FPS 2000 Handbook For The Design and Operation of Flexible Pipes

@OANTNF RESEARCH PROGRAMME FPS 2000 / FLEXIBLE RISERS AND PIPES Handbook ox Design: ariel © Operationiat SSosoatisie WhineSINTEF©® report "on aston ‘The Foundation fr Scientific and Industral Research atthe Norwegian Insta Technology Classcation Open N-7034 Trondheim, Norway oor So badSnteN Telex (+ 477) 5928 00 Tie of epor Dae Handbook on Design and Operation of Flexible 1992-02-07 I Pipes N (appendices: 377 Auhows) Berge, S., Engseth, A., Fyfting, 1., Sibel drconsniss a Larsen, CM, Leixa, 8.J., Nygard, 1. and Olufsen A. Editors: Berge, S. and Olufsen, A. | Nils Spidsoe Division Pree 9. i Structural Engineering 710840 j TSEN no Pree goup 1 82-595-7266-4 NOK 300.~ | Clemisponsorclproes! BP Norway, ELF Aquitaine Norge, | Ciens ri Esso Norge, Norsk Hydro, NINF, Saga Petroleum, Statoil and Total Norge Abstract The Handbook is a synthesis of results obtained in the FPS2000 programme "Flexible Risers and Pipes". The main objective of this Handbook is to provide a basis for rational design and operation of flexible pipes. Furthermore, the intention is to give a better basic understanding of mechanisms and conditions governing the design of flexible pipes. The purpose is hence to achieve more reliable design and inspection routines, thus make a contribution towards improved safety. Most of the contents of the Handbook are based on FPS2000 reports, which are referenced in the bibliography. The intention of the Handbook is to provide the essential information from the project ina more accessible format. It is hoped that the Handbook will be useful for the engineers working with practical problems in the design and operation of flexible risers and pipes. | Indexing terms: English Norwegian Group 1 Marine Technolog Marinteknikk Group 2 Methods Metoder oytoms | Flexible Pipes Fleksible ror selectog : byautmars) | Handbook Handbok Design DesignHANDBOOK 7 Preface PREFACE High pressure flexible pipes are increasingly being used in the offshore production of oil and gas. Most of the experience with flexible pipes has been gained since the late 1970s in relatively benign environments, such as offshore Brazil. ‘The use of flexible pipes as dynamic risers is now also accepted technology in the harsh environments of the North Sea. The breakthrough came in 1962/84 when it was decided to ui a flexible dynamic riser system on the Balmoral field. In relation to flexible pipes, the particular challenges for field developments on the Norwegian Continental Shelf are: = Combination of severe environment and deep water. - Fields with high temperature and pressure, combined with large quantities of gas. - Permanent installations with many risers and large investments. ~ Rigid requirements with regard to safety documentation. In order to meet these and other challenges related to floating production systems for oil and gas the Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Technical Research (NTNF) launched a three year research program, Floating Production Systems (FPS2000) 1989-91. This Handbook is a deliverable from one part program within the FPS2000 program, i.e. Flexible Risers and Pipes. The overall aim of this part program was to qualify flexible risers and pipes for the Norwegian Continental shelf. Consequently, this entailed developing load and Lifetime assessment methods, contributing to the development of condition monitoring methods, and developing and establishing test facilities to be used for testing of flexible pipe products. The main objective of this Handbook is to provide a basis for rational desiga and operation of flexible pipe: Furthermore, the intention is to give a better basic understanding of mechanisms and conditions governing the design of flexible pipes. The purpose is hence to achieve more reliable design and inspection routines, thus contributing towards improved safety.HANDBOOK 4k Preface Most of the contents of the Handbook are based on FPS2000 reports, which are referenced in the bibliography. ‘The intention of the Handbook is to provide the essential information from the project in a more accessible format. Tt is hoped that the Handbook will be useful for the engineers working with practical problems in design and operation of flexible risers and pipes. The recommendations and guidelines given in this text are not intended to serve as regulations, and there has been no attempt to write the Handbook in the style of a “recommended practice". However, it is hoped that the Handbook and the underlying research reports may be useful for writers of future regulations.HANDBOOK ih Acknowledgements ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Handbook has been prepared by SINTEF Structural Engineering, within the Joint Industry Project - FPS2000 / FLEXIBLE RISERS AND PIPES. The participating companies were: - BP Norway + Elf Aquitaine Norge > Esso Norge = Norek Hydro - NTNF - Saga Petroleum - Statoil - Total Norge The project was executed within a three year period from 1989 throughout 1991, with a budget of NOK 20 100 000, The participating companies have played an important role in this project, both through the Steering Committee and in technical terms through active participation in Advisory Groups. Hence, the scope of work and project plans have been worked out in close cooperation between the participants and SINTEr, The project was highly multidisciplinary, and consequently, several subcontractors and various divisions within SINTEF have been involved in the project execution. The list of subcontractors is as follows Research and Development: Dunlop Armaline IKU (Continental Shelf and Petroleum Technology Research Institute) J.P. Kenny MARINTEK Robit SINTEF Applied Physics SINTEF Geotechnical Engineering SINTEF Netallurgy SINTEF Production Engineering Studsvik AB Swedish Institute of Materials Technology Ugland Coflexip Veritas Research VeritecHANDBOOK i Acknowledgements Suppliers of Flexible Pipe Products: Coflexip Pag-0-Flex Wellstream Stewart Clark (NTN) has reviewed the manuscript with respect to correct language. His comments are gratefully acknowledged. The skillful typing of the Handbook was done by Ms. Randi Sve, to whom we are very thankful.HANDBOOK v contents CONTENTS PREFACE 0... eee ee eeeee ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... : aii INTRODUCTION «2.2.0 ..0e00e08 cee ok List oF SymBoLs .... a de lattatoealtrct tle atecttet a xiv 1 FLEXIBLE PIPE SYSTEMS ............2..5 1.1 GENERAL REMARKS 1.2. APPLECATIONS OF FLEXIBLE PIPE IN OFFSHORE PETROLEUM ACTIVITIES .. 