Module 4 PDF

BASIC ELECTRONICS M#4
MODULE #4
Basic instrumentation and Digital electronics
Prepared by : BINOSHI SAMUVEL Page 1 of 19 for S1S2 2008 (AJCE Koovappally, Kanjirappally)
TRANSDUCER
A transducer may be defined as any device that converts one form of

energy into another form.
Most of the transducers either convert electrical energy into

mechanical displacement and /or convert some non-electrical physical
quantity (such as temperature, light, force, sound etc.) to an electrical
signal.
In an electronic instrumentation system, the functions of a transducer

(being the input device) are two-fold:
(i) to detect or sense the presence, magnitude and changes in the

physical quantity being measured and
(ii) to prevent a proportional electrical output signal.
Classifications of transducers
Transducers may be classified according to their applications, method
of energy conversions, electrical measuring principle used, nature of output
signal and so on.
Broadly speaking, transducers may be classified into the following

groups
Active and Passive transducers

Passive Transducer: They require an external power supply and their
output is a measure of some variations in a physical parameter such
as pressure, resistance and capacitance etc.
e.g.: Strain gauges: resistance change in response to pressure

variations
Thermistor: resistance change corresponding to temperature

variations
Active Transducers: They do not require an external power source.

However, they provide an electrical output when stimulated by some
physical form of energy.
e.g.: Piezoelectric transducers: for generation of charge

corresponding to pressure
Photovoltaic transducers: generation of voltage in response to

illumination
Analog and Digital

Depending upon the nature of the output, transducers are classified
into analogue and digital transducers.
• If the output of a transducer is a continuous function of time it is

called analog transducer.
e.g.: Thermocouple, strain gauge etc.
• A digital transducer converts the physical phenomenon into an

electrical signal which is in the form of a train of pulses or
frequency. Such an output can be directly fed to a computer for
data processing.
e.g.: DS-1621 (Temperature sensor)
PIR Sensor
STRAIN GAUGE
Strain gauge is a passive transducer which converts a given strain to
a resistance change. It utilizes resistance variation of a wire to sense the
strain produced by the force acting on the wire. It is extensively utilized for
measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force or displacement etc.
Construction
The metallic
resistance strain gauges
are manufactured from
small diameter
resistance wire such as
Constantine(Constantine is a trade name and is a copper nickel alloy with

copper 60% nickel 40%). The resistance of the wire or metal or foil changes
with length. The wire gauge is attached to the material, which is subjected
to compression or torsion.
Principle
When a tensile stress is applied to the member, it will elongate the
wire thereby increasing its length but decreasing its cross-sectional area.
Both these factors increase wire resistance because
R = ρ(l/A)
The change in resistance is proportional to applied strain. The change in

resistance is measured accurately using Wheatstone bridge.
Gauge configuration
The shape of the sensing element is selected according to the strain to
be measured, uniaxial, biaxial or multi directional. The sensitivity of the
strain gauge is described in terms of the fractional change in resistance to
the fractional change in length. i.e. K = (∆R/R)/(∆l/l)
Where, K=gauge factor
R=Resistance of the gauge wire
∆R=Change in gauge resistance
L=length of the gauge wire
The strain gauges are of different types:
1. Unbounded strain gauges

2. Bounded strain gauges
3. Semiconductor strain gauges
1. Unbounded strain gauges

Unbounded strain gauge elements are
made of one or more filaments of
resistance wire stretched between
supporting insulators. The supports can
be attached directly to an elastic member
used as a sensing element or can be
fastened independently using a rigid
insulator to couple the elastic member to
the filaments of the resistance wire. The
displacement of the sensing element
causes a change in the length results in
changes in resistance. Because they are
fragile, transducers that use unbounded gauges are becoming less

popular.
Unbounded strain gauges consist of a wire, stretched between two

points. Force acting on the wire (area=A, length=L, resistivity=ρ) will cause
the wire to elongate or shorten, which will cause the resistance to increase
or decrease or decrease proportionally according to
R=ρL/A
And ∆R/R=GF∆L/L
Where GF=gauge factor (2.0 to 4.5for metals and more than 150 for
semiconductors).
2. Bonded Strain gauge

