SEDIMENTATION

Sedimentation, or clarification, is the process of letting suspended material settle by gravity. Sedimentation is the process of separating a liquid mixture of suspended particles into clear supernatant liquid and denser slurry having a higher concentration of solids. Suspended material may be particles, such as clay or silts, originally present in the source water. More commonly, suspended material or floc is created from material in the water and the chemical used in coagulation or in other treatment processes, such as lime softening. It is accomplished by decreasing the velocity of the water being treated to a point below which the particles will no longer remain in suspension. This is usually accomplished by allowing the particles to settle through the force of gravity, mechanically using centrifugal force, or electrostatically using an electric current. When the velocity no longer supports the transport of the particles, gravity will remove them from the flow. Continuous sedimentation tanks are usually used in wastewater treatment facilities to separate suspended particles from wastewater.

History of Sedimentation Early History

Sedimentation for the improvement of water quality has been practiced, if unwittingly, since the day humans collected and stored water in jars and other containers Water stored undisturbed and then poured or ladled out with little agitation will improve in quality, and this technique is used to this day. As societies developed, reservoirs and storage tanks were constructed. Although constructed for strategic purposes, reservoirs and storage tanks did improve water quality. Various examples are known that predate the Christian era. Ancient surface water impounding tanks of Aden were possibly constructed as early as 600 B.C. and rainwater cisterns of ancient Carthage about 150 B.C. (Ellms, 1928).The castellae and piscinae of the Roman aqueduct system performed the function of settling tanks, even though they were not originally intended for that purpose.

Modern History
The art of sedimentation progressed little until the industrial age and its increased need for water. Storage reservoirs developed into settling reservoirs. Perhaps the largest reservoirs constructed for this purpose were in the United States at Cincinnati, Ohio, where two excavated reservoirs held approximately 1480 ML (392 million gallons) and were designed to be operated by a fill-and-draw method, though they never were used in this way (Ellms, 1928).The development of settling basins led to the construction of rectangular masonry settling tanks that assured more even flow distribution and easier sludge removal. With the introduction of coagulation and its production of voluminous sludge, mechanical sludge removal was introduced.

Attempts to make rectangular tanks more cost-effective led to the construction of multilayer tanks. Very large diameter [60-m (200-ft)] circular tanks also were constructed at an early stage in the development of modern water treatment. Other industries, such as wastewater treatment, mineral processing, sugar refining, and water softening, required forms of sedimentation with specific characteristics, and various designs of settling tanks particular to certain industries were developed. Subsequently, wider application of successful industrial designs were sought. From this, circular radial-flow tanks emerged, as well as a variety of proprietary designs of solids-contact units with mechanical equipment for premixing and recirculation. The inclined plate settler also has industrial origins (Barham, Matherne, and Keller, 1956) (Figure 1), although the theory of inclined settling dates back to experiments using blood in the 1920s and 1930s (Nakamura and Kuroda, 1937; Kinosita, 1949). Closely spaced inclined plate systems for water treatment have their origins in Sweden in the 1950s, resulting from a search for high-rate treatment processes compact Figure 1: Early patent for inclined settling. (Source: Barham et enough to be economically housed al., 1956.) against winter weather. Inclined tube systems were spawned in the United States in the 1960s.The most recent developments have involved combining inclined settling with ballasting of floc to reduce plant footprint further (de Dianous, Pujol, and Druoton, 1990).

Floc-Blanket Sedimentation and Other Innovations

The floc-blanket process for water treatment emerged from India about 1932 as the pyramidal Candy sedimentation tank (Figure 2). A tank of similar shape was used by Imhoff in 1906 for wastewater treatment (Kalbskopf, 1970).The Spaulding Precipitator soon followed in 1935 (Figure 3) (Hartung, 1951). Other designs that were mainly solids contact clarifiers rather than true floc-blanket tanks were also introduced.

Figure 2: The pyramidal Candy floc-blanket tank. (Source: by PWT.)

Figure 3: The Spaulding Precipitator solids contact clarifier. (Source: Hartung, 1951.)