1.2.1 General Remarks 1.2.2 Riser Systems . 1.2.3 Flowlines 1.2.4 Other Uses of Plexible Pipe Fee far be iate arcana 1.3 FLEXIBLE PIPE PRODUCTS AND RELATED SYSTEM COMPONENTS . 1.3.1 Pipes ..... geese 1.3.2 Pipe Bundles, "Multibore” Pipes ...... 1.3.3. Terminations and Bending Stiffeners .. 1.3.4 Configuration Control and Handling Devices 1.4 REFERI eta eel tater 2 FLEXIBLE PIPE PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCE ... Ee 2a 2.1 GENERAL REMARKS : 24 2.2 PIPE MATERIALS ....... see wee 2D 2.2.1 Types of Materials and Main Applications . i 2.3 2 Polymer Materials ..............005 2.3 3° Steel Materials tele 2.9 +2.4 Fibres - la 0 23 OF 2 overview . PORT RELATED PROPERTIES 1 2 Weight .... : 13. Curvature Radius and Bending stiffness - ‘ 5 2.2 2.2 2.2 SUP! 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3.4 Tension Capacity and Axial stiffness 2.3.5 Torque Capacity and Torque Stiffness 2.4 REFERENCES . APPENDIX 2.4 PRODUCERS” DATAHANDBOOK ve Contents 3 FAILURE MODES AND CROSS SECTION ANALYSIS 3a PSI GEGERAL+REMABRS Heo'ag rt dla esoteric rete saat teat aerate eet 3.2 FAILURE MODES AND FAILURE CAUSES ... : Seas 3.3 3.3 DETERMINATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES ae elstaet 3.8 3.3.1 Axial Loads ....cceeeeeeees esse ees 3.8 3.2 Internal Pressure . 3.3. External Pressure .... 3.4 3.5 Torsion .... Bending .... 3.3.5.1 General Remarks .. 3.5.2 Minimum Bend Radius . 3.5.3 Slip Distance . : :3,5.4 Stresses Due to Bending ........sceeee 3.5.5 3.5.6 3. 3. 3 3 Stresses Due to Friction 3. Bending Stiffness c ce 3. 3 combined Loads . ‘omputer Models for Cross Section Analysis .... 3.7.1 General Remarks . 7 13.7.2 axisymmetric Behaviour .......66.05 3.3.7.3 Bending Behaviour 3.4 SERVICE LIFETIME .. 3.4.1 General Remarks . fecceuitas 3.4.2 Fatigue Mechanisms of Flexible Pipe . 3.4.2.1 General Remarks ...... : 3.4.2.2 Fatigue Mechanisms of Nonbonded Pipe 3.4.2.3 Fatigue Mechanisms of Bonded Pipe 3.4.3 Erosion .... 7 3.4.4 Material Degradation . 3.8 REFERENCES . 4 DESIGN ANALYSIS PROCEDURES . Hela oie an 4.1. GENERAL REMARKS Peele ne EEA 4.2 SYSTEM MODELLING ........0..0sc0eseeee ees 44 4.2.1 General Remarks . aa 8B 4.2.2 Loads 7 a a 4.2.2.1 Weight and Buoyancy 44 7 foads from Internal Fluid Flow 46 1 2.2 -2.3° Hydrodynamic Loads . :2.4 Forced Motions .........5 4.2.2.5 Concentrated vs Consistent Loads . 4.2.3 Inertia Models . 4.2.4 Damping Models . : : 4.2.5 Riser/Sea Floor Interaction .....sssssscss 4.2.6 Finite Element Models . 4.2.6.1 General Remarks 4.2.6.2 Axial Strains ...... 4.2.6.3 Bar and Beam Element . eres 4.2.6.4 Linear and Nonlinear Analysis... 4.3 LOAD EFFECT ANALYSIS 4.3.1 Static Analysis . 4.3.2 Dynamic AnalysisHANDBOOK vid Contents 2.1 General Remarks ........ 2.2 Time Domain Simulation . 2.3. Frequency Domain Analysis ..... 449 4.51 4.55 4.57 464 4.64 464 464 43. 43. 43 4.3.3 Response Statistics . 4.4 PROCEDURES FOR DESIGN ANALYSIS at 4.42 Design Criteria .. Extreme Response Estimation ..... 4.4.2.1 General Remarks - 4.4.2.2 Design Wave ee 4,65 4.4.2.3 Design Storm ............2.05 4.66 4.4.2.4 Long Term Response Statistics 4.67 4.4.3 Lifetime Analysis oo... ... sees sees eens 4.69 4.4.4 Design of Bending Stiffener .. 4.70 4.4.5 Interference Analysis . Pelee 4.70 4.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL . 4.72 4.5.1 General Remarks ...... esse eeeeeeeeeeeee eee 4.72 4.5.2 Verification of Computer Programs . 4.72 a 4.5.3 Verification of Models ....... 4.74 454 seee ee ees 4.75 4.6 REFERI a 4.78 5 MECHANICAL TEST METHODS ........ $1 5.1 GENERAL REMARKS 21... .cecesescecsecresncnecesnenensensees vee Sat 5.2 TESTING OF FLEXIBLE PIPE - GENERAL OVERVIEW . eteeebereeeeerene Sud 5.3 TEST PROCEDURES - CURRENT SITUATION . . Rete vee 5068 5.3.1 The Role of Testing in Design Procedures eee 5.6 5.3.2 Overview of Test Procedures in Current Recommended Practices ... : pate else - 5.8 5.3.3 Prototype Tests ... PUL eteatea- tls 15 5.3.4 Acceptance Tests .... dete eeeee eee ee teers eeeneeees SM 5.3.5 Test Procedures Specified in Company Standards 2 5.12 5.3.6 Discussion ...... : cee 51D 5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS ON PROCEDURES FOR STATIC TESTS . cee SANS 5.4.1 Internal Pressure Tests - Prototype . + 515 : 5.4.2 Internal Pressure Tests - Acceptance . S.17 5.4.3 Hydrostatic Collapse Test . Poe ee SANT S.A.d Tensile Test ..eceeeieeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees vee 5.20 5.5 FATIGUE TESTS ... pee ee eee iee 5.22 5.5.1 Fatigue Loading of Dynamic Risers . Ee 5.22 5.5.1.1 Patigue Critical Areas of Dynamic Risers 5.22 5.5.1.2 Bending Stiffener Design .......... $8.23 5.5.1.3 Patigue Loading of Dynamic Risers - Test Configurations reeteeras 5.24 5.5.2 Fatigue Mechanisms of Flexible Pipe . 5.26 5.5.3 Recommendations for Test Procadures . 5.27 5.6 STIFFNESS AND DAMPING TESTS ...... 5.32 5.6.1 Stiffness and Structural Damping ..... 5.32 $.6.2 General Considerations .... 5.33 §.6.3 Test Configurations . 5.34 §.6.3.1 Axial Loading ..... 5.35 $.6.3.2 Bending Loading 5.36 5.6.3.3 Torsional Loading 5.38HANDBOOK Contents 5.7 5.8 6 INSPECTION AND CONDITION MONITORING ...........0cc0eseeeee 1 =] on 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 7 PROTECTION OF FLOWLINES ............. 5.6.3.4 Combined Loading . INTERNAL EROSION TESTING REFERENCES GENERAL REMARKS . INSPECTION PHILOSOPHY 6.2.1 Aims of Inspection an 6.2.2 Inspection Strategies INSPECTION METHODS POR FLEXIBLE PIPES . 6.3.1 Applications ..........esseeeeeeee eee 2 State of art . 7 Future Needs ..... LURES AND FAILURE MODES . General Aspects ........ Defect Tolerance of Flexible Pipes .. OPMENT WORK ON INSPECTION METHODS ... Inspection Methods ....... Bu.ugu 1 2 Eddy Current ..... 3. Radiography .. 4 Ultrasonic Imaging ..... 5 TV Holography aaa 6 Acoustic Emission ...... +7 Test Pipe Design ....... 