ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DESIGN FOR A SOLAR POWERED VEHICLE

Dean J Patterson Northern Territory University, Darwin, Australia

ABSTRACT Two separate electrical system designs for a vehicle built for a race across Australia in November 1987, are described, Description of a third system for a second race in November 1990 is also included. The f motors, motor controllers, DC-DC design o converters, and maximum power point trackers (MPPTs) under a specialised set of criteria is discussed. 1 INTRODUCTION
. ..

The average efficiency is the result of integration of system component efficiency characteristics over a range of patterns of power use, which must take into account known road gradients and surfaces, predicted meteorological conditions, and race strategies. The estimated vehicle power requirements, for what appear to be achievable design parameters for the 1990 race, are shown in Fig 2. A constant retarding force for rolling loss, due principally to hysteretic loss in the tire walls, is assumed, and the aerodynamic loss shown results from an aerodynamic force which. for clean flow, is assumed to be proportional to speed squared.

1wo 14aa

Watts

- ,- Rollin8 loss

ima 1OW WO
WO-

- ,-Aerodynamic
:-

Total loss

loss

400-

Speed (kph)

Fig 1 The Desert Rose

Fig 2 Estimated vehicle power use, Cd .13, All up weight 260 kg, level ground.
From Fig 2 it can be seen that if rolling loss is assumed linearly proportional to all up weight, then, at an average speed of 60 km/h, there exists a tradeoff between weight and power of around 0.9 watts/kg. Hence, if in the system design the available power can be increased by 0.9 watt, then it is reasonable to do so if the weight penalty is less than a kilogram. The total mechanical power requirements shown in Fig 3 result from adding potential energy calculations to the data of Fig 2.

In November of 1987 a race for solar powered cars was held in Australia, across the continent from North to South, a distance of 3000 km. The Desert Rose, Fig 1, performed creditably. A second race is planned for November 1990, and design for the next vehicle is substantially complete. Designing an electrical system for such a vehicle offers some interesting challenges in the use of power electronic systems. The primary design criterion is that of maximum achievable average efficiency, and a secondary issue is that of minimum weight.

CH2873-8/90/0000-0618$1.00

1990 IEEE

618

~o

:I
o

Road Gradients

/I
a o w w o a o w

M a x i m u m Power

Point Tracker
80-8gO volt Induatrtal DC-DC Converter 9 Phaae PWM
-400

1.1 kW 3 Pb Induction

80 volt 70 Ah

Speed (kph)

Ag-Zn Batteq

Fig 3 Total mechanical power requirements on a range of road gradients.

The power available depends on a number of predictable and unpredictable factors. However, for a photovoltaic array of size specified by the race rules (roughly equivalent to 8 square metres), the cost of cells is a major determinant. For the 1987 race an average electrical power of 850 watts was assumed, whereas for the 1990 race a figure of 1200 watts is assumed. Conversion efficiency of electrical power input to mechanical power at the rear wheel of better than 80% is achievable.
2 INITIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Fig 4 Induction motor system

80-230 volt 30 kHz 1.1 kW P m DC-DC Converter B FWM DC Motor h g n e t DC 1800 watt M a r Controller

It is clear that some form of storage is necessary, and Silver-Zinc batteries are the clear choice in terms of energy density, (watthours/kilogram). From manufacturers data, optimising energy density leads to a battery with a relatively small number of high capacity cells, and hence a lower battery voltage. Design of electric motors for high efficiency, however, generally leads to higher voltage designs, in the case of DC motors for example, simply to minimise the loss due to voltage drop across the brushes. Further, commercially available induction motors and permanent magnet synchronous motors generally require in the order of hundreds of volts. These facts, together with the fact that the operating voltage of Ag-Zn cells varies by a factor of two from lowest usable voltage to voltage on charge, lead to the use of a DC-DC converter to match the load to the battery, and to stabilize the supply for ease of control. The cost of DC-DC conversion (averaging 2.5%) is paid for in the extra capacity carried for a given weight.

Fig 5 DC motor system

Figs 4 and 5 show two designs which were completed for the 1987 race and tested. They were designed with a maximum of compatibility and shared sub-systems, and either could have been used at any time, although the second was actually used throughout the race. Fig 6 shows the design for the 1990 race. I11 SUBSYSTEM DESIGN [a) DC-DC converters
A study of expected gradients, expected race speeds, and speed strategies, in conjunction with the information of Fig 3 enables dimensioning of the DCDC converter system. In 1987 this led to a modular system with three units, each of capacity 600 watts

619

which could be operated either in parallel to drive the DC motor, (Fig 5 ) or in series to drive the induction motor (Fig 4).