Application of Sedimentation Process Areas of Application

Turbidity
Under the influence of gravity, suspended matter in rain water settles out if it has a density greater than that of the water itself. The efficiency of a settling basin depends on the nature (shape, size, density) of the particles that are accountable for the turbidity; gravity, sand and silt, which pollute surface waters heavily and settle easily, especially during the rainy season. Colloidal matter which contributes much to turbidity is held in suspension mainly by electrostatic forces and because of its low density. Colloidal particles, when brought in contact with coagulants, form flocculent material that can be settled or filtered out. Before designing a settling tank, laboratory experiments should be carried out to determine the contents of settleable and nonsettleable matter. Storage tank inlets should be screened to prevent contamination by gross suspended matter. Tanks should also be covered to protect them from birds and small animals.

Pathogenic Organisms
Simple sedimentation by means of passing water through a settling tank does not achieve a significant removal of pathogens. Two to four weeks storage, though, can reduce bacteria populations considerably (50- 90%) by means of biological processes. Storage in excess of one month can reduce the viral count. The degree of purification depends on the severity of pollution and on the presence of other pollutants. Storage induced contamination (mosquito breeding due to algal growth) must be avoided by covering tanks. Schistosoma larvae, infectious agents of Bilharzia, usually cannot survive more than two days of protected storage, provided suitable hosts (snails) are not present.

Color
Removal of color without the use of chemical procedures can only be achieved by very long storage times.

Actual Applications
In water treatment, sedimentation is commonly used to remove impurities that have been rendered settleable by coagulation and flocculation, as when removing turbidity and color. Precipitates formed in processes such as water softening by chemical precipitation are also removed by sedimentation. In municipal wastewater treatment, sedimentation is the main process in primary treatment, where it is responsible for removing 50 to 70% of the suspended solids (containing 25-40 per cent of the BOD) from the wastewater. After biological treatment, sedimentation is used to remove the biological floc produced by microorganisms in these processes, so that effluent quality will approach a

standard suitable for discharge into inland waterways. The removal of grit in the preliminary stage of treatment is commonly carried out by means of a differential sedimentation process in which heavy grit is permitted to settle while lighter organic matter is retained in suspension. Further sedimentation after coagulation may be used in tertiary treatment. Sedimentation is also required where phosphorus removal is effected by chemical precipitation separately from primary or secondary treatment. Other less obvious applications of sedimentation are in the separation of digested sludge from supernatant liquor within secondary (unstirred) sludge digesters, and also in sludge lagoons. An understanding of the principles governing the various forms of sedimentation behavior is essential to the effective design and operation of sedimentation tanks.

Factors Affecting Sedimentation

Several factors affect the separation of settle-able solids from water. Some of the more common types of factors to consider are: Particle Size Water Temperature Currents

Particle Size
The size and type of particles to be removed have a significant effect on the operation of the sedimentation tank. Because of their density, sand or silt can be removed very easily. The velocity of the water-flow channel can be slowed to less than one foot per second, and most of the gravel and grit will be removed by simple gravitational forces. In contrast, colloidal material, small particles that stay in suspension and make the water seem cloudy, will not settle until the material is coagulated and flocculated by the addition of a chemical, such as an iron salt or aluminum sulfate. The shape of the particle also affects its settling characteristics. A round particle, for example, will settle much more readily than a particle that has ragged or irregular edges. All particles tend to have a slight electrical charge. Particles with the same charge tend to repel each other. This repelling action keeps the particles from congregating into flocs and settling.

Water Temperature
Another factor to consider in the operation of a sedimentation basin is the temperature of the water being treated. When the temperature decreases, the rate of settling becomes slower. The result is that as the water cools, the detention time in the sedimentation tanks must increase. As the temperature decreases, the operator must make changes to the coagulant dosage to compensate for the decreased settling rate. In most cases temperature does not have a significant effect on treatment. A water treatment plant has the highest flow demand in the summer when the temperatures are the highest and the settling rates the best. When

the water is colder, the flow in the plant is at its lowest and, in most cases, the detention time in the plant is increased so the floc has time to settle out in the sedimentation basins.

Currents
Several types of water currents may occur in the sedimentation basin: Density currents caused by the weight of the solids in the tank, the concentration of solids and temperature of the water in the tank. Eddy currents produced by the flow of the water coming into the tank and leaving the tank.

The currents can be beneficial in that they promote flocculation of the particles. However, water currents also tend to distribute the floc unevenly throughout the tank; as a result, it does not settle out at an even rate. Some of the water current problems can be reduced by the proper design of the tank. Installation of baffles helps prevent currents from short circuiting the tank.