8 ui 1 2 Inspection Tool Carrier ....- JATION OF INSPECTION METHODS AND THEIR POTENTIAL Genera! Renarks .......- : Case A: Floating Production system with Flexible Risers . :2.1 General Remarks 6.6.2.2 Internal Inspection 2.3 External Inspection .. 6.6.3 Case B: Subsea Flowline from Satellite Wells RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK .. GENERAL REMARKS ... BACKGROUND .. 7.2.1 Wistorical Data .. 2 Official Regulations ... : 3. Guidelines and Recommended Practices ........ 4 Other Relevant Guidelines .........0..0004 5 Economical Implications . METHODS - INSTALLATION . 1 2 3 General Remarks ..... Unprotected Flowlines ... Protected Flowlines . DEFINITIONS . 1 Functional Loads ......... 2 Environmental Loads ..... Ate 3 Accidental Leads ...... eee Peete gHANDBOOK ax Contents 7.4.4 Synthesis wat 7,5 PROTECTION AGAINST ACCIDENTAL LOADS Tz 7.8.1 Dropped Objects .........005 . 712 7.5.2 Anchoring Activity - 744 7.5.3 Fishing Activity .... 7.18 7.6 PROTECTION METHODS 7.26 7.6.1 General Remarks ... 7.26 7.6.2 ‘Trenching - 7.26 7.6.3 Rock Dumping . 7.27 7.6.4 Simultaneous Lay and Burial . 7.28 7.6.5 Matresses ad + 7.28 7.6.6 Grouting esa 7.29 7.6.7 Pipe Reinforcement ......-0+.ee00e 7.29 7.6.8 Comparison of Protection Installation Methods 7.29 7.7 REFERENCES ........ 7231 8 RELIABILITY-BASED DESIGN ....... Ht Fit Se elelateoetaa 8.1 Pee 8.7 GENERAL REMARKS . STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES LIMIT STATE DESIGN .. 8.3.1 Scope of Application 8.3.2 Safety Format and Limit State Functions ..... 8.3.3 Analysis Methods . ASSESSMENT OF UNCERTAINTIES .........-0es0eeeee0e 8.4.1 Classification of Uncertainties 8.4.2 Sources of Uncertainty .... 8.4.2.1 General Remarks .. he 4 Modelling of Environmental Processes Calculation of Environmental Loading Calculation of Load Effects . Geonetrical and Material Properties for Strength | Assessment ...... 6 Modelling of Resistance . Random Variables ......... Statistical Properties Environmental Processes . Environmental Loading . load Effect Analysis . Pressure + Geometrical Properties, Material Uncertainty in Capacity Formulas RELIABILITY ANALYSIS beta - 5.1 Failure Functions and Basic Variables .... 5.2 Reliability Analysis .. 5.3 Application of Reliability analysis .. DE CALIBRATION .. : 6 6 FI 8.4.3 1 Calibration Procedure 2. Simplified Code Calibration . ERENCES .......... eter 8. a. 8. cor 8 8 RIHANDBOOK Contents BIBLIOGRAPHY GUIDELINES AND RULES ....... TECHNICAL PROJECT REPORTS . 7 B.2,1 Design Methods for Flexible Pipes - Subproject 2.1 B.2.2 Testing and Test Methods for Flexible Pipes - Subproject 2.2 .. B.2.3 Condition Monitoring of Flexible Pipes - Subproject 2.3 ....... B.2.4 Protection of Subsea Flexible Flowlines - Subproject 2.4 . prpopepHANDBOOK Eva Introduction INTRODUCTION The intention of this section is to give some general comments on the content and organization of the material. Furthermore, the purpose is to highlight the applications that are covered and specify possible limitations. The material is presented in chapters forming a logical step-by-step sequence, which is often applied in the design process. Each chapter contains a summary and general comments regarding its purpose. " "is mostly of informative character, in the sense that various applications of flexible pipe systems are described, together with pipe products and auxiliary equipment. A brief description regarding operational requirements as specified by the users, is also included. The chapter is not exhaustive with respect to various applications, riser configurations and additional equipment. It rather seeks to illustrate the great variety in use, Ghapter_2 ‘Flexible Pine Properties and Performance’ is devoted to a description of the properties of flexible pipe structure. The basic components of pipe constructions are discussed with respect to their functionality and characteristics. Ultimately, basic pipe strength characteristics are described. The discussions are limited to materials currently used in the fabrication of pipes The emphasis of Chapter 3 ‘Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis” is to discuss various failure modes, subsequently to describe capacity models for use in design of flexible pipes. Recent advances within pipe mechanics are presented. However, some failure modes such as corrosion, blistering and fretting, are not extensively discussed, since they have not been investigated in this project. Recommendations concerning basic steps in the design analysis are given in Shanter 4 "Design Analvsis Procedures". The focus is on extreme response estina- tion and lifetime evaluation due to wear and fatigue of metallic layers. These two conditions are both related to the prediction of global responses due to environmental forces induced by waves, current and wind. Guidelines concerningHANDBOOK it Introduction the modelling of riser systems and forces are given. Furthermore, various response analysis methods are described and compared both with respect to each other and with reference to experimental results. Finally, different procedur for design analysis are described. Testing is an important part of the design verification for a particular pipe construction. Due to the complex structure of flexible pipe and the multitude of possible failure modes, both test methods and procedures may need to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. In Chapter § "mechanical Test Methods” methods for the mechanical testing of pipes are discussed, and recommendations for standard procedures are given. The emphasis of the chapter is on methods for qualification testing of pipe products. Inspection end condition monitoring are treated in Chapter 6 “Inapection and Condition Monitoring”, The condition monitoring philosophy for flexible pipes is outlined, and the need for detection of various failures during manu- facturing, installation and operation is discussed. The main emphasis is on in situ inspection methods which have been subject to development within the project. The results which have been obtained and the potential for further Gevelopnent of these methods are described. The possible impact on condition monitoring