This article was downloaded by: [East Carolina University] On: 31 August 2010 Access details: Access Details:

[subscription number 920345396] Publisher Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 3741 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

American Journal of Distance Education

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t775648087

A review of distance-learning studies in the U. S. military

Michael Barrya; Gregory B. Runyanb a Associate Professor of College of Education, Professional Studies, Educational Foundations, and Technology, University of West Florida, Pensacola, FL b Training systems consultant with the United States Navy, Moorestown, NJ

To cite this Article Barry, Michael and Runyan, Gregory B.(1995) 'A review of distance-learning studies in the U. S.

military', American Journal of Distance Education, 9: 3, 37 47 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/08923649509526896 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08923649509526896

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION Vol. 9 No. 3 1995

A Review of Distance-Learning Studies in the U. S. Military

Michael Barry and Gregory B. Runyan Abstract
This review of literature includes recent studies of distance learning in military settings. Aspects of distance learning reviewed include 1) distance learning delivery systems, 2) effectiveness studies comparing distance learning and resident training, and 3) speculation as to the future of distance learning in military settings. Additionally, the results of interviews conducted at military sites and universities with experience in distance learning are reported.

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

Introduction As the complexity of military technology increases, the need for ongoing technical training in the operation and maintenance of these high-level technology systems will also increase. The cost of sending personnel to distant training facilities for resident classroom training is an expensive proposition. However, numerous studies have shown that distance learning strategies can be a much less expensive alternative to resident training in the long term, can increase student throughput, and can still be as effective in training personnel. For example, cost savings derived from U.S. Navy training courses and conferences conducted on their Video Teletraining (VTT) network from Fiscal Year 1989 (FY89) through Fiscal Year 1994 (FY 94) was $7,154,000 in travel costs and per diem expenses alone. Cost-savings figures for training totaled $4,386,000 for the same period (CNET Briefing 1994). The U.S. Air Force satellite training system yielded a $5,000,000 cost savings (1992-93) in delivering their Acquisition Planning & Analysis Course via distance learning. Also, travel time savings totaled thirty man-years, and student throughput increased from 300 to 3,000 (Westfall, Christopher, and Cramer 1994). As early as 1982, the Air Force Teleteach Expanded Delivery System showed a savings of $993,000 in two years (Christopher 1982).

37

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to review recent research on distance learning in the armed forces. DIALOG computer search systems (NTIS, ERIC, Aero/Def Mkts) were employed to identify studies actually carried out in military settings. Additionally, interviews and discussions were held with researchers and experts in military distance learning. This study combined two current definitions of distance learning: Distance learning consists of all arrangements for providing instruction through print or electronic telecommunications media to persons engaged in planned learning in a place or time different from that of the instructor or instructors (Moore 1990). Typically, the learner is given the capacity to interact with the instructor or program directly, and given the opportunity to meet with the instructor on a periodic basis (U.S. Department of Education's Office of Educational Research and Improvement cited in Azarmsa 1993). This literature review covers the following aspects of distance learning in military settings: 1) delivery systems; 2) studies comparing the effectiveness of distance learning with comparable resident training; and 3) speculation as to the future of distance learning in military settings. Delivery Systems In the 1940s, military distance learning programs were delivered as low-technology, print-based correspondence courses, which continue in use today (CNET 1984; King 1994). Television emerged as a distance learning medium in the early 1950s (Kanner, Runyon, and Desiderator 1954) but, like the correspondence courses, broadcastand even closedcircuittelevision lacked the all-important feature of interactivity, whereby distant learners can personally interact with instructors, and vice versa. A limited amount of interactivity was incorporated into distance learning in 1973 when the Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) began using "Teleteach" commercial dial-up telephones to provide limited-duration instruction to remote locations (Christopher and Milam 1981). Teleteach was expanded in 1979 to include the electronic blackboard, a device that can transmit material written on an electronic sensor
38

