EQUALITIES IN INDIAN SOCIETY

The principle of equality is having a revolutionary effect on life in contemporary India. The impact is more dramatic there than elsewhere because perhaps no other major society in recent history has known inequalities so gross or so long preserved. In the traditional civilizations of Islam and China, the ideal if not always the practice of equality had an honorable and often commanding place in the culture. But in India the notion that men should remain in the same occupation and station of life as their forefathers was enshrined in religious precepts and social custom. While life was not as immobile as theory prescribed, and from time to time revolts against the dominance of particular social classes occurred, the idea of social equality never became as widespread in Hinduism as it did in other great traditions. Even today, the visitor to India-whether from Europe or the Far East-is struck by the gross inequalities, not merely in material standards, but more profoundly in the attitudes of men toward each other. To be kissed on the foot by a beggar or by a supplicant for a job is, for one sensitive to the dignity of man, among the most degrading human acts imaginable. The stooped back, the outstretched hands of the groveling poor are in contrast with the stern and commanding voice and the fine carriage of the rich, the mighty and the highborn. Yet very recently the principle of equality has flowered in Indian life, and it is the changes that this has brought and its effects on other aspects of India's efforts at modernization SOCIETY has a civilising aspect and even if there are natural differences amongst individuals, society can overcome them because of the potentiality of social thought and social organisation. Civilised societies protect their weak since they realise the potential of each citizen. Today this idea confronts marketisation which is taking society in the opposite direction and posing problems for collective action and movements. Altruism is basic to people. This is being denied in the race for competition. Youth is robbed of its best years and atomised. Its idealism and energy are being turned into cynicism. Those very structures of society that proclaim that Man is strong and should be left free are the ones that weaken him the most for their own narrow needs. All this works not just at the economic plane but also through culture, science and technology, media, etc., so that inequality is reinforced in various interlocked ways and must be tackled at all these levels. Growing cynicism and narrowness of thought are leading society to lose its innocence and turning the individuals into mere shells having lost the emotional depth they had and are increasingly being treated as sophisticated machines. In brief, the very factors resulting in growing inequality are also making it difficult to organise movements for achieving equality. The progress made in the decades for the upliftment of the downtrodden and women, socially, economically and educationally is impressive. But it has not yet reached the level of satisfaction. New laws are to be promulgated taking into account the progress, the pitfalls and failures. The legislature and judiciary should work in cooperation for the benefit of the entire population rather than for a particular group. Hopefully, the changes that are being brought since the beginning of this decade will continue and will give an impetus to the efforts towards social justice and equal opportunities for all and the realization of the Vedic goal of vasudhaiva kutumbakam (One World One Family).

MEDIEVAL MUSIC OF INDIA

Music itself is a journey to the world of spirituality and to absorb the intensity of music leads the way to the world of serenity and contentment. Since the ancient era, music has been remaining one of the means of seeking refuge from the world of mundane activities and this is the way to unwind the mind with the notes of music. In medieval India, the definition of music has taken a new dimension in respect of lyrics and notes. With the subtle changes, a genre of modern music has appeared in the history of Indian music. Music in medieval India carries an age long history that starts from thirteenth-century. The Muslim impact in the history of Indian music is one of the major occurrences that the medieval India had witnessed. During this time, `Sangitaratnakara` was written in the Deccan, just before the Muslim conquest of this region by Ala ud-din Khilji. The gradual differentiation between north and south Indian music had been observed since then. Although orthodox Islam frowned upon music, the acceptance of the Sufi doctrines (in which music was often an integral part) by Islam made it possible for many Muslim rulers and noblemen to extend their patronage to this art. The attitude expressed by Amir Khusrau, a poet and musician in the court of Ala ud-din Khilji, who comments that the music of India was the finest in the world, was fairly representative of the Muslim attitude to Indian music. Moreover the music of some other zones like Iran, Afghanistan, and Kashmir were accepted in the time of the Mughal Emperors Akbar , Jahangir , and Shah Jahan in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it is quite evident that it was Indian music which captured the imagination of the Muslim rulers. Famous Indian musicians such as Svami Haridas, Tansen, and Baiju Bawra have left their impressions on the history of north Indian music as performers and innovators. Muslim musicians took to the performance of Indian music and added to the repertoire by inventing new raagas, taals, and musical forms, as well as Indian musical instruments. This Muslim influence was largely effective in the north of India and undoubtedly helped to further the differentiation between north and south Indian music, the two classical systems which are now generally referred to as Hindustani music and Carnatic (Karnatak) music, respectively. The Muslim patronage of music has had two main effects on the music of north India. The first was to de-emphasize the importance of the words of classical songs, which were originally composed in Sanskrit and were, in any case, incomprehensible to anyone less than a traditional Hindu scholar. Sanskrit songs were gradually replaced by compositions in various dialects such as Bhojpuri and Dakhani including the compositions in Urdu and Persian language. The textual themes of the songs were often based on Hindu mythology yet Muslim musicians sang these songs, with Hindu religious themes. It has also been observed that the Hindu musicians sometimes sing songs dedicated to Muslim saints. Perhaps the best example of this broad-minded attitude is to be seen in the poetry of the Muslim ruler Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Deccan, who, in his Kitah-i-Nauras, composed at the beginning of the seventeenth century, wrote poems in praise of both Hindu deities and Muslim saints. These poems were sung in specified ragas by both Hindu and Muslim musicians. The second effect of court patronage on Indian music was to produce an atmosphere of competition between musicians, which placed emphasis on display of virtuosity and technique. A great deal of importance was also placed on the creative imagination of the performing musician and gradually the emphasis shifted from what he was performing to how he was performing it. Traditional themes