systems for flexible pipes is outlined. Chapter 7 "Protection of Flowlines" is devoted to the protection of subsea flexible flowlines. Historical data have been collected for the British and Norwegian sectors of the North Sea. These data have been used to investigate the need for the protection of flowlines. Thereafter, an outline of various protection criteria and requirements is presented. Finally, currently used standards and recommended practices are evaluated in ” z ". Recommended design analysis based on Probabilistic methods is outlined and exemplified for different riser configurations. This method is based on limit state design applying partial load and resistance coefficients, where combined loading and utilization of individual layers of the pipe wall are considered.HANDBOOK ie Introduction References are listed after each chapter. A complete list of technical reports issued within the ¥PS200/Flexible Risers and Pipes project and other relevant bibliographies are given in a separate section at the end of the Handbook. ‘The SI metric units are generally used. One exception is made for reference to the internal diameter of pipes, where inches are frequently used.HANDBOOK adv List of Symbols LIST OF SYMBOLS a = Amplitude of harmonic component a - Area ext - External area Aint - Internal area AL - Cross section area of a tendon Ay - Area carrying axial stresses > - Width of a tendon 8 - Buoyancy per unit length 8, - Resultant buoyancy per unit length ay B - Bias factor Br - Bias factor - environmental loads Bee - Bias factor - functional loads By + Bias factor - pressure © ~ Uniformly distributed random variable c.0.v. = Coefficient of variation c = Added mass coefficient (#Cy-1) Cy ~ Drag coefficient Cea - Drag coefficient, oscillatory flow Cqn/Cag -- Drag coefficient, flow normal to pipe axes Ceox-Ceoy - Drag coefficient, flow normal to pipe axes, nonsymnetric cores section, (x,y) referring to symmetry axes Cat = Drag coefficient, flow tangential to pipe axes ‘ Cer = Drag coefficient for 1 buoyancy element Con = Drag coefficient for N buoyancy element ch = Inertia coefficient CuxsCny ~ ‘Inertia coefficients in x and y directions, respect ively ~ Damping matrix - Diameter ay - Diameter of buoyancy element dee - External diameter of pipe aint ~ Internal diameter of pipe 4,.ay - Cross section diameters, referred to symmetry axes of noncircular cross sectionHANDBOOK List of Symbols gon (TR) wv Characteristic reference drag diameter Average pipe diameter Youngs modulus of elasticity Axial stiffness Bending stiffness Equivalent ring bending stiffness per unit length Expected value of Xngx Hydrodynamic force per unit length Probability density function Hydrodynamic force Praction filled Cumulative probability distribution of x, Acceleration of gravity Lateral gap Failure function Weight function Torsional stiffness Vertical length Significant wave height Significant wave height for a given design storm Frequency response matrix Interaction factor for modelling interaction between buoyancy elements Characteristic roughness height Stiffness property Dynamic stiffness of riser Locked stiffness Sliding stiffness Storage modulus Keulegan-Carpenter number Constants, linear and quadratic drag terms respectively stiffness matrix Geometric stiffness matrix Material stiffness matrix Total system stiffness matrixHANDBOOK List of Symbols Pest Pint Location parameter, Weibull distribution Length Length of section with buoyancy elements Length of a slug Length Pitch Mass per unit length Hydrodynamic added mass n’th order moment of spectrum Mass per unit length of slug Moment (force moment) Error term in moment (distributed loads) Frictional moment Munk moment (hydrodynamics) Static moment ‘Torsional moment Deviation measure function a Mass matrix Constant (number of) Constant (number of) Number of buoyancy elements Number of extremes during D years Number of maxima Number of sea states for response calculation Number of zero up-crossings Number of time increments Number of wave spectrum frequencies Vector of interpolation functions Pressure Design pressure External pressure Internal pre! ure Tension induced pressure on pipe Resistence/strength Helical armour contribution to endcap pressure resistance Burst pressure capacity xeHANDBOOK List of Symbols nud Contribution to burst pressure resistance from back-up pressure layer Elastic buckling strength of carcass Elastic buckling strength of pipe Helical armour contribution to burst pressure resistance ‘Total hoop pressure resistance Characteristic external pressure strength Contribution to burst pressure resistance from zeta layer Probability of failure Target failure probability Short term probability level (design storm) Long term distribution of Xx, Short term distribution of X, Joint probability distribution of H, and T, Nodal e: ent load vector Distribution load Slug load per unit length Load effect ratios Element load vector (distribution loads) Load vector Complex load vector Radius of cross section External radius Internal radius Displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors, respectively Complex response vector Bending radius of pipe (radius of curvature) Contact bending radius Minimum bending radius Minimum bending radius, dynamic Minimum bending radius, static natural" bending radius Static radius of curvature Characteristic resistance Characteristic compressive axial capacityHANDBOOK xvii List of Symbols Ry = Design value of resistance Re = Reynolds number Re, ~ Reynolds number, based on flow velocity normal to pipe R - Load vector s - Scale parameter, Weibull distribution Se = Spacing between buoyancy modules Se - Characteristic load effect See - Characteristic load effect due to environmental loads Scr - Characteristic load effect due to functional loads Serr - Characteristic load effect, i.e. Scr-Scp Sep - Characteristic load effect due to pressure 8% = Design load effect SF - Safety factor, permissible stress design s(w) = Auto spectrum, representing a Gaussian process 8*(W4) = Sample of spectrum value, frequency i 8, (0) - Displacement cross spectral density matrix Sqqit) - Load cross spectral density matrix s,(0) = Spectrum of the