIIen ave nucI nove deveIoped lIan olIevs. One oJ lIe sinpIesl vesponses is lIal oJ allenlion lo lIe con- nunicalion. Sludies oJ vIal veadevs Iave noliced in connunicalion and vIal lIe Iave vead, Jov exanpIe, in lIe daiI nevspapevs, ave veIaliveI nunevous. WilIin lIe Iasl Jev eavs lIeve Iave Ieen incveasingI Jvequenl allenpls lo veIale sinpIe vesponses, IiIe veading IeIaviov, lo lIe cIavaclev- islics oJ lIe individuaI vesponding. SucI sludies veIale veadevsIip lo sex, educalionaI IeveI, age gvoup, elc. SiniIavI a gveal deaI oJ veseavcI on lIe vesponse This content downloaded from 130.226.173.82 on Mon, 9 Sep 2013 08:59:48 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 92, NO. 5, 1948] SOCIAL COMMUNICATION 373 side Ias Ieen done in lIe JieId oJ vadio. Bul Ieve lIe pvinav enpIasis Ias Ieen on lIe vesponses oJ Iislening and enjonenl. Bevices Jov vecovding oJ vesponses oJ IiIe ov disIiIe Iave Ieen oJ sone assislance in lIis pIase oJ lIe pvoIIen.6 OnI vecenlI Iave lIeve Ieen covvesponding sludies oJ lIe eJJecliveness oJ vadio in inJIuencing opinion and in lvansnilling inJovnalion.7 MucI lIe sane Ias Ieen lvue oJ lIe Iavge anounl oJ veseavcI lIal Ias gone inlo lIe anaIsis oJ vesponse lo lIe novies. TIe enpIasis Ias Ieen on vIal do peo- pIe IiIe. TIis Ias Ieen lIe aspecl lIal Ias Iad lIe gveal connevciaI IacIing. TIe Ieginnings oJ inlevesl in olIev diveclions veve sIovn in lIe Fane Fund sludies on lIe eJJecls oJ lIe novies on a vide vaviel oJ pIases oJ sociaI IeIaviov.8 TIe vovI vIicI ve did duving lIe vav on lIe anaIsis oJ lIe eJJecliveness oJ lIe JiIns pvepaved I lIe Avn lo give soIdievs lIe IacIgvound oJ lIe vav and ouv pavlicipalion in il na aIso Ie nenlioned.9 Heve lIe vesponses sludied veve in levns oJ lIe anounl oJ inJovnalion veceived, lIe opinions vIicI veve cIanged, and lIe eJJecl oJ cIanges in inJovnalion and opinion on nolivalion. TIe anaIsis oJ vesponse lo connunicalion Ias Ieen enovnousI JaciIilaled I vecenl inpvove- nenls in lecInique. FuIIic opinion nelIods Iave nade vapid slvides as viII Ie seen Jvon lIe papevs pvesenled lIis aJlevnoon. Bul lIese nelIods do nol suJJice Jov lIe nan aspecls lo Ie coveved. Inlensive inlevviev nelIods ave needed on nan pIases oJ lIe pvoIIen. Fov sone pIases oJ lIe pvoIIen adaplalions oJ cIinicaI pvoceduves viII pvoIaII pvove essenliaI lo undevsland JuII lIe lolaI inpacl oJ connunicalion. AnolIev aspecl oJ lIe pvoIIen vequiving nucI JuvlIev vovI is lIal oJ veIaling lIe diJJevenl lpes oJ vesponses nade lo connunicalion. TIis incIudes slud oJ Iov cIanges in opinion and vevIaI slalenenl ave ve- Ialed lo olIev pIases oJ IeIaviov IiIe sociaI ac- lion. TIis Ivings in lIe Jascinaling pvoIIen oJ Iov lo cIange lIe va an individuaI pevceives a pvoIIen and Iov cIanges in Iis pevceplion aJJecl Iis olIev aclions. 6 HaIIonquisl, T., and E. A. SucInan, Lislening lo lIe Iislenev, pp. 265-334, in Badio veseavcI, 1943-1945, La- zavsJeId, F. F., and F. N. Slanlon, ed., N. Y., BueII, SIoan, and Feavce, 1944. 7 CJ., e. g., WiIson, E. C., TIe eJJecliveness oJ docu- nenlav Ivoadcasls, FuIIic Opin. Quavl. 12 19-29, 1948. 