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

BARRY AND RUNYAN

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

board through telephone lines for display on a TV monitor. The expansion also included two pairs of dedicated telephone lines (one pair sent and received verbal information while the other pair transmitted writing generated on the electronic blackboard). After the expansion, the system became known as the Teleteach Expanded Delivery System (TEDS). U.S. Army systems for the development, delivery, and evaluation of courses operate within the Teletraining Network (TNET) and the Army Logistics Management Center (ALMC). Asynchronous Computer Conferencing (ACC), a computer-based delivery system for distance learning, also is used by the Army (Hahn 1990). Computers are connected to a network, typically via a modem to a central computer that stores text or graphics entered by the sender and asynchronously transmits the information to the recipients when they later call the central computer to retrieve it. The asynchronous transmission of data allows parties to communicate without having to use the same medium at the same time (Waggoner 1992). Another computer-based delivery system for distance learning is called Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC). Instructional CMC is usually categorized in three ways: Computer Conferencing, which provides e-mail (asynchronous electronic communication), real-time interactive messaging (synchronous computer conferencing), and small- and large-group discussion Informatics, which provides access to repositories of organized information such as on-line library catalogs, databases, and information managers (e.g., Gopher and Veronica) Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), in which the computer structures and manages both the presentation of information and the possible responses available to the user (Berge and Collins 1994) The U.S. Navy's video teletraining (VTT) system goes well beyond the old noninteractive one-way lecture via broadcast television to a highly interactive two-way video and audio delivery system with large-screen televisions, video cameras, and audio systems at both the local classroom and the distant receiving sites. (The terms "video teleconferencing," "video teleseminar," and "instructional video teleconferencing" are often used interchangeably to refer to a similar delivery technology.) VTT uses digital video compression (384 KBPS) to allow communication via two-way video and audio within narrower

39

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

bandwidths. This networked system (operating via satellite or landlines) consists of eleven sites and sixteen classrooms, is secure at the SECRET level and is available twenty-four hours a day; it is used an average of ten hours a day. The system is voice activated so that students can see the person to whom they are talking over the network, whether the instructor or another student at a different location. The enhanced interaction between instructors and students at the various sites promotes a feeling of learning in an extended classroom (CNET Briefing 1994). In 1991, AFIT's Center for Distance Education selected videoteleseminar (VTS), a one-way video, two-way audio delivery system, for its courses. The system uses high-quality, full-motion compressed digital video (CDV), which not only greatly reduces transmission costs, but also has led to a new interservice distance-learning network. The Defense Information Systems Agency manages the Defense Commercial Telecommunications Network (DCTN), the long-haul communications contractor for the Department of Defense. The Air Technology Network, AFIT's new broadcast station, is the first user of DCTN-CDV. The seventy-one sites of the Army Logistics Management College also have joined the growing community of DCTN users (Westfall, Christopher, and Cramer 1994). The technology for delivering distant learning applications has improved tremendously in the past decade and will certainly continue to make exponential strides. Effectiveness Studies This section focuses on the effectiveness of distance learning instruction in comparison to resident training. Therefore, only empirical studies that compared student achievement in distance learning courses to student achievement in comparable resident courses are included in this review. Two of the earliest empirical studies on distance learning in the military were conducted in the 1950s using television as the delivery system (Kanner, Runyon, and Desiderator 1954; Kanner 1958). The 1954 study found no significant difference in student performance, and Kanner's 1958 study reported no evidence that intensive television sessions are more detrimental to learning than is face-to-face instruction. Christopher (1982) conducted a comparison study on the effectiveness of the Air Force Teleteach Expanded Delivery System for providing instruction to students at remote sites in eight states. On the basis of statistical analysis of test scores, he concluded that distant students learned
40