process x(t) t = Thickness of pipe wall + Layer thickness - Time T = Period in harmonic oscillation ~ Simulation period = Duration of a single stationary sea state ? - Tension a T, - Collapse tension ™, ~ Effective axial force ™ - Effective tension in horizontal direction Trax ~ Maximum allowable support force i om - Pipe wall tension , - Wave peak period 1,0 = Wave peak period for design storn u = Wave induced velocity % = Amplitude of external flow velocity bs = Component of water particle acceleration, normal to pipe 0 - Standard normal distributed random variableHANDBOOK bist of Symbols Current velocity Relative velocity pipe/fluid Velocity of internal fluid Velocities normal to pipe axes, referred to synmetry axes Slug velocity Weight per unit Length Weight of pipe in air Effective weight Weight of pipe content Weight of pipe including slug weight Weight of pipe in water Resultant of internal pressure per unit length ‘Three parameter Weibull distribution Response velocity Response acceleration, normal to structure Stochastic process amplitudes (positive global extremes) Response amplitude with a return period of D years Vectors of basic random variables Vector of random variables related to stress analysis and capacity modelling Relative angle of flow with respect to pipe Lay angle of helical armour wires Reliability index Partial load effect coefficient - environmental loads Partial load effect coefficient - functional loads Partial resistance coefficient Vector of partial coefficients Measure of deviation: PrP Characteristic value of the’ internal pressure difference Time interval Additional curvature of helix due to bending Frequency interval Smallest difference between two neighbour frequencies Bandwith parameter Phase angleHANDBOOK xx List of Symbols Emax ~ Maximum allowable strain fy - Ultimate strain capacity ‘ - Shape parameter, Weibull distribution N - Amplitude of water particle motion & - Collapse torsion angle & - Naximum allowable torsion angle Ke - Transverse curvature Kee - Characteristic curvature due to environmental loads Ker - Characteristic curvature due to functional loads Ky - Normal curvature Kw ~ Normal curvature of helix kp(x,t) ~ Random curvature due to dynamic load effects = Kole) ~ Random curvature capacity cf K(x) = Random curvature due to static load effects ~ Derivate of curvature Ayre = Damping coefficients » - Mean value v = Poisson’s ratio + Kinematic viscosity of fluid ve = Zero up-crossing frequency ‘ = Threshold level for Ones ™ = Objective function ° ~ Density Oe = Density of pipe content, i.e. fluid/gass/slug °» - Density of pipe wall ey = Density of water ° ~ Stress o% ~ Axial stress oe = Random layer stress due to environmental loads ce - Characteristic layer stress due to environmental loads only Scr - Characteristic layer stress due to functional loads, excluding Oc» cp - Characteristic layer stress due to internal and external pressure only OR - Characteristic individual layer capacity against tensile failureHANDBOOK List of Symbols xed, Random layer stress due to functional loads, excluding pressure s in a tendon Tensile str Random layer tensile stress capacity Random tensile stress capacity ‘Time-varying stochastic dynamic stress Random axial stress due to internal pressure Random static stress Ultimate tensile strength of material Yield strength of material x(t) Local maximum value of dynamic stress Variance of the proce: Standard normal density function Inverse standard normal distribution Frequency Wave frequency Discrete frequency value Maximum wave frequency represented in sample Weighting factor; relative frequency of a specific parameter combination 4 for a limit state iHANDBOOK La Chapter i - Flexible Pipe Systems 1 FLEXIBLE PIPE SYSTEMS 1.1 GENERAL REMARKS The objective of this chapter is to provide a brief overview of flexible pipe systems. The application areas of flexible pipe are categorized according to functional requirements. Another issue is why use flexible pipe instead of conventional steel pipe? The chapter also outlines the basic properties of flexible Pipe products in order to give a background for the design problems that are specific to these pipes. ‘The scope of the present discussion is limited to systems in water. Above water applications like jumper lines are not discussed. In the present context, a flexible pipe is a pipe with low bending stiffness and a high volume stiffness. This is obtained by a composite pipe wall construction with helical armouring with high stiffness, in combination with a sealing material with low stiffness. This enables a much smaller radius of curvature to be allowed than what is obtained by a homogeneous pipe wall with the same pressure capacity. ‘There are two basic grounds for using flexible pipe instead of steel pip 1, Simplified transport and installation by prefabrication in long lengths stored on reels. 2. Compliant structure which allows permanent connection between a floating support vessel with large motions and subsea installations.HANDBOOK 12 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems Reeling is also possible with steel pipe. However, the reeling process involves plastic yielding and ovalization of the pipe, and the handling equipment requirements are high. Attaching steel pipes (risers) to moving vessels will either require a combination of hinges and swivels, or shorter segments of flexible pipes to be used as connecting elements (jumper lines). These two grounds for the use of flexible pipe result in different requirements on the pipe capacity. The transport and installation operations involve only one er a couple of deformation cycles, while the dynamic connection to floating vessels involves a large number of dynamic load cycles, in bending as well as tension.HANDBOOK 13 chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems 1.2 APPLICATIONS OF FLEXIBLE PIPE IN OFFSHORE PETROLEUM ACTIVITIES 1.2.1 GENERAL REMARKS Past and present applications of flexible pipe, according to the two grounds that have been mentioned are: 1, Flowlines for intra-fielé connection of wellheads, templates, loading terminals, ete. 2. Riser lines for connecting subsea installations with anove water production facilities. This includes combined systems with flexibles used as jumper Lines from hardpipe risers to floating platforns. 