remain the basis of Indian music, but, in north India particularly, it is the performers interpretation, imagination, and skill in rendering these that provide the main substance of modern Indian music.

Modern developments in Indian music could be said to have begun with the songs of the world famous Indian poet, author and painter, Rabindranath Tagore. During his lifetime he wrote more than 2,000 songs, drawing his inspiration mainly from classical, folk, and devotional music. The result was a unique individual expression in which words and melody blended together in an extraordinary way. Purists in classical music have sometimes found objection to Tagores songs on the grounds that they are not composed in pure raagas. This is indeed true, but the popularity of these songs in West Bengal, especially among the intellectuals, shows that they are not without sophistication and succeed in their intent. There have been significant changes in modern Indian music as compared to that of medieval India. The influence of the mass media, particularly cinema and radio are easily traceable in the contemporary Indian music and these have also worked as a means of development in Indian music.

JAIPUR GHARANA OF KATHAK

The tradition of dance and music was thus well established and it was encouraged by the successive rulers. During the reign of Maharaja Ram Singh another text related to dance called Hastakaratnavali was composed in 1673 A.D. Ram Singh also maintained dancers who were called as paturas in his harem. Paturas were the dancing girls employed in the zenana and sang for the king and the ladies of the house. These dancers did not marry and followed the tradition of singing and dancing for the kings and their household. They used Rai as their surname and some of them who were very erudite composed poetical works also. Krida V/noda by one Mohanrai was composed for Maharaja Ram Singh. Though a great many details are available about the musicians, very little is available about the leading dancers of the day. However, the patronage was extended to all sorts of artistes and since there was a tradition of a community called Kathak who performed dance it is very likely that the dance as an art form was equally patronised. The Kathak community lived in Churu-Sujangarh area nearby and about Shekhavati in the sixteenth century. During the reign of Akbar many Shekhavati sardars took up service at the Mughal court. When the Rajput sardars and patrons moved lo the Mughal court, with them went the musicians and dancers also. They naturally came in contact with the Mughals and received patronage from them. Since the Mughal court was prosperous and cultured these artistes also flourished. But it all changed during the reign of the Mughal king Aurangzeb and after the death of Mohammed Shah Rangile in 1748 A.D., the musicians and dancers once again migrated to centers like Lucknow, Murshidabad, Alwar and Jaipur. From the records of the gunijankhana of Maharaja Sawai Madho Singh II we learn that there were ten male Kathak dancers serving in the department Besides there were thirty-eight female singers and dancers, twenty sarangi players and sixteen pakhavaj players to accompany them. Before the merger of the State in the Indian Union the following dancers were in the employment of the gunijankhana: Shyamalji and his son Nathu Lalji, Badri Prasadji, Chunnilalji, Lakshmi Narayanji, Chhajulalji; the female dancers were Gauhar Jan, Kamarjan, Sardar of Sambhar and her daughter Kamala, Dhannibai, Ratan and Maina. They became quite famous and were often invited by other royal families. With the closure of the gunijankhana the artistes migrated and sought patronage in the music schools or gave private tuitions and took up jobs at the radio stations since after the merger of the State the court did not support them. This brings us close to the present century. As can be seen from the genealogical tables Girdhariji had two sons: Hari Prasad and Hanuman Prasad. The former had no issue. Hanuman Prasad had three sons: Mohanlal, Chiranjilal and Narayan Prasad. Mohanlal was adept in music and had deep knowledge of dhrupad. He taught for some time at Khairagarh University in Madhya Pradesh. Chiranjilal taught at Gandharva Mahavidyalaya in Delhi, so did Narayan Prasad. Hari Prasad and Hanuman Prasad used to perform together and were popularly known as Deo Pari Ka Joda. Their duets were replete with elements of virility and grace. From this account it is possible to surmise that Jaipur gharana exponents gave due emphasis to forceful and graceful dancing. These two brothers had cousins in Shyamlal, Chunnilal, Durga Prasadji and Govardhanji who were brilliant dancers. They had the good fortune of learning from one Shankarlal about whom nothing is known except that his daughter's son, one Badriprasad, distinguished himself as a Kathak dancer. Shankarlal was also a gifted thumri singer. All these performers, Hari Prasad and Hanuman Prasad, their cousins Shyamlal, Chunnilal, Durga Prasad and Govardhanji earned fame as brilliant exponents of Jaipur gharana.