Bonded strain gauges have a good reputation. They are relatively
inexpensive, can achieve overall accuracy of better than +/- 0.10% are
available in a short gauge length, are only moderately affected by
temperature changes, have small physical size and low mass and are highly
sensitive. Bonded resistance strain gauges can be used to measure both
static and dynamic strain.
Bonded single wire type
These devices represent a popular method of measuring strain. The

gauge consists of a grid of very fine metallic wire, foil or semiconductor
material bonded to the strained surface or carrier matrix by a thin insulated
layer of epoxy. When the carrier matrix is strained, the strain is transmitted
to the grid material through the adhesive. The variations in the electrical
resistance of the grid are measured as an indication of strain. The grid
shape is designed to provide maximum gauge resistance while keeping both
length and width of the gauge to a minimum. Bonded strain gauges consist
of a thin wire or conducting film arranged in a coplanar pattern and
cemented to a base or carrier. The gauge is normally mounted so that as
much as possible of the length of the conductor is aligned in the direction of
stress that is being measured. Lead wires are attached to the base and
brought out for inter connection. Bonded devices are considerably more
practical and are in much wider use than unbounded devices.
3. Semiconductor strain gauges
Semiconductor materials such as silicon and germanium have yielded

large sensitivity of resistively to strain. The resistively change due to the
strain is known as piezo resistive effect and gauge factor of the order of 100
to 150 have become possible because of this effect.
Semiconductor strain gauges are normally single filaments of lengths

varying from 2mm to 10mm. The electrodes are formed by vapor deposition,
and electrical contacts are made with fine gold wire. The filaments of about
150µ thickness are cut from single crystal-doped silicon with specified
crystal orientation.
Strain gauges are often used as a group of four in a whetstone bridge

circuit. Two gauges are used for sensing while other two are mounted across
the line of displacement and are used for sensing while other two are
mounted across the line of displacement and are used for temperature
compensation.
It is essential to hold the temperature of the semiconductor strain

gauge constant during measurements of strain. Mounting of this type of
strain gauges on the surface of the structure is done in the same way as in
the case of metallic wire strain gauges. A wide range of p-type and n-type
semiconductor strain gauges with different degrees of doping is available.
Visit to see the animation-

http://www.societyofrobots.com/images/sensors_ftgaugeanim.gif
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
LVDT is a passive inductive transducer (or magnetic displacement

transducer). It is commonly employed to measure force (or weight, pressure
and acceleration etc. which depends on force) in terms of the amont and
direction of displacement of an object.
Construction
schematic of movable core and the winding
LVDT consists of one primary winding and two secondary windings

which are placed on either side of the primary mounted on the same
magnetic core. The magnetic core is free to move axially inside the coil
assembly and the motion being measured is mechanically coupled to it. The
two secondary coils S1 and S2 have equal number of turns but are
connected in series opposition so that emf’s induced in them are 1800 out of
phase with each other and hence cancel each other out. The primary is
energized from a suitable ac source. The induced voltages E1 and E2 in the
two secondary coils are equal but antiphase. Hence net secondary voltages
across terminals A and B is zero.
Working
transformer winding schematic and induced voltage
Case 1:
When the core is in the centre (called reference point), E1 and E2 are
equal and opposite. Hence they cancel out and voltage V0 is zero.
Case 2:
When the external applied force moves the core towards coil S2, E2 is
increased but E1 is decreased in magnitude though they are still antiphase
with each other. Hence there is some net output voltage available whose
magnitude is (E2-E1) and which is in phase with E2.
When the magnetic core moves towards coil S1 E1>E2 and V0=E1-E2
and is in phase with E1.
It is seen from the above, the magnitude of V0 is a function of the