Fig 6 Synchronous motor system

The units used a standard push pull transformer coupled square wave topology operating at 30 kHz. Efficiency peaked at 97% and was greater than 95% for most of the load range. The losses were principally in the leakage inductance of the transformer secondary. The fact that the losses were primarily from leakage inductance had some interesting implications for system management, ruling out the use of the available pulse width regulation to control the DC motor directly, for example. The design, particularly of the transformer, has been extensively reworked for the new system [l] and efficiencies consistently above 97% are being measured. /b) Maximum Power Point Trackers

Whilst the characteristics of Silicon photovoltaic cells are usually presented in their V-I form as functions of illumination and temperature, Fig 7 shows the results for a range of commercially available panels in their normal operating condition and temperature. This indicates very clearly the value of using a DC-DC converter to maintain the cell voltage at the maximum power point, whilst delivering power to a battery bus at a different, and variable, voltage [2]. This is particularly so when using a battery with wide operating voltage range, such as Ag-Zn. In 1987 a substantially flat photovoltaic array, seen in Fig 1, and a single commercial MPPT was used. However, in general, the ability to provide for an array of MPPTs feeding a single battery allows for different illumination on different areas of the photovoltaic array, granting a considerably increased freedom to aerodynamic designers. Further, it allows the use of different cells in different parts of the array. A multiplicity of MPPTs of the traditional kind, measuring both voltage and current, multiplying them, and providing the perturbation necessary to operate a hill seeking algorithm, leads to a substantial and complex electronic sub system, with its own power drain .

volts
Illumination :- 1 sun

-D.

I-

Open

CCt V O l b

' 0.82
ea
Bo

40,

Panel output (watts)

ao

4u

Temperature, degrees Celsius

Fig 8 Maximum power point band as a function of temperature, calculated from measured data, and two open loop algorithms for tracking this band.
A
If

I8

13

14

15

10

17

Panel voltage
12.30 pm. 13/5/88, Inaolation 935 W/sq m ambient temp 33C

Fig 7 Initial tests of solar panels produced by four different manufacturers

An examination of measured data, in this case from silicon solar cells produced and tested at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia [3], shows that the maximum power point voltage, which is a function of both illumination and temperature, can in fact be quite accurately

620

approximated as a function of the open circuit voltage of the cell, which varies in a very similar manner. Fig 8 shows the effect of temperature on maximum power point voltage at constant illumination, together with calculated tracks of the voltage either side of the maximum power point voltage at which the power is 1% less than the maximum. Superimposed are two functions of the open circuit voltage of the cell under these conditions, the first being the open circuit voltage multiplied by a constant factor, and the second with a constant voltage subtracted.

circuits, and a small number of passive components. A single module runs at close to 98% efficiency at 50 kHz, and is capable of processing up to 50 watts, imposing a power drain of less than 35 mW.

IC)Batteries
L . 1
1.0

Cell voltage
/

1.7 1.8 1.4

~

2-

. . . . , 1 . 1 1G

'...>
i

.............................................

.................. ...............

0.1

Volts
Temp:- 60 degrees CI

1.9

o.l(l

1.2 -l.i ..

:_
: -

15 A charge 15 A discharge

no

i w i w BW T i m e in minutes

MO

JW

Fig 10 Charge and discharge characteristics of 70 Ah, Ag-Zn cell.

Y . l

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.7

0.8

0.0

Illumination, suns

Fig 8 Maximum power point band as a function of illumination, calculated from measured data, and two open loop algorithms for tracking this band.
Fig 9 shows similar calculations for the cells at a constant temperature and variable illumination. Whilst it is clear that for these cells a constant voltage step provides a more accurate track, it is in fact slightly easier to produce a constant fraction of the open circuit voltage. Further, this algorithm then enables the use of identical MPPTs processing the outputs of cell strings of varying length. The loss resulting from imperfect tracking of the maximum power point is certainly very small in either case for most conditions that can be predicted. Further, it should be noted that even in a traditional MPPT, the requirement to perturb the operating point causes the device to dynamically traverse the maximum power point region, rather than being continuously centred exactly on it. Measurement of the open circuit voltage is simply a matter of shutting down the DC-DC converter for a short time, for example for 0.5 ms every second, thus rejecting about 0.05% of the available power. A system based on a standard boost converter circuit has been designed using two integrated