8 CIavlevs, W. W., Molion picluves and oulI a sun- nav, N. Y., MacniIIan, 1933. 9 Expevinenls on nass connunicalion |lo Ie puI- IisIed). Ouv veseavcI lasI aIso incIudes lIe JovnuIalion oJ pvincipIes and Iavs veIaling lIe slinuIi, lIe in- dividuaI, and lIe vesponse. Heve ve ave in- nedialeI slucI I lIe vide genevaIil oJ lIe pvoI- Ien. We Jind lIal lIe pvincipIes needed Jov an undevslanding oJ connunicalion ave lIe vev ones needed Jov an undevslanding oJ olIev aspecls oJ IeIaviov aII lIe va Jvon pscIoIogicaI vavJave lo individuaI pscIolIevap in a Jace-lo-Jace silua- lion. We ave lIus al once IeneJiled I lIe eavs oJ Iasic vovI lIal Iave gone inlo anaIsis oJ ps- cIoIogicaI IeIaviov and ils cIange, and al lIe sane line conJvonled anev in cIanged Jovn vilI lIe nan Iavge unsoIved pvoIIens oJ Iunan veIalions. We ave, oJ couvse, IeneJiled in lIe seavcI Jov pvincipIes I lIe eavs oJ expevience oJ pvacli- lionevs oJ lIe connunicalion avl. Lel us suv- ve IvieJI lIese conlviIulions. TIe JieId oJ educalion Ias nade signiJicanl con- lviIulions. On lIe pvoIIens oJ Iov lo lvansnil JacluaI inJovnalion, Jov exanpIe, lIe vovI oJ lIe Iasl lvenl eavs Ias Ieen vev enIigIlening. Bul even nove signiJicanl pvoIIens exisl in lIe JieId oJ connunicalion oJ vaIues and alliludes. Heve ve ave IavgeI in unInovn levvilov, vilI a slvong ve- aIizalion on lIe pavl oJ educalovs oJ lIe nagnilude oJ lIe pvoIIen and ils inpovlance Iul vilI IillIe dependaIIe inJovnalion al Iand. AnolIev inpovlanl souvce oJ IpolIeses is lIe vovI vIicI Ias Ieen done on discussion gvoups. Fvon vide pvaclicaI expevience a nunIev oJ ex- ceIIenl IooIs Iave Ieen vvillen on Iov lo con- ducl discussion gvoups, slvalegic and laclicaI pvoceduves, and lIe IiIe.10 Fev oJ lIese vecon- nendalions Iave Ieen pul lo expevinenlaI lesl Iul lIeve ave conlained in lIese IooIs nunevous in- povlanl ideas vIicI sIouId Ie evaIualed. Sone sslenalic vovI divecled lovavd slud oJ discussion gvoups vas done I ouv veseavcI gvoup duving lIe vav lo delevnine lIe lpe oJ IeadevsIip vIicI is nosl eJJeclive and lIe eJJec- liveness oJ vavious lpes oJ pvesenlalion. Ex- lensive sludies oJ lIe eJJecliveness oJ gvoup discus- sion veve cavvied oul duving lIe vav I lIe Iale Kuvl Levin and Iis associales. TIeiv sludies in- dicaled lIal gvoup discussion JoIIoved I a gvoup decision lo cavv oul sone pavlicuIav sociaI aclion, IiIe ealing Iess vIile Ivead, ov lving oul neal 10 CJ., e. g., EIIioll, H. S., TIe pvocess oJ gvoup lIinI- ing, N. Y., Associalion Fvess, 1928. 11 Levin, K., Fovces IeIind Jood IaIils and nelIods oJ cIange, pp. 35-65, in TIe pvoIIen oJ cIanging Jood IaIils, BuII. Nal. Bes. CounciI, No. 108, Ocl. 1943. This content downloaded from 130.226.173.82 on Mon, 9 Sep 2013 08:59:48 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 374 CABL I. HOVLANB [FBOC. AMEB. FHIL. SOC. suIslilules, vas nove eJJeclive lIan Iecluves and individuaI decision. TIis veseavcI vaises a Iavge nunIev oJ inpovlanl queslions Jov veseavcI as lo lIe Jaclovs vesponsiIIe Jov lIe aIIeged eJJecliveness oJ gvoup decision, sucI as lIe inleveIalionsIips Ie- lveen lIe nenIevs oJ lIe gvoup, lIe pevsonaIil cIavaclevislics oJ lIose