THE LUCKNOW GHARANA OF KATHAK

The Lucknow gharana of Kathak dance developed during the reign of Asaf-ud-Daula (1775 A.D.1798 A.D.) and Wajid Ali Shah (1847 A.D -1856 A.D.). As seen earlier the Kathaks who danced had their centres in Ayodhya and Benaras. The Rasadhari tradition flourished around Mathura and Braj. The contemporary Kathak's line of teachers extends backward beyond the Muslim period in ancient times. James Prinsep's 1825 census of Benaras discloses that there were more than a hundred Kathak castes in the city at that time. F. Buchanan's survey of Bihar during the years 1807-1814 reports fifty-eight Kathak establishments in the principal towns of the area. At this time the profession was mature and its representatives were widely distributed in North India. With the patronage received from the Nawabs of Avadh, Lucknow soon acquired fame as a centre of art. We gather from the descendants of Kalka-Bindadin, the famous Kathak exponents of Lucknow gharana, that their ancestors hailed from Handiya, a village in Allahabad district. Prakashji who moved from Handiya with his ancestors and came to Lucknow and sought royal patronage under Asaf-ud-Daula. Prior to that also there is evidence to prove that Kathaks and their Muslim rulers did meet and they had intimate dealings with each other. Ghazi Miyan, a Muslim saint whose cult is prominent in Benaras, is often worshipped by the Kathaks. In his commentary on Bhaktamal, Priyadas tells a story of a Hindu dancer's contact with Muslim authority. Narayan Das.a dancer who danced only before the idol of Hari, was invited by the Muslim ruler of Hariya Sarai to perform before him. Narayan Das put tulsi garland, a symbol of Hari, before himself to avoid the crisis and performed before the Muslim ruler. Priyadas "wrote his commentary on Bhaktamal about 1712 A.D. We may, on this literary evidence, conclude that the contact by this time between the Muslim patrons and Kathak dancers was well established. Some scholars also suggest that Hariya Sarai may be Handiya village." Besides these, the Kathaks from Ayodhya and Benaras were attracted to the court. The foregathering of these people advanced the art of the dance and gave it great local importance. Sharar refers to two groups of male dancers in Lucknow: the Hindu Kathaks and Rahas dancers (rasdharis, who specialized in the Krishna lila), and the Kashmiri Muslim bhands. The real dancers were the Kathaks and the Kashmiri dancing troupes. They had introduced young boys who wore their hair long like women and danced with animation and vivacity at times arousing the spectators. At the time of Shuja-ud-Daula and Asaf-ud-Daula. there was one Khushi Maharaj. Hallalji, Prakashji and Dayalji lived during the time of Nawabs Sadat Ali Khan, Ghazi-ud-Din Haider and Nasir-ud-Din Haider. However, it appears that Prakashji was in the court of Asaf-ud-Daula and his sons Durga Prasad and Thakur Prasad were famous court dancers in the time of Wajid Ali Shah. It is said that Durga Prasad taught Kathak to Wajid Ali Shah. The two sons of Durga Prasad, Kalka and Bindadin, became famous and no one in the whole of India could rival either of them at dancing. So great was their art that they became legends in their own lifetime. The flowering of the Lucknow gharana of Kathak is ascribed to these dancers. The older dancers achieved fame because of some particular aspect of the art, but the two brothers Kalka and Bindadin were masters of every aspect of the dance. Kalka Prasad's specialty lay in his mastery of rhythm. Bindadin was gifted with poetic leanings and was a great composer. Together they shaped the Lucknow gharana by the attributes it has come to be known lyrical and precise. The graceful quality of Kathak was explored by these two brothers in a fantastic manner.