BARRY AND RUNYAN

at least as well as resident students and that the students' attitudes toward the courses were positive, especially for shorter courses. Partin and Atkins (1984) examined an instructional teleconferencing method used by the U.S. Army Logistics Management Center, which has a long history of course development and training evaluation. The 1984 study concluded that students were generally receptive to the teleteach method of instruction and that student achievement was comparable to achievement resulting from resident instruction. Other findings indicated that knowledgeable facilitators on site enhance the teaching/learning process, whereas equipment shortcomings can detract from the learning experiences. The U.S. Navy field tested a two-way video teletraining system in 1990 to deliver distance learning on topics of safety, damage control, and maintenance administration (Simpson, Pugh, and Parchman 1990). Student performance on examinations was comparable in originating and remote classrooms, and student attitudes were similar at both sites. The students at the remote site, however, did not feel that they had as much access to the instructor as did students at the originating site. Additionally, audio quality was never fully satisfactory and remained a problem throughout the field test. Asynchronous Computer Conferencing (ACC) was used by the Army Reserve to deliver a portion of the Engineering Officer Advanced Course (Hahn 1990). The evaluation found that 1) ACC training cost less than resident training; 2) there were no differences between resident and ACC students on objective performance measures; 3) ACC students perceived greater learning benefits than did resident students; 4) ACC training had greater user acceptance; but 5) resident training took less time than ACC training and had a better completion rate. A year later, Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) was used to deliver distance courses in technical engineering, tactics, leadership, and briefing and presentation skills to Army Reserve officers (Phelps et al. 1991). The CMC system included computer-aided instruction, storyboards, computer conferencing, computerized testing, print-based readings, and videotapes. Phelps et al. report that the distance learning (CMC) students achieved test scores equal to or better than those of resident groups and, that after ten iterations, CMC costs were 48% less than resident training costs. The Center for Naval Analysis compared the effectiveness of video teletraining (VTT) with classroom instruction using 178 students in each

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

41

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

group (Rupinski and Stoloff 1990). There were very small, nonsignificant differences in course outcomes between the two groups, and there were no differences between the two groups in the number of course failures. It was found, however, that most students preferred traditional classroom-based training to VTT. VTT can provide various levels of interaction, depending on what the training budget can accommodate: not surprisingly, the highest level is the most costly. Currently, there are six levels: 1) multi-channel two-way video with two-way audio; 2) single-channel two-way video with twoway audio; 3) one-way video with two-way audio; 4) one-way video with one-way audio; 5) one-way video with intermittent two-way audio; and 6) audiographics (two-way audio supplemented by graphics and/or still-frame or slow-frame video to remote sites via telephone lines). In a study comparing student achievement in maintenance administration training using these different levels of VTT, student achievement was higher and comparable to live instruction with fully-interactive VTT (levels 1-3), and student achievement was lower with partially-interactive VTT (levels 4-6). Student achievement was not higher in the two-way video class when compared to the one-way video class, but instructors and students alike indicated a preference for two-way video (Simpson, Pugh, and Parchman 1991). Interactive video teleconferencing was used for Army Reserve Component Training to teach the Command and General Staff Officers' Course (Keene and Cary 1992). When compared with those receiving resident instruction, distance learners showed superior knowledge of the course content at the end of instruction. The authors caution, however, that subjects were not randomly assigned to groups, so selection bias may account for the apparently superior performance of the distant students. Simpson, Pugh, and Parchman (1992) evaluated the effectiveness of Video Teletraining (VTT) for delivering hands-on training by 1) comparing resident instruction with VTT instruction and 2) comparing resident laboratory experiences with two alternative laboratory strategies: having students view videotapes of resident students participating in a laboratory and having a facilitator conduct the laboratories off-line. VTT was found to be effective for lecture, discussion, and hands-on demonstration portions of training, as indicated by the final examination, student course evaluations, and observations. Students who viewed videotapes instead of participating in a laboratory, however, took longer to complete all performance tests, and they performed less accurately. The facilitator

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

42

BARRY AND RUNYAN

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

approach was more successful, and observations indicated that the learning processes occurring in the off-line laboratories were very similar to those in traditional resident laboratories. A rather unique study conducted by the Florida Teletraining Project assessed the feasibility of using two-year community colleges to reconfigure and deliver military courses to reserve and active duty personnel via TNET, the U.S. Army's two-way audio/video Teletraining Network (Bramble and Martin 1995). Three Army Reserve courses and two U.S. Navy special-topics courses were presented during a four-month period in late 1992 and early 1993. Although there were no comparison groups in this study, standard military proficiency tests were used in addition to forty other data gathering instruments. This study concluded that community colleges effectively developed and delivered occupational training to the military. Table 1 presents empirical studies that compared student achievement in distance learning courses to achievement in comparable resident courses. All studies in the table reported no significant differences between resident and distance groups. Table 1. Comparison Studies Types of Delivery Systems Teleteach (audiographics) Computer-Mediated Communications Video teletraining

