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1. The study examined the effect of water application rate from a trickle source on wetting patterns in soils prone to surface crusting.
2. Increasing the application rate enhanced horizontal water movement and reduced infiltration rates, due to the soil surface crust.
3. Higher application rates resulted in greater horizontal width of the wetting front but smaller vertical depth, forming a V-shaped cross-section. Equations were developed to model the wetting front depth and width versus application rate.
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Cost-E!ective Pollution Control by Shallow Injection of Pig Slurry
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1. The study examined the effect of water application rate from a trickle source on wetting patterns in soils prone to surface crusting.
2. Increasing the application rate enhanced horizontal water movement and reduced infiltration rates, due to the soil surface crust.
3. Higher application rates resulted in greater horizontal width of the wetting front but smaller vertical depth, forming a V-shaped cross-section. Equations were developed to model the wetting front depth and width versus application rate.
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1. The study examined the effect of water application rate from a trickle source on wetting patterns in soils prone to surface crusting.
2. Increasing the application rate enhanced horizontal water movement and reduced infiltration rates, due to the soil surface crust.
3. Higher application rates resulted in greater horizontal width of the wetting front but smaller vertical depth, forming a V-shaped cross-section. Equations were developed to model the wetting front depth and width versus application rate.
Droits d'auteur :
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Formats disponibles
Téléchargez comme PDF, TXT ou lisez en ligne sur Scribd
doi:10.1006/jaer.2001.0739, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on SW*Soil and Water Wetting Patterns under Trickle Source in Arid Soils with Surface Crust M. I. Al-Qinna; A. M. Abu-Awwad Department of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan; e-mail of corresponding author: abuawwad@agr.ju.edu.jo (Received 10 November 2000; accepted in revised form 26 April 2001; published online 15 June 2001) The e!ect of water application rate from a trickle source on the wetting pattern was studied during 1995/96 in soils liable to surface crust formation at the University of Jordan Research Station near Al-Muwaqqar village. Four application rates were tested (6)2, 14)4, 24)4 and 28)4 mmh). Twenty-"ve litres of water was applied through a controlled Palm-type emitter using eosin red indicator for locating the boundaries of water front advance. The wetted volume that resulted formed a &V'-shaped cross-section. Increasing the application rate enhanced the horizontal water movement markedly due to the soil surface crust e!ect, thus reducing the in"ltration rate. The horizontal water advance increased while the vertical water advance was reduced markedly by increasing the application rate. The horizontal width and the vertical depth of the wetting front advance exposed an exponential function with application rate. Two equations were developed for the vertical and horizontal wetting fronts versus the application rates which could be used in irrigation designs. 2001 Silsoe Research Institute 1. Introduction Trickle irrigation is the most e$cient method of irriga- tion and the system usually makes use of limited water supply in order to apply precise amounts of water to the root zone. A trickle irrigation system is designed to deliver frequent light applications of water to wet only portions of the soil surface. The advance of wetting front in a soil under an irrigation source is related to soil type, initial moisture content, and water application rate (Hachum et al., 1976; Hawatmeh & Battikhi 1983; Gold- berg & Shmueli, 1970; Goldberg et al., 1971). Brandt et al. (1971) developed a theoretical model to investigate the multi-dimensional transient in"ltration from a trickle source. Results of their developed model indicated that an increase in the trickle discharge resulted in an increase in the horizontal wetted area and a de- crease in the depth of the wetted soil, with a typical bulb-shaped cross-section. The percentage of wetted area as compared to the whole-irrigated area depends on emitter discharge, spacing and soil type (Keller & Kar- meli, 1974). Goldberg and Shmueli (1970) indicated that the rate of horizontal water movement in the soil and the "nal width of the wetted zone along the trickle irrigation line are functions of amount, rate of water application and soil type. Goldberg et al. (1971) reported that it is possible to somewhat increase the lateral spread of the wetting front by increasing the emitter discharge rate or the amount of water applied. Hawatmeh and Battikhi (1983) studied the wetting fronts under a trickle source in two uncrusted soils of the Jordan Valley. They developed equations for the horizontal > F and vertical > T advance of the wetting front as a function of time t since wetting starts on sandy loam soil using an application rate of 8)4l/h and initial soil moisture between 5)5% and 8%. > F "2)12#11)14 t` (1) > T "5)71 t`#4)9 t (2) Soil surface sealing is a common feature of most soils of arid and semi-arid regions. Soil crusts have prominent e!ects on a number of soil phenomena, such as reducing in"ltration and increasing runo! (Lemos & Lutz, 1957). The compact skin seal of 0)1 mm thickness reduced the permeability of the underlying layer by about 10 times (McIntyre, 1958). The reduction in the in"ltration rate will adversely a!ect water irrigation e$ciency. The re- duction in irrigation e$ciency is due to runo! in slope 0021-8634/01/110301#05 $35.00/0 301 2001 Silsoe Research Institute Table 1 Physical soil properties for the experimented site Horizon Depth, Clay, Silt, Sand, Textural class SG FC, PWP, MWD, mm cm % % % % % A1 0}15 30)0 66)7 3)3 Silty loam 1)18 26 15 0)35 BA 15}30 33)3 62)6 4)1 Silty clay loam 1)38 28 17 * Bw 30}45 41)0 53)8 5)2 Silty clay 1)37 29 18 * 2BK 45}60 42)2 50)8 7)0 Silty clay 1)34 28 17 * Note: SG, speci"c gravity; MWD, aggregate stability mean weight diameter; FC, volumetric soil moisture at "eld capacity; PWP, volumetric soil moisture at permanent wilting point. soils and evaporation in #at soils. This means loss of water as surface runo! and consequent soil erosion (Bradford et al., 1987 Hoogmoed & Stroosnijder, 1984; Remley & Bradford, 1989). The objective of this research was to study the e!ect of surface crust on water front patterns under various rates of water application from a trickle source. 2. Materials and methods A "eld experiment was carried out during 1995/96 in the University of Jordan Research Station located about 45 km Southeast of Amman, near Al-Muwaqqar village. Generally, the area of that site is characterised by weak vegetation cover, soil surface of high silt content, strong structural surface crust with an average of 2 mm thick- ness and weak soil surface aggregate stability. The soil classi"cation of this area is "ne silty, mixed, thermic, typic paleorthid with a slope of less than 1%. Some physical and chemical properties of the soil are given in Tables 1 and 2. The volumetric soil moisture at "eld capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) was measured at 33 and 1500 kPa, respectively, using a ce- ramic plate pressure apparatus (Peters, 1965). The correc- ted measured basic in"ltration rate using single- and double-ring in"ltrometers was 3)2 mmh (Al-Qinna & Abu-Awwad, 1998). The common trickle irrigation system used by the Jordanian farmers consists of laterals 2 m apart with emitters of 4}8 l h discharge spaced 0)5 m apart for vegetable crops. Each emitter is assumed to water an area of 1)0 m` (0)5 m by 2 m). A controlled Palm type of emitter was used as a trickle point source with four di!erent application rates; 6)2, 14)4, 24)4 and 28)4 mmh l h). The emitter consists of a small screw "tted into an outer case. Water enters through an ori"ce and travels the length of the sprial path, which reduces the pressure and discharges out (0}100 l h) as a trickle at a constant rate. A constant depth of irrigation water 25 mm (25 litre per emitter) was applied for each applica- tion rate treatment. Each treatment was replicated 3 times. The initial soil moisture at which the wetting front advance and in"ltration rate measurements were carried out when the surface layer was air dried (volumet- ric soil water content about 10%). The source of water was tap water stored in tanks at the experiment site. The average pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and sodium ad- sorption ratio (SAR) values for tap water used in the experiment were 7)5, 0)8 dS m and 8)23, respectively. Soil water wetting patterns for di!erent application rates from an emission point were examined in the "eld using eosin red indicator. Eosin red was mixed with irrigation water applied in a 25 l container. A trench was dug at the end of the experiment run when water was turned o!. The vertical and horizontal distance of the wetting front was measured at 0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 2 , and 150 cm from the point source. A regression analysis technique has been used to study the relationship between the movement of the wetting front advance and the application rates. 