distance moved by the core and its polarity or phase indicates as to in which
direction it has moved. If core is attached to a moving object the magnitude
of V0 gives the position of that object
The important electrical and mechanical features of LVDT are summarized

below:
ELECTRICAL
• High sensitivity: The sensitivity is as high as 40v/mm.
• Linearity: The output voltage is practically linear with displacement
up to 5mm.
• High output: The output is high. So pre amplification is not
needed.
• The output impedance is low.
• The ac voltage to be used with the LVDT can be varied over a wide
frequency range.
• The transducer shows very small hysterisis and hence repeatability
is excellent.
• Low power consumption: The power consumption is less than 1W.
Mechanical
• Simplicity in design and fabrication.
• The range of displacement that can be measured is wide.
• Low losses: There is no sliding contact and hence losses due to friction
etc. are less.
• The operating force required is negligible as the core has very low
weight.
• Ruggedness: LVDT core can withstand moderate vibrations and
shocks.
Applications
• In accelerometers
• Jet engine controls in close proximity to exhaust gases.
• Measurement of roll position.
• Measurement of material thickness in hot strips or slab steel mills.
LIMITATIONS
• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields. But can be minimized by

good shielding.
• The output is ac. Hence the receiver shall be able to translate it, if dc
is required.
• Working will be affected by temperature change but by choosing
proper wire for the windings, effect of temperature can be minimized.
• The vibrations of the transducer may affect the movement of the core.
THERMISTOR
Thermistors are non-metallic resistors generally composed of

semiconductor materials. Thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure
temperature changes, relying on the change in its resistance with changing
temperature. Thermistor is portmanteau of the words thermal and resistor.
They are thermally sensitive resistors & have, according to type a negative
(NTC) & positive (PYC) resistance / temperature coefficient.
symbol
Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides. They are

available in variety of sizes & shapes. The thermistors may be in the form of
beads. Some are as small as 0.15mm in diameter. These may come in glass
coating or sealed in the tip of solid glass probes. The probes are used for
measuring the temperature of liquids If we assume that the relationship
between resistance & temperature is linear (i.e. we make a first order
approximation), then we can say that
ΔR = KΔT
ΔR=change in resistance
ΔT=change in temperature
Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of

‘k’. If ‘k’ is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature &
the device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor,
posistor or sensistor. If ‘k’ is negative, the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature & the device is called a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors designed to
have the smallest possible ‘k’, so that the resistance remains almost
constant over a wide temperature range.
Manufactured from the oxides of the transition metals manganese,

cobalt, copper and nickel, NTC thermistors are temperature dependant
semiconductor resistors. Operating over a range of -200 to +10000C, they
are supplied in glass bead, disc, chips and probe formats. NTCs should be
chosen when a continuous change of resistance is required over a wide
temperature range. They offer mechanical, thermal and electrical stability,
together with a high degree of sensitivity. NTCs are used in application such
as temperature measurement and control temperature compensation, surge
suppression and fluid flow measurement
RESISTANCE-TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMISTORS
The resistance-temperature characteristics of thermistors show that a

thermistor has very high negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Because of this a thermistor can be used as ideal transducer.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Small size and low cost.
2. Flat response over narrow range.
3. Good sensitivity in the NTC region etc.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Non linear resistance Vs temperature characteristics.
2. Unstable for wide temperature range
3. Very low excitation current to avoid self heating.
4. Need of shielded power lines filters etc due to high resistance.
PTC thermistors are temperature dependent resistors manufactured