Authors/Dates Christopher 1982 Partin and Atkins 1984 Hahn 1990 Phelps, Wells, Ashworth, and Hahn 1989 Keene and Cary 1992 Rupinski and Stoloff 1990 Simpson 1993 Simpson, Pugh, and Parchman 1990, 1991

It appears from the studies reviewed here that student achievement in distance learning courses is comparable to student achievement in resident courses. Considering the economies of scale that could result from distant learning courses with large student throughput and from the continuous technological improvements in delivery systems, it seems likely that distant learning applications will continue to be used as appropriate alternatives to resident training.
43

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Future of Distance Learning in Military Settings Distance learning in military settings appears to have a secure and even bright future. With the development of new weapons systems and other technologies, the need for technical training will only grow; however, the budget for training typically does not grow proportionately with the budget for procuring the weapons systems. It stands to reason that resident training will be reduced because distance learning provides a highly effective alternative in terms of cost savings and its ability to provide access to large numbers of students (Savarise 1992). The U.S. Navy is committed to expanding distance learning through interoperable video teletraining (VTT) to all large ships in FY97 (CNET Briefing 1994) and to expanding VTT into new content areas, as well (Simpson, Wetzel, and Pugh 1995; Wetzel, Simpson, and Seymour 1995). The Navy's digital VTT network is capable of using various delivery systems for distance learning, so the future will see the implementation of a number of new technologies, such as interactive courseware. Maloy and Perry (1992) suggest that "integrating VTT with simulation and artificial intelligence offers a promising road toward the next generation of learning technologies." Griffin and Hodgins (1991) predict that artificial intelligence will assess each student's personality, tailor the training to his or her learning style, and provide individualized remediation and re-testing whenever needed; such systems are already in prototype. They further predict that holographic or 3D-stereoscopic simulation displays will allow resident instructors to serve as private tutors to distant students because they would seem to be "actually there." Holographic displays would also be useful in distant hands-on training in equipment operation or maintenance. Funding initiatives in the past six months further reinforce the military's commitment to distance learning. CAE-Link won a $3.4 million contract to expand the Navy's VTT network to twenty-five sites while supporting the fifteen sites now on the network; new sites include Japan, Guam, and Spain (CNET contract 1994). The House Armed Services Committee's FY94 defense authorization bill authorized $17 million to expand the Army's Interactive Teletraining Network (TNET) to a minimum 120-system network for "worldwide training" (Teletraining 1993).

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

44

BARRY AND RUNYAN

Conclusion This review of literature examined recent studies of distance learning with a focus on distance learning in military settings. Studies were selected that used comparison groups, and interviews were conducted at military sites and universities with experience in distance learning. The authors hope this review will serve as a springboard for further studies that will expand the literature base for researchers interested in distance learning in the U.S. military. The early, relatively low-technology distance learning coursesbased on the correspondence model and, later, broadcast or closed-circuit televisionlacked the all-important feature of interactivity. In the last fifteen years, distance-learning delivery systems have evolved to take full advantage of telecommunication technologies that enable distant learners to interact with instructors, instructional courseware, and each other. These delivery systems range in levels of interactivity from "lowend" technologytwo-way audio with hand-written images or still-frame videoto the "high-end" technologytwo-way full-motion video with two-way audio, which provides the maximum capability for interaction. Studies conducted in military settings tend to show no significant difference in achievement between distance learners and resident learners; a few studies have reported higher achievement among distant learners. Cost comparisons tend to favor distance learning with the Navy reporting cost savings of $11.6 million in four years and the Air Force reporting a cost savings of $5.0 million and 30 man-years in a two-year period. In light of the recent funding initiatives to support and expand distance learning systems and the excellent track record of student performance within distance learning systems, it is apparent that distance learning has not only been accepted in the U.S. Military, but will, in the near future, have more student throughput than the traditional resident training courses. The military virtual classroom is here...and here to stay. References Azarmsa, R. 1993. Telecommunications: A Handbook for Educators. New York: Garland. Berge, Z., and M. Collins. 1994. Computer-mediated Communication and the Online Classroom in Higher Education. Vol. 2 of Computer
45