3. Results and discussion The mean wetting patterns as in#uenced by the di!er- ent water application rates are presented in Fig. 1. The horizontal width of wetting was higher than the vertical wetting depth in the highest application rate treatments. Increasing the application rate increased the rate of hori- zontal water advance, while the vertical water advance was markedly reduced as the application rate increases. This could be attributed to: (1) the presence of soil surfaces crust, which reduced water in"ltration and enhanced the horizontal water movement; and (2) the increased saturated zone at the soil surface due to an increased application rate. Goldberg et al., (1971) reported that by increasing the emitter discharge rate it is somewhat possible to increase the lateral spread of the wetting front. M. I. AL-QINNA; A. M. ABU-AWWAD 302 Table 2 Chemical soil properties for the experimented site Horizon Depth, CO 3 , ECe, pH OM, Cations, me 100 g !1 Iron oxide, cm % dS/m % % Na K Ca Mg A1 0}15 22)3 1)50 8)32 1)00 0)7 2)01 10)5 3)2 2)25 BA 15}30 23)0 1)50 8)30 0)17 0)5 1)60 10)3 3)3 2)32 Bw 30}45 27)0 1)65 8)55 0)05 0)8 0)96 10)2 3)3 2)32 2BK 45}60 28)7 1)60 8)09 0)09 2)9 0)32 09)2 3)1 1)57 Note: CO ` , carbonate; OM, organic matter; ECe, electrical conductivity of paste extract. Fig. 1. Wetting pattern proxles for the four diwerent application rates (with equal volumes 25 l each of water applied): , 28)4 mmh 1 ; , 24)4 mmh 1 ; , 14)4mmh 1 ; , 6)2 mmh 1 In uncrusted soils, the area wetted at each emiss- ion point is usually quite small at the soil surface and expands somewhat with depth to form a bulb-shaped cross-section. As examined in crusted areas, however, the resultant area wetted at the soil surface was wide and reduced with depth to form a &V'-shaped cross-section (Fig. 1). The &V' shape becomes very sharp at the higher application rates treatments and reduces to a &U' shape at the lowest application rate. Soils su!ering from surface crust in arid and semi-arid areas have the highest water- loss potential due to evaporation from the large surface wetted surface area and runo! (Al-Qinna & Abu-Awwad, 1998; Abu-Awwad, 1998). The selection of the appropri- ate emitter spacing, amount of irrigation water and ap- plication rate (emitter discharge) to be used on arid soils su!ering from surface crust are thus of great importance. In arid and semi-arid regions, in soils su!ering from surface crust formation, emitter discharge should be as low as possible to enhance vertical water penetration and to reduce wetting soil surface, thereby minimizing water loss by evaporation and increasing soil water storage in the crop root zone. Increasing emitter spacing should accompany increasing application rate (emitter dis- charge) and vice versa. Regression analysis between the wetting front width to depth ratio and the application rate to basic in"ltration rate ratio showed that the two were related by an ex- ponential function with a value for the coe$cient of determination r` of 0)99 (Fig. 2): =/D"1)5(R/I)""` (3) where: = and D are the horizontal (width) and the vertical (depth) advance of the wetting front, respectively, 303 WETTI NG PATTERNS UNDER TRI CKLE SOURCE Fig. 2. Relation between the wetting front advance, width to depth ratio and application rate to basic inxltration rate ratio: , mea- sured values; , Eqn (3) Fig. 3. Regression analysis of the horizontal wetting front width versus the application rate: , measured values; , Eqn (4) Fig. 4. Regression analysis of the vertical wetting front depth versus the application rate: , measured values; , Eqn (5) in cm; and R and I are the application rate and the basic in"ltration rate, respectively, in mmh. For a trickle irrigation design, a regression analysis was adopted for both the horizontal (> F ) and vertical (> T ) advance of the wetting front versus the application rate (Figs 3 and 4). These two equations are > F "3)5781 R`"" (4) with a value for the coe$cient of determination r` of 0)99, and > T "27)07 R"``` (5) a value for the coe$cient of determination r` of 