from barium titanate and should be chosen when a drastic change in
resistance is required at a specific temperature or current level.
PTCs can operate in the following modes.
Temperature sensing, switching at temperature ranging from 60 to 1800C.
Eg: protection of winding in electric motors & transformers.
1. Solid state fuse to protect against excess current level; ranging from
several mA to several A (25degree Celsius ambient) & continuous
voltages up to 600V& higher. Eg: power supplies for a wide range of
electrical equipments.
2. Liquid level sensor.
The unique patented design composite thermistor contains 2 NTC &
1PTC thermistors and has a resistance temperature characteristics similar
to a single NTC but with a region of constant resistance.
The resistance of thermistors ranges from 0.5 ohm to 0.75 mega ohm.
Thermistor is a highly sensitive device. In some cases the resistance of
thermistor at room temperature may decrease as much as 5% for each
10Crise in temperature.
Many NTC thermistors are made from a thin coil of semi conducting
material such as sintered metal oxide. They work because raising the
temperature of a semiconductor increases the number of electrons able to
move about & carry charge-it promotes them into the conducting band. The
more charge carries that are available, the more current a material can
conduct.
The current is measured using an ammeter over large changes in

temperature, calibration is necessary. Over small changes in temperature, if
the right semiconductor is used, the resistance of the material is linearly
proportional to the temperature. There are many different semi conducting
thermistors & their range go from 0.01K to 2000K (273.14 to 17000 C).
Most PTC thermistors are of switching type which means that their
resistance rises suddenly at a certain critical temperature. The devices are
made of a doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3)
and other compounds. The dielectric constant of this ferro electric material
varies with temperature. Below the Curie point temperature, the high
dielectric constant prevents the formation of potential barriers between the
crystal grains, leading to a low resistance. In this region the device has a
small negative temperature coefficient. At the Curie point temperature, the
dielectric constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation of potential
barriers at the grain boundaries and the resistance increases sharply. At
even higher temperatures the material reverts to NTC behavior.
Another type of PTC thermistor is the polymer PTC. This consists of a

slice of plastic with carbon grains embedded in it. When the plastic is cool
the carbon grains are all in contact with each other, forming a conductive
path through the device. When the plastic heats up, it expands forcing the
carbon grains apart, and causing the resistance of the device to rise rapidly.
Like the BaTiO3 thermistor, this device has a highly non linear resistance /
temperature and is used for switching, not for proportional temperature
measurement.
APPLICATIONS
1. Measurement and control of temperature.
2. Temperature compensation.
3. Measurement of level, flow & pressure of liquids etc.
4. PTC thermistors can be used as current limiting devices for circuit
protection, as replacement for fuses. Current through the device causes
a small amount of resistive heating. If the current is large enough to
generate more heat than the device Can lose to its surroundings, the
device heats up, causing its resistance to increase, & therefore causing
even more heating. This creates a self reinforcing, effect that drives the
resistance upwards, reducing the current & voltage available to the
device.
5. NTC thermistors can be used as inrush current limiting devices in power
supply circuits they present a higher resistance initially which prevents
large currents from flowing at turn on, and then heat up and become
much lower resistance to allow higher current flow during normal
operation. These thermistors are usually much larger than measuring

type thermistors, and are purpose designed for this application.
PHOTO DIODE
The photo diode is an opto-electronic transducer. Photodiode is a type

of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage,
depending upon the mode of operation.
Photodiodes are similar to regular

semiconductor diodes except that they may be
either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-
rays) or packaged with a window or optical
fiber connection to allow light to reach the
sensitive part of the device. Many diodes
designed for use specifically as a photodiode
will also use a PIN junction rather than the
typical PN junction.
The most common semiconductor material used for photodiode is

silicon. This has an energy gap of 1.14eV and provides excellent photo
diodes with quantum efficiencies up to 80% at wavelengths between 0.8 to
0.9µm. In a typical photo diode, a junction is formed with heavily doped p-
type material and a fairly lightly doped n-type material, so that the depletion
region extends well into the N region. Metallic contacts are taken for external
connections.
Fig. 5.2: Diode symbols: a - standard diode, b - LED,

c, d - Zener, e - photo, f,g - tunnel, h - Schottky, i - breakdown,
j - capacitative
Photo diode is generally connected in

reverse biased conditions in circuits. Then
the forward current is zero. The sensitivity of this type of photodiode
varies 10-50milliamperes/lumen. Spectral response extends from visible
to infrared region upto 2200nm.
Photodiodes are constructed to have a

much smaller area than the photo
junction type. If the area is small, the
capacitance of the cell will be small,
thereby enabling higher frequency
response. In a germanium photodiode, the
sensitive area is about
0.5 to 1nm2. Gold doped Ge cells are used for high spectral sensitivity in
the infrared region. In the point contact types, the light incident near the
point point contact liberates electron-hole pairs. In thes diodes, the
photocurrent generated will be small. To increase the output current
internal amplification of the photo current is to be done. This is achieved
in avalanche photodiodes.
AVALANCHE PHOTO DIODES