vIo ave and ave nol in- JIuenced I lIe gvoup pvessuves, and lIe IiIe. SucI veseavcI sIouId gvealI cIaviJ ouv undev- slanding oJ lIe inlevveIalionsIips oJ lIe individuaI and lIe gvoup in connunicalion. OlIev signiJi- canl vovI is Ieing pIanned in lIe anaIsis oJ con- Jevence discussions and lIeiv eJJecliveness in vavi- ous silualions. WovI on pscIolIevap Ias Ieen oJ vaIue as a souvce oJ IpolIeses. TIis vepvesenls an inpov- lanl Jovn oJ connunicalion-oJ lIe Jace-lo-Jace vaviel. Fvon lIe exlensive vovI on lIis pvoIIen nan IpolIeses Iave deveIoped vIicI iJ con- Jivned sIouId Ie appIicaIIe lo nass connunica- lion as veII. Lel ne quole a singIe exanpIe. Il Ias Iong Ieen a IeIieJ on lIe pavl oJ nan ps- cIolIevapisls lIal decisions veacIed independenlI I lIe cIienl ov palienl ave apl lo Ie nove inJIu- enliaI and Iasling lIan lIose suggesled I lIe lIev- apisl. Sone vovI Ias Ieen done aIong lIis Iine Jov individuaI pscIolIevap. Hov aIoul lIis genevaIizalion al lIe nass connunicalion IeveI? Is il nove eJJeclive lo pvesenl evidence Jov lIe poinl Ieing connunicaled vilIoul dvaving lIe in- pIied concIusion and Ielling lIe connunicalee dvav lIe concIusion? Ov is il Iellev lo pvesenl lIe evi- dence and aIso dvav lIe concIusion Jov lIe veadev ov Ieavev? FveIininav vovI ve Iave undev- va seens lo indicale lIal an inpovlanl vaviaIIe is lIe inleIIigence oJ lIe individuaI ov gvoup ad- dvessed. WilI lIe nove inleIIigenl nenIevs oJ lIe audience lIe eJJecls na Ie nove Iasling vIen lIe pavlicipaled in lIe decision pvocess Iul vilI Iess inleIIigenl nenIevs lIe covvecl concIusion na nol aIvas Ie seen and gvasped vilIoul Ieing nade expIicilI I lIe connunicalion. Advevlising visdon ieIds a nunIev oJ in- povlanl IpolIeses. WIeve sslenalic vesuIls ave avaiIaIIe lIe Iave considevaIIe signiJicance Iecause oJ lIe Jacl lIal lIe oIjeclive oJ lIe con- nunicalion is usuaII cIeavI deJined. TIis is in conlvasl lo cevlain olIev aveas vIeve peopIe ave eagev lo connunicale Iul il is exlveneI diJJicuIl lo deJine vIal lIe ave lving lo connunicale so lIal one can naIe an adequale evaIualion oJ lIe success oJ lIe eJJovl. TIeve ave a nunIev oJ inpovlanl Iinilalions, Iovevev, lo vovI in advevlising as a souvce oJ pvincipIes oJ connunicalion. TIe Jivsl is lIe Jacl lIal nan oJ lIe vesuIls ave Iepl conJidenliaI Iecause oJ lIeiv connevciaI vaIue. A second diJJicuIl is lIe conpIexil oJ lIe silualion in vIicI veseavcI is cavvied on. Ovgani- zalions JvequenlI Iave sinuIlaneous vadio, nevs- papev, nagazine, and poslev advevlising vilI con- pIex lenpovaI veIalions vIicI naIe il diJJicuIl lo allviIule vesuIls lo speciJiaIIe causes. TIivdI, lIe veseavcI Ias Ieen done pvinaviI vilIoul veJ- evence lo lIeovelicaI sslenalizalion so lIal il is diJJicuIl lo genevaIize lIe vesuIls lo nev silualions. BesuIls ave nosl JvequenlI oJ lIe lpe lIal ad A pvoduces nove saIes lIan ad B, Iul vilIoul an sslenalic accounl oJ lIe vespecls in vIicI lIe lvo ads veve lIe sane and in vIicI lIe veve diJJevenl. LaslI, inpovlanl ideas Iave cone Jvon anaIsis oJ pvoIIens oJ connunicalion in induslv. TIe inpovlance oJ lIis pvoIIen vas cIeavI sIovn I lIe eavI