0)72 Equations (4) and (5) might help more in understanding water movement through the soil surface su!ering from surface crust formation and to get a proper optimization of wetting geometry, thereby determining the optimal water application rate that should be used on these crusted soils to irrigate a de"ned crop or tree. It is interesting to note that an increase in the application rate increases the horizontal advance by increasing the increments [Eqn (4)], while it increases the vertical ad- vance of the wetting front by decreasing the increments [Eqn (5)]. With constant irrigation depth, increasing the application rate from 6)2 to 14)4 mmh (by 8)2 mmh) increased the horizontal advance from about 28}73 cm by 45 cm) but reduced the vertical advance of the wetting front from about 13)7}10 cm (by 3)7 cm), owing only to the negative e!ect of the soil surface crust. Thus, decreas- ing the application rate will signi"cantly a!ect the hori- zontal advance but not the vertical advance of the wetting front. In general, for the same soil type and application rate (emitter discharge) emitter spacing in soils susceptible to surface crust should be wider than the emitter spacing for uncrusted soils. 4. Conclusions The in#uence of emitter discharge on the wetting pattern and distribution in arid and semi-arid soil su!ering from surface crust formation has been studied. Four applica- tion rates were tested with a constant volume of water applied through a controlled Palm-type emitter using eosin red indicator for the delineation of the wetting front advance. The shape of wetting patterns on crusted soil varied considerably from that of a typical bulb shaped to that of a &V'-shaped cross-section depending upon the application rate. A regression analysis indicated that increasing the application rate increases horizontal advance by increasing the increments but reduces the vertical advance of the wetting front by decreasing the increments owing to the negative e!ect of the soil surface crust. Thus, decreasing the application rate will signi"cantly a!ect the horizontal advance but not the vertical advance of the wetting front. With the same soil M. I. AL-QINNA; A. M. ABU-AWWAD 304 type and emitter discharge, emitter spacing in soils sus- ceptible to surface crust should be wider than the emitter spacing for uncrusted soils. References Al-Qinna M I; Abu-Awwad A M (1998). In"ltration rate measurements in arid soils with surface crust. Journal of Irrigation Science, 18, 83}89 Abu-Awwad M A (1998). Irrigation management in arid areas a!ected by surface crust. Journal of Agricultural Water Man- agement, 38, 21}32 Bradford J M; Ferris J E; Remley P A (1987). Interrill soil erosion processes: 1. e!ect of surface sealing on in"ltration, runo!, and soil splash detachment. Soil Science Society of American Journal, 51, 1566}1571 Brandt A; Bresler E; Diner N; Ben-Asher I; Hiller J; Goldberg D (1971). In"ltration from a Trickle Source: 1. Mathematical Models. Soil Science Society American Proceeding, 35, 675}682 Hachum A Y; Alfaro J F; Willardson L S (1976). Water move- ment in soil from trickle source. Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, ASCE, 102, 179}192 Hawatmeh N; Battikhi A (1983). Wetting fronts under a trickle source in two soils of the Jordan valley. Dirasat, 10(1), 17}31 Hoogmoed W B; Stroosnijder L (1984). Crust formation on sandy soils in the Sahel 1. Rainfall and in"ltration. Soil and Tillage Research, 4, 5}23 Goldberg D; Gormat B; Bar Y (1971). The distribution of roots, water and minerals as a result of trickle irrigation. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 96, 645}648 Goldberg D; Shmueli M (1970). Drip irrigation-a method used under arid and desert conditions of high water and soil salinity. Transactions of the ASAE 13, 38}41 Keller J; Karmeli D (1974). Trickle irrigation design para- meters. Transactions of the ASAE, 17, 678}684 Lemos P; Lutz J F (1957). Soil crusting and some factors e!ecting it. Soil Science Society of American Proceeding, 21, 485}491 McIntyre D S (1958). Permeability measurements of soil crusts formed by raindrop impact. Soil Science, 85, 185}189 Peters D B (1965). Methods of Soil Analysis. Physical and Mineralogical Properties. 1st Edn, Agronomy Series, Part I (9), 279}285 Remley P A; Bradford J M (1989). Relationship of soil crust morphology to interrill erosion parameters. Soil Science So- ciety of American Journal, 53, 1215}1221 305 WETTI NG PATTERNS UNDER TRI CKLE SOURCE
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