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Mediated Communication and the Online Classroom. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Bramble, W., and B. Martin. 1995. The Florida Teletraining Project: Military training via two-way compressed video. The American Journal of Distance Education 9(1):6-26. Christopher, G. 1982. The Air Force Institute of Technologythe Air Force reaches out through media: An update. In Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications, eds. L. Parker and C. Olgren, 343-344. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Extension, Center for Interactive Programs. Christopher, G., and A. Milam. 1981. Teleteach expanded delivery system evaluation. ED-TR-81-4. Dayton, OH: Wright-Patterson AFB, Air Force Institute of Technology. CNET. 1984. Purpose of Navy training courses/rate training manuals: Historical survey. Pensacola, FL: Naval Air Station, Chief of Naval Education and Training. CNET Briefing. 1994. Briefing on CNET video teletraining. Pensacola, FL: Naval Air Station, Chief of Naval Education and Training. CNET contract goes to CAE-Link. 1994. Defense and Aerospace Electronics 3:1. Griffin, G., and M. Hodgins. 1991. VTT in the Navy: Training now and for the future. T.H.E. Journal 19(l):65-67. Hahn, H. 1990. Distributed training for the reserve component: Remote delivery using asynchronous computer conferencing. Report No. 2Q263743A794. Boise, ID: Army Research Institute. Kanner, J. 1958. Television in Army training. Audio-Visual Communication Review 6:255-91. Kanner, J., R. Runyon, and O. Desiderato. 1954. Television in Army training: Evaluation of television in Army basic training. Washington, DC: George Washington University. Keene, D., and J. Cary. 1992. Effectiveness of distance education approach to U.S. Army reserve component training. In Distance Edu-

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

cation for Corporate and Military Training, ACSDE Research

Monograph No. 3, ed. M. G. Moore, 97-103. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, American Center for the Study of Distance Education. King, R. 1994 (December). Interview with Robert King, Head of Advance Division, Naval Education and Training Program Management Support Activity, Pensacola, FL.

46

BARRY AND RUNYAN

Maloy, W., and N. Perry. 1992. A Navy video teletraining project: Lessons learned. In Distance Education for Corporate and Military Training, Readings in Distance Education No. 3, ed. M. G. Moore, 86-96. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, American Center for the Study of Distance Education. Moore, M. G., ed. 1990. Contemporary Issues in American Distance Education. New York: Pergamon. Partin, G., and E. Atkins. 1984. Teaching via the electronic blackboard. In Teleconferencing and Electronic Communications III, eds. L. Parker and C. Olgren, 68-73. Madison, WI: University of WisconsinExtension, Center for Interactive Programs. Phelps, R., R. Wells, R. Ashworth, and H. Hahn. 1991. Effectiveness and costs of distance education using computer-mediated communication. The American Journal of Distance Education 5(3):7-19. Rupinski, T., and P. Stoloff. 1990. An evaluation of Navy video teletraining (VTT). CRM 90-36. Alexandria, VA: Center for Naval Analyses. Savarise, P. 1992. Speaking personally with Colonel William A. Wojciechowski. In Distance Education for Corporate and Military Training, Readings in Distance Education No. 3, ed. M. G. Moore, 126-30. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, American Center for the Study of Distance Education. Simpson, H., H. Pugh, and S. Parchman. 1990. A two-point video-teletraining system: Design, development, and evaluation. Technical Report-90-5. San Diego, CA: Navy Personnel Research and Development Center. Simpson, H., H. Pugh, and S. Parchman. 1991. Empirical comparison of alternative video teletraining technologies. Technical Report-92-3. San Diego, CA: Navy Personnel Research and Development Center. Simpson, H., H. Pugh, and S. Parchman. 1992. Use of videoteletraining to deliver hands-on training: Concept test and evaluation. TN-92-14. San Diego, CA: Navy Personnel Research and Development Center. Teletraining wins HASC praise: Expansion order. 1993. Defense and Aerospace Electronics 2(2). Waggoner, M. 1994. Empowering Networks: Computer Conferencing in Education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Westfall, T., G. Christopher, and W. Cramer. 1994. ATN brings to Department of Defense a new capability in satellite distance education (brochure). Dayton, OH: Wright Patterson Air Force Base, AFIT Center for Distance Education.

Downloaded By: [East Carolina University] At: 00:59 31 August 2010

47