3. Jumper Lines between fixed and floating platforms. 4, Uoading hoses for offshore loading terminals. 5. Small-diameter service lines, such as kill and choke lines, umbilicals, etc. A description of applications, functional requirements and typical configurations is given in the following. 1.2.2 RISER SYSTEMS The riser system of an offshore production unit is to perform a multitude of functions, both in the drilling and in the production phase. Up till now, flexibles have only been used for the production phase. With the application of downhole motors, flexibles may also be used as érilling risers, see Section 1.2. Key functions of a production riser system are Well product flow (oil, gas, condensate) Well control lines (annulus flow, electric, hydraulic, optical} Injection (water, gas) Processed product export.HANDBOOK na Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems The number, sizes, pressure ratings and internal coating requirements for a riser system are related to these transport functions. The present context does not consider details of the implications of internal flow. The focus is on the principles for maintaining a connection between the el. floor installation and the surface vei ‘The requirements for the riser system support depend on: © Water depth © support vessel motions © current and wave loading. ‘The system must be arranged so that the external loading is kept within accept- able limits with regard to: Tension curvature Torsion Contact with other structures (interference) eee ee Compression. An overview of feasible configurations is shown in Figure 1. These configurations differ mainly in the use of buoyancy modules and the methods of anchoring to the seafloor. All configurations except the Chinese Lantern may utilize a horizontal force to control the curvature. The Chinese Lantern is particular since it has to have zero tension at one point, and the curvature has to be controlled by bending stiffness. It is also important to point out the different ways of attaching the riser to the surface vessel: © Below water or above water © Fixed or through a swivel or hinge to eliminate torque and/or bending monents.HANDBOOK ws Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems ins RISERS TYPICAL CONFIGURATIONS FREE HANGING ‘CHINESE LANTERN STEEP Lary $ PLIANT WAVE STEEP WAVE LAZY WAVE. Figure 1.1 Flexible riser configurations, from Pettenati-Auziere (1986). Other solutions may involve parallel coupling of several lines, or the bundling of several lines into a composite ("Multibore") riser lines. Solutions have also bs sn proposed that involve combinations of steel risers and flexibles, see Figure 1,2.HANDBOOK 16 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systens OARS. pone onanon eat coeruset sei ahs a id risers converge ata tethered buoyant spider Wobil Compliant Riser em el ae, Then ei dae ‘extend each ier frst io ing i z unit's base, then up to manifolding on deck. Figure 1.2 Examples of hybrid riser systens. The basic flexibility requirement for the riser system is that neither the support vessel motion and offset variation nor the wave and current forces acting on the system are not to cause damage. bue to the low bending stiffness, this means that all external forces have to be balanced by geometric (bending) deformation and variability in the tension. The design of a riser system must be closely integrated with the design of the Support vessel and its stationkeeping system, which governs motions and offset of the support point. 1.2.3 PLOWLINES Plowlines are intra-field lines connecting subsea wells, templates, wellhead platforms, or loading terminals to processing platforms. Different flowline configurations are shown in Figure 1.3.HANDBOOK 17 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems 1 Welhad nel plaform Flee pr J, Wellhead coer plaforn. 5S. Walbead w mand thooegh! tbe Fleitleppeeiber touphT tbe & Major tore baie 2, Wellhtad owed ploform- lest pipe comecedtobanomof rid ut. T.Plaformta share ‘damped lon plafors 4 Parte plo 4 Rserbsevorver base Figure 1.3 Flowline configurations, from FPS2000 Report 2.2-4. Flowlines typically have lengths in the range 1-5 km, with inner diameters in the range 0.10-0.20 m. Instead of mobilizing an expensive pipelaying spread, it is often preferred to use flexible pipe installed from a dynamically positioned vessel. The functional requirements to a flexible flowline are generally the sane as for a steel pipe. However, for flowlines no dynanic loading or motions in the operational phase is expected. the flexibility requirements are mainly related to the transport and installation phases. This means that the bending flexibility requirement does not need to be associated with large internal pressuresHANDBOOK 1.6 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems 2 Furthermore, a flowline will be subjected to only a few cycles of bending, depending on the laying configuration. Flexibility requirements are related to: © Diameter of storage and transport reels © Weight and tension control possibilities in the installation phase In general, the installation procedure can be designed to cope with the curvature limitations. It may be difficult to maintain a tension controlled curvature in deep water because the suspended pipe weight will be large compared to the required horizontal force. It may be advantageous to design the pipe to be "self supporting", so that the curvature is limited by the bending stiffness 1.2.4 OTHER USES OF FLEXIBLE PIPE Loading Hoses Offshore loading hoses are used as temporary connections between shuttle tankers and a storage tanker or loading buoy. Figure 1.4 shows some examples. In idle configuration, the loading hose may be submerged or pulled in to the support vessel, either straight or reeled. Seafloor to surface. Surface to-surface Shuttle Shuttle Storage! tanker tanker production vessel Floating [1 ‘Submerged Figure 1.4 Loading hose configuration.HANDBOOK 13 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems A loading hose is subjected to vessel