Only limited information regarding the characteristics of Ag-Zn cells is available, particularly when used in a cyclic situation. Whilst these cells have a coulomb efficiency very close to loo%, the voltage on charge shows an unusual "plateau" behaviour. Fig 10 shows the results of trials on individual cells at the end of the 1987 race. What can easily be extracted from these data is a curve of cell watthour efficiency as a function of the state of charge of the cell, which varies dramatically between 75% and 90%. This has an important effect on energy management strategy, which must include some risk calculations, since the most efficient use of the battery occurs when it is in a very low state of charge, shortening its life, and implying vehicle operation with very low power reserves. Id) Motor Controllers The industrial 3 phase induction motor controller of Fig 4 required only minimal modification to be able to feed directly into the DC l i n k ,and required a separate small inverter to provide the power for the control circuits. The DC motor controller of Fig 3 is quite standard. The controller of fig 6 uses an optical shaft position sensor, to provide the normal "DC brushless motor" trapezoidal control. A velocity control loop is added for the ease of control by the driver.

621

0.950

r
Motor Efficiency

0.925

0.900

0.875

7 0

Gradient

Fig 11 Efficiency surface for 4.5" servomotor in vehicle with parameters as shown in Figs 2 & 3

(e) Motor Choice and Design

Choosing or designing a motor for the expected power levels satisfying the weight and efficiency criteria, leads fairly directly to either a high voltage DC motor, where the brush drop is negligible, or, more ideally, to the rotating field and stationary armature of the "permanent magnet synchronous" / "DC brushless" variety. Refining the effectiveness of permanent magnet material, and where necessary, iron in the magnetic circuit, leads to the choice of a rectangular flux distribution on the rotor, and rectangular/trapezoidal current waveforms on the stator. A nine phase Nd Fe B permanent magnet rotor machine is currently being tested. Since the switching is carried out using power MOSFETs, and efficient designs involve some paralleling of these devices, there is benefit to be had by increasing the number of "phases" (although the concept of phase can be rather confusing when the current patterns are no longer sinusoidal, and phasor analysis is no longer appropriate). By increasing the number of "phases" the same number of MOSFETs of a given rating can be used, the fraction of time in which armature conductors are not carrying current can be reduced, raising the efficiency, and the machine more nearly approaches an "inside out" DC machine.

Finite element analysis has been used in the design of this machine to minimise the effects of armature reaction. This is not difficult given that the f Nd Fe B magnet effective relative permeability o material is close to unity. The major loss in such machines using the normal stator configuration, and high flux densities of the order of 1 Tesla, readily achievable with Nd Fe B magnetic material, is loss in iron magnetic paths subjected to alternating flux. Complex structures are necessary to reduce or remove the iron content of these paths. Once machine parameters have been established it is a simple matter to develop, by combining this information with the requirements of Fig 3, efficiency surfaces of the type shown in fig 11, which are necessary to develop race strategy. The data for fig 1 1 comes from a 4.5" servomotor chosen as a back-up for the motor under development. Although regenerative braking is appealing in f steep gradient principle, the very limited amount o on the course and the substantial extra losses involved, particularly in the battery, leads to the fitting o f an over-run clutch on the motor shaft. In over-run conditions the motor efficiency computes as unity since it can be shut down.

IV SUMMARY
f 6% in the electronics, A total average power loss o being in the MPPTs, DC-DC converters and motor controller, 9% in the motor and 2% in a transmission still leaves considerable scope for improvement. The suggested weight power trade-off of .9 watts/kg encourages further sophistication in motor design and power electronics.

References [l] V. A. Niemela, G. R. Scut, A. M. Urling, Y. Chang, T. G. Wilson, H. A. Owen Jr., R. C. Wong, "Calculatin the Short Circuit Impedances of a Multiwiniing Transformer from its Geometry," IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference 89CH2721-9, 1989, pp. 607-617. [2] L. L. Buciarelli, B. L. Grossman, E. F Lyon, N. E. Rasmussen, "The Energy Balance Associated with the Use of a MPPT m a 100 kW Peak power S stem, 14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist dnference, San Diego, CA, 1980

[3] M. A. Green, Electrical Engineering Department, University of New South Wales, private correspondence.

622