In this device, the basic p-n structure is operated under very high
reverse bias. The carriers traversing the depletion region gain sufficient
energy to dislodge other carriers by collision. The newly generated
carriers may also generate other carriers in succession or avalanche
multiplication results. Current gain in excess of hundred times is readily
obtained.
SCHOTTKY PHOTO DIODE

In Schottky photo diode, a thin metal coating, usually gold is applied
to an n-type silicon substrate. The main advantage of Schottky diode is
that the surface metal layer can be substantially thin. This enables
transmission of blue and near UV radiation towards the junction to
increase sensitivity.

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BASIC ELECTRONICS M#4

A transducer may be defined as any device that converts one form of

Most of the transducers either convert electrical energy into

In an electronic instrumentation system, the functions of a transducer

(i) to detect or sense the presence, magnitude and changes in the

Broadly speaking, transducers may be classified into the following

Active and Passive transducers

e.g.: Strain gauges: resistance change in response to pressure

Thermistor: resistance change corresponding to temperature

Active Transducers: They do not require an external power source.

e.g.: Piezoelectric transducers: for generation of charge

Photovoltaic transducers: generation of voltage in response to

Analog and Digital

• If the output of a transducer is a continuous function of time it is

• A digital transducer converts the physical phenomenon into an

Constantine(Constantine is a trade name and is a copper nickel alloy with

The change in resistance is proportional to applied strain. The change in

Where, K=gauge factor

R=Resistance of the gauge wire

∆R=Change in gauge resistance

L=length of the gauge wire

The strain gauges are of different types:

1. Unbounded strain gauges

1. Unbounded strain gauges

fragile, transducers that use unbounded gauges are becoming less

Unbounded strain gauges consist of a wire, stretched between two

2. Bonded Strain gauge

Bonded single wire type

These devices represent a popular method of measuring strain. The

3. Semiconductor strain gauges

Semiconductor materials such as silicon and germanium have yielded

Semiconductor strain gauges are normally single filaments of lengths

Strain gauges are often used as a group of four in a whetstone bridge

It is essential to hold the temperature of the semiconductor strain

Visit to see the animation-

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

LVDT is a passive inductive transducer (or magnetic displacement

schematic of movable core and the winding

LVDT consists of one primary winding and two secondary windings

transformer winding schematic and induced voltage

It is seen from the above, the magnitude of V0 is a function of the

The important electrical and mechanical features of LVDT are summarized

• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields. But can be minimized by

Thermistors are non-metallic resistors generally composed of

Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides. They are

Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of

Manufactured from the oxides of the transition metals manganese,

RESISTANCE-TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMISTORS

The resistance-temperature characteristics of thermistors show that a

2. Flat response over narrow range.

3. Good sensitivity in the NTC region etc.

2. Unstable for wide temperature range

3. Very low excitation current to avoid self heating.

4. Need of shielded power lines filters etc due to high resistance.

PTC thermistors are temperature dependent resistors manufactured

PTCs can operate in the following modes.

Temperature sensing, switching at temperature ranging from 60 to 1800C.

Eg: protection of winding in electric motors & transformers.

The current is measured using an ammeter over large changes in

Another type of PTC thermistor is the polymer PTC. This consists of a

operation. These thermistors are usually much larger than measuring

The photo diode is an opto-electronic transducer. Photodiode is a type

Photodiodes are similar to regular

The most common semiconductor material used for photodiode is