motions and wave loading. Handling involved in connecting and disconnecting operations will give additional loads. Due to relatively low fluid pressure, the armouring requirement is moderate Robustness with respect to handling is a major concern for flexible pipe intended for offshore loading Jumper Lines In some floating production concepts, so-called wellhead platforms are used in combination with floating support vessels, g. Veslefrikk, Figure 1.5. Stand-off Connected Veslefrikk Figure 1.5 Jumper lines between floating production vessel and wellhead platform. The function of these jumper lines are in many respects similar to riser systens. However, their operation is somewhat different. The lines are more exposed to wave loading, and the configuration is different in the connected condition compared to a stand-off condition. This poses extra requirements on the end connectors, such as bending stiffeners. Drilling Risers For drilling with downhole motors, flexible pipe can also be used as a drilling riser, see Figure 1.6. In this operation a controllable weight is applied to the drill bit. dynamic bending of the suspended part is moderate, and the dynamicHANDBOOK 1.10 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe systems support loads are related to the repeated rolling over sheaves. If the heave compensator is based on a taut system as shown in Figure 1.6, bending fatigue will be @ major design consideration. Flexodrilling ‘The principle of flexodrilling consists of rotating the coring bit by means of a turbine suspended toa flexible pipe Figure 1.6 Drilling operation with flexible drill riserHANDBOOK 1a Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems 1.3 FLEXIBLE PIPE PRODUCTS AND RELATED SYSTEM COMPONENTS 1.3.1 PIPES Flexible pipes are composite structures with two basic types of components: ~ armour components, usually of spiral steel wire construction, providing strength - polymer or compliant steel tubes which are sealing components, providing containment of fluid. Two generically different types of pipe construction are available: © Nonbonded structures where each component makes up a cylindrical layer. The armour elements are allowed to slide relative to the sealing components. © bonded structures where the armour elements and the sealing components are monolithic. The sealing components are deformed according to the relative motion of neighbouring strength elements. An overview of flexible pipe producers is given in Table 1.1. Whereas, Figure 1.7 gives an indication of sizes and pressure ranges for flexible pipe products. All product related information is based on brochures. Note that Pag-0-Flex pipes have not been produced after 1990, but they are still in service. The Dunlop high pressure pipes are only produced in short lengths. The producers should be consulted for up-to-date information. Table 1.1 Overview of previous and present suppliers of different flexible pipe Furukawa KT Nonbonded high pressure Pirelli‘ Nonbonded medium pressure Dunlop? Bonded high pressureHANDBOOK 12 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems PRESSURE N (oar) | : 1000} ole Ve ‘ 900 \ 0 Pag-O-Flex 8 \ x Furukawa = N so 8 \ sand ul m7 a + Manouh 8 Rage Eee Iv = nonbonded \, \ B - bonded 500 400 300 200 400 ono 020 «090 0400.80 DIAMETER ( m) Figure 1.7 Design pressure vs inner diameter for typical flexible pipes. A general description of the two main types of high pressure pipes is given below. Nonbonded Pipes Today there are four producers of nonbonded pipe: Coflexip (France), Wellstream (USA), Furukawa (Japan) and Pirelli (Italy), Nonbonded flexible riser may either be designed as rough bore or smooth bore. The rough bore structures employ an inner steel carcass and are used whenever gas may be present in the transported fluid. In such cases, a rapid pressure arop many lead to collapse of the inner liner unless it is stiffened by a carcass. An example of such a structure is shown in Figure 1.8, This example is a Coflexip pipe. Layers with similar functions are also found in the other products of this type.HANDBOOK 1.13 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems Thermoplastic seath Double rosewoud armours ‘Thermoplastic sheath ‘Typical rough bore erueture (dynamic titer) Figure 1.8 Typical Coflexip rough bore structure. © ‘The inner interlocked steel carcass prevents the collapse of the internal thermoplastic sheath in the case of pressure drop. The carcass is made from Profiled steel strips and the fluid is allowed to leak through it. Hence, the carcass is only subjected to external compressive forces: © ‘The internal thermoplastic sheath is the sealing component. The main function of the Zeta spiral is to sustain loads due to internal pressure. However, it will also provide resistance against external pressure and crushing effects from the tensile armour. The Zeta spiral is made from a Z-shaped wire designed to prevent intrusion of the internal thermoplastic layer when exposed to internal pressure. Whenever necessary, the zeta layer may be reinforced by a flat steel spiral layer to increase the pressure capacity of the pipe. An alternative design (Furukawa) is to use two C-profiles instead of the zeta spiral. © An intermediate thermoplastic sheath is applied on dynamic risers to reduce friction between the pressure resisting layers and the tensile armour. © ‘The double crosswound tensile armour layers provide resistance to axial loads and torsion. These layers are usually made of flat steel wires with a lay angle of about 35°, Lubrication is applied in order to reduce friction and wear. Recently, constructions have been made with a thermoplastic anti- friction layer between each layer of armour. © The function of the external thermoplastic layer is to protect the metallic layers against corrosion and abrasion and bind the underlying armour,HANDBOOK 1d Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe systems Smooth bore pipe constructions are used for applications which do not cause gas diffusion through the internal thermoplastic layer. A smooth bore structure consists of the same layers as the rough bore except that the inner interlocked carcass is omitted, cf. Moore (1989]. Bonded Pipes Bonded high pressure pipes are produced by Dunlop, Pag-O-Flex, Taurus and uniRoyal Manouli. Pag-0-Flex designed and produced such pipe until 1990. Bonded pips through a vulcanization proc consist of layers of fabric, elastomer and steel bonded together Flexibility is obtained by axial and shear deformation of the elastomer matrix in which the reinforcing elements are embedded. in principle, steel to steel contact is avoided. This reduces internal heat build-up, wear and fretting effects. Since the reinforcing elements are embedded in the matrix, the entanglement of these elements is avoided. One may therefore use elements (armour cables} with very low bending stiffness. Figure 1.9a shows a bonded pipe structure produced by Dunlop. ‘The functions of each layer are essentially the same as for the Coflexip pipe in Figure 1.8. How- ever, there are some differences that should be pointed out regarding the load carrying characteristics, the Dunlop pipe has no spiral layer with similar functions as the Zeta layer in a Coflexip pipe. This has two consequences: ‘The interlocked steel carcass provides the necessary hoop strength to resist point and distributed loads, external pressure, and radial crush loads induced by tension in the main reinforcing cables. In addition, the carcass prevents the elastomeric liner from imploding during rapid decompression. Hence, the carcass is a main strength component, and its integrity has to be carefully verified and monitored. 2, The main reinforcement cables must also be designed to sustain internal Pressure, in addition to axial loads and torsion. Axial and radisl stresses generated by internal pressure are balanced by applying the cables with a jay angle of 55 degrees. This results in a pipe construction which is dimen- sionally stable with regard to internal pressure, i.e. no elongation is caused by internal pressure variation:HANDBOOK 1s Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems Dunlop is presently producing short length flexible pipes for low pressure and static applications only. A bonded pipe of the Pag-O-Flex type is shown in Figure 1.9b. The main difference between this pipe and the Dunlop pipe is that the Pag-O-Flex construction includes a spiralled layer to resist internal and external pressure, In addition, the Pag-O-Flex pipe uses a gas tight corrugated steel inner liner which is welded to the end fittings. This gives improved temperature and fluid compatibility, since there is no direct contact between the transported fluid and the rubber and reinforcement layers. However, the corrugated liner is a critical component, since even a very small leak will lead to rapid deterioration of the pipe. 5 SECTION 9 At — ARAL ; bodes ‘A. Stainless steel, strip wound, interlock tube Sketch of atypical PAGUAG flexble offshore pipe cutaway showing B.Duralon elastomer liner peter Espectally developed elastomer compounds (NBR and CR based) ©. Teste, antiextrusion layer are used for the inner liner (I), the adhesion layers (2, 3, 4, 8) and D. Hydraulic transfer layer the cover (6). The main functions of these layers are to make the pipe leakproof, corrosion. abrasion and fatigue resistant and sill E, Clad steel reinforcement ‘maintaining high flextbiity by cushioning and bonding all F.Antichaffing layer reinforcement materials to form a high-integrity unit. TE idee Ahelically wound wire (7) normally applied matily to increase eee eee both the hydrostatic pressure resistance {for sub-sea installations) H. Fire resisting layer (optional) and/or the tensile strength capaclty af the pipe. Brass coated steel ‘cord wires (8. 9} provide the internal pressure capability of the 1. Armouring (optionall feubes (c) Cross section of Dunlop pipe (b) Cross section of Pag-O-Flex pipe Figure 1.9 Examples of bonded pipe structure.HANDBOOK 1.16 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems 1.3.2 PIPE BUNDLES, "MULTIBORE” PIPES In some applications where parallel lines between the sane termination points are required, a practical solution is to bundle several lines together. This is often done by the pipe supplier during fabrication to simplify installation and handling. For umbilicals this is well-known technology, cf. Figure 10a, b. In this concept, the pipe functions are separated, so that the individual lines take their own flow load (wall forces). The support loads (effective tension) may be carried by a common external armour layer. BR ZF NYY (c) Round multibore construction, Coflexip (dj Flat muitibore pipe, Coflexip (i WO Figure 1.10 Examples of umbilicals and "multibore" flexible pipes.HANDBOOK 1a7 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems In the so-called “multibore" riser concept, two or more risers and/or umbilicals are bundled together, Figure 10c,d. In this concept there is no external load carrying armour. In the case of a flat bundle, the bending flexibility is maintained in one plane, while the stiffness in the other plane will be larger. If the bundle is not flat, the individual lines have to be aia spirally to maintain the bending flexibility of the bundle. In both cases it is important that all the lines in the bundle have the same force. longation characteristics. Otherwise, the stiffest pipes must be designed to take part of the support force from the softer pipes. The wrapping and the filler material must allow for the relative deformation needed to accommodate the required curvature 1.3.3 TERMINATIONS AND BENDING STIFFENERS Terminations The termination is the most critical part of a pipe construction. A well designed transition zone is required for all the pipe wall components to converge into one flange or connector piece that carries all the pipe wall forces. A description of the problem and three alternative solutions is given by MacFarlane (1989), cf. Figure 1.11. The illustrated terminations are designed to transfer the pipe wall forces to the end connector. All the armouring elements are locked relative to each other, and also to the sealing elements at the termination. Thus, the zone near the end will not have the same flexibility as the rest of the pipe. This zone, corresponding to the length of a couple