sludies oJ Mao 12 and olIevs. A IooI IiIe lIal oJ CIeslev Bavnavd 13 on IeadevsIip Ias a Iavge nunIev oJ signiJicanl IpolIeses as lo lIe voIe oJ connunicalions, lIe JovnaI and inJovnaI cIanneIs vIicI exisl vilIin an ovganizalion and lIe Iavvievs lo nove eJJeclive connunicalion up and dovn lIe Iines oJ ovganizalion and acvoss lIen. Sslenalic vovI is Ieing Iegun on lIe pvoIIen oJ connunicalion vilIin nanagenenl, Ielveen nanagenenl and lIe vovIev, and Ielveen nanagenenl and lIe puIIic. TIe pvoIIen conJvonling us cuvvenlI is nol lIen IacI oJ ideas and IpolIeses. TIese as ve Iave seen ave avaiIaIIe on evev side. WIal ave pvinaviI IacIing ave lvo lIings |1) IacI oJ a conpveIensive lIeovelicaI slvucluve lo enIvace lIe divevse ideas and IuncIes Jvon lIe vavious JieIds and |2) sslenalic expevinenlaI vovI lo cIecI and veviJ ov veJule lIe IpolIeses oIlaining. In sslenalizing lIe JieId lIe vovI vIicI Ias Ieen done on lIe pscIoIog oJ Ieavning Ias pvoved oJ enovnous IeIp. TIis is nol unexpecled vIen ve slop lo considev lIal connunicalion is essenliaII lIal pIase oJ Ieavning in vIicI lIe con- dilions Jov Ieavning ave sel up I anolIev indi- viduaI, lIe connunicalov. TIus aII leacIing is connunicaling. 12 Mao E., TIe Iunan pvoIIens oJ an induslviaI civiIi- zalion, N. Y., MacniIIan, 1933. 13 Bavnavd, C. I. TIe Junclions oJ lIe execulive, Havv- avd Univ. Fvess, 1938. This content downloaded from 130.226.173.82 on Mon, 9 Sep 2013 08:59:48 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions VOL. 92, No. 5, 1948] SOCIAL COMMUNICATION 375 As a vesuIl oJ lIe inlinale veIalionsIip oJ con- nunicalion lo Ieavning ve Iave a quile sizeaIIe Iod oJ pvincipIes aIvead avaiIaIIe lo guide us in lIe deveIopnenl oJ a science oJ, connunicalion. We Inov lIe eIenenls vIicI ave nosl veIevanl lo anaIsis oJ lIis pvocess-slinuIi, vesponses, no- lives, and vevavds. We Inov sonelIing aIoul lIe condilions undev vIicI nev IaIils ave ac- quived. We Inov vIal Iappens vIen lIe Jouv eIenenls ave appvopvaleI lined and vIal Iappens vIen lIe ave nol. TIese pvincipIes lie logelIev a Iol oJ lIe IuncIes devived Jvon sone oJ lIe pvaclicaI gvoups nen- lioned eavIiev. Bul lIe aIso lend lo naIe us sIep- licaI oJ sone oJ lIe lIeovies advanced I sone connunicalovs. Lel ne cile one exanpIe. Man advevlisevs assevl lIal an connunicalion viII Ie eJJeclive iJ il is vepealed JvequenlI enougI. FscIoIogicaI lIeov, on lIe olIev Iand, slvesses lIe Jacl lIal vepelilion viII onI Ie eJJeclive vIen lIe pvopev conIinalions oJ lIe olIev eIenenls oJ nolive, vevavd, and vesponse ave oIsevved. WilI- oul a vesponse Ieading lo salisJaclion nol Ieavning, Iul unIeavning sIouId occuv. Al lIe supevJiciaI IeveI ve couId sa lIal nan vepelilions viII slvenglIen lIe desived IeIaviov Iul lIe slvenglIen- ing is nol lIe vesuIl oJ vepelilion aIone. TIis appvoacI oJ lIe advevlisev lo lIe pvoIIen oJ connunicalion is iIIuslvaled in lIe slov in lo- da's Nev YovI Tines concevning a pIanned canpaign lo eIininale vace pvejudice. An aggvessive nalionaI advevlising canpaign uliI- izing vivluaII evev lpe oJ nediun veacIing lIe puIIic, vilI lIe oIjeclive oJ naIing vaciaI