BANARS GHARANA OF KATHAK

Besides Jaipur and Lucknow gharanas, one other gharana which is in vogue is known as Janakiprasad gharana. Named after Janakiprasad, a Kathak exponent originally from Bikaner in West Rajasthan, this school of dancing is also known in some circles as Benaras gharana. It appears that Janakiprasad went over to Benaras and taught Kathak for the rest of his life there and his school of dance acquired the name Benaras gharana. At that time Dungarsinhji was the ruler of Bikaner. Dudaji's son Motilalji became a court dancer. The Maharaja was so pleased with his art that he gifted away a village to Motilal. Motilal unfortunately had no issue. But his brother Hukmaji had two sons, Dularam and Ganeshilal. They carried on the family tradition and studied Kathak under their uncle Motilal, the court dancer. After Motilal, Ganeshilal became the court dancer in Bikaner. His brother Dularam went over to Bihar and became a court dancer in Bitia. Dularam taught Kathak to many dancers in Bihar and had a large following. He also trained his three sons, Biharilal, Puranlal and Hiralal in Kathak and they gave several performances in North India. From among the three brothers, Biharilal served at Indore as a court dancer. After some time he left Indore and came over to Bombay where he joined Gandharva Natak Company of Poona. At that time the legendary tabla player Ahmedjan Thirakwa also worked in the same drama company and used to accompany him on the tabla. Biharilal once again returned to the court of Indore. He was physically so fit that he was able to dance even at the advanced age of seventy-four. The last program he gave was before the Maharaja of Patiala. Then he retired and went over to Sankhu village in Bikaner State where he passed away. Biharilal had three children: Kishanlal, Mohanlal and Sohanlal. None of them is alive today. All the three carried on their father's tradition. Kishanlal taught along with his father in Bombay. Mohanlal went over to Dehradun where he taught dance till he passed away. Sohanlal also lived in Dehradun. Biharila's brother, Puranlal, had two sons: Madanlal and Ramlal. They are at present in Patiala. Madanlal has with him the collection of his uncle Hiralal's thumris. From the family tree, we notice that Hukmaji had another son Ganeshilal. He had three sons: Pandit Hanumanprasad, Shivlal and Pandit Gopal. Hanumanprasad went over to Kashmir and was a court dancer at Jammu during the rule of Maharaja Pratapsingh. When the ruler died he left for Patiala and was received warmly by Maharaja Bhupendrasingh and was made a court dancer. For some time Hanumanprasad was in Nepal as a court dancer when Maharaja Gangasingh was the ruler of Bikaner. After Gangasingh's death, he continued as a court dancer during the reign of Gangasingh's son and successor Shardulsingh. Later on he came over to Delhi and trained a number of students. Among many of his disciples were Nirmala Joshi and her sister Uma, who studied for some time under him. Hanumanprasad was eighty years old when he passed away in Delhi in 1952. He was very famous for his abhinaya. In particular, his abhinaya in the composition Sab din hot na ek saman with various sanchari bhavas became legendary. Also abhinaya to the song Jati nagariya main bhuli re dagaria and Sun he taruni sevenhar is well remembered by those who have seen him. Hanumanprasad had one daughter, whose three sons Navalkishore, Bansidhar and Omprasad are in Delhi. Hanumanprasad's younger brother Shivlal was a poet. But his sons took to dancing. Of the three sons, two, Sukhdev and Durgaprasad, are in Rajasthan and the third, Kundanlal, teaches Kathak at Hanumangarh.