pvejudice as unpopuIav as B.O. viII Ie cavvied on I lIe Ad- vevlising CounciI, Inc., il vas announced eslevda. Buving a pvess conJevence pviov lo lIe announce- nenl oJ lIe canpaign, Lee BvisloI, vice pvesidenl oJ BvisloI-Mevs and canpaign coovdinalov, said Evev neans oJ advevlising vIicI couId pvoIaII Ie useJuI viII Ie noIiIized in lIis JigIl againsl pvejudice. Sone oJ lIe Iesl Ivains in lIe advevlising pvoJession Iave donaled lIeiv line and laIenl lo lIe design oJ slviIing poslevs and eIoquenl slalenenls oJ lIe Anevican cveed. TIvougI Iusiness JaciI- ilies ve viII use advevlising in nevspapevs, naga- zines, ovev lIe aiv, in ouldoov dispIa paneIs, and suI- va cav cavds. Biscussing lIe pvogvan, Edvavd BoaI, counciI canpaign nanagev, said il vouId Ie pusIed slvongI in lIe SoulI. We Inov lIal lIeve is sone suppovl in lIe SoulI aIvead, Mv. BoaI assevled. We inlend lo Iil lIe SoulI as Iavd and as oJlen as ve can and JeeI veasonaII cevlain lIal nucI oJ ouv naleviaI viII Ie vun in SoulIevn nevspapevs and olIev nedia consislenlI. 14 TIe oIjeclive is a vovlI one and connunica- lion nedia na Iave an inpovlanl voIe in allacIing lIis pvoIIen, Iul I an suve ou viII JeeI Jvon Mv. WivlI's papev Ialev in lIe pvogvan lIal sone inpovlanl eIenenls oJ lIe pvoIIen Iave nol Ieen suJJicienlI laIen inlo accounl. Hovevev, iJ lIe cop Jov lIe canpaign is adequaleI Ieed lo in- povlanl pevsonaI nolives, vepelilion viII incvease lIe cIances oJ an individuaI's Ieing exposed lo lIe connunicalion. I Iave slvessed lIe voIe oJ pscIoIogicaI lIeov. EquaII inpovlanl is lIe deveIopnenl oJ socioIogi- caI and anlIvopoIogicaI lIeovies concevning con- nunicalions. TIe va in vIicI connunicalion is lvansnilled in vavious lpes oJ sociaI slvucluve is an oIvious exanpIe vIeve lIe individuaI and lIe gvoup ave inlevdependenl. Even nove signiJi- canl is lIe Jacl lIal undevslanding oJ lIe vevavd sslen Jov individuaIs is onI possiIIe in lIe IigIl oJ lIe slvucluve oJ lIe individuaI's sociel, and lIal socioIogicaI and anlIvopoIogicaI anaIses oJ vIal gels vevavded and vIal gels punisIed in lIe sociel as a vIoIe, and nove pavlicuIavI in lIe suIgvoups oJ lIe sociel, Ias a nosl inpovlanl Junclion. TIis IvieJ suvve Ias, I Iope, sIovn lIal vilIin lIe Iasl decade lIeve Iave Ieen deveIoped lIe Iasic naleviaIs needed lo suppovl an aII-oul oJJensive in deveIoping a science oJ connunicalion. TIe inpvoved lecIniques Jov lIe anaIsis oJ lIe con- lenl oJ connunicalion, lIe vecenl inpvovenenl in nelIods oJ sluding lIe IeIaviov eIiciled I connunicalion, and lIe avaiIaIiIil oJ IolI ac- cunuIaled expevience and sone sslenalic lIeov naIe il possiIIe lo sel up nove cvilicaI oIsevvalion and expevinenls. Il appeavs quile IiIeI lIal ve sIaII vilness suIslanliaI pvogvess vilIin lIe nexl eavs on lIis inpovlanl nev Jvonliev. 14 Nev YovI Tines Jov FeI. 6, 1948. This content downloaded from 130.226.173.82 on Mon, 9 Sep 2013 08:59:48 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Daniel Biltereyst - Globalisation, Americanisation and Politicisation of Media Research - Learning From A Long Tradition of Research On The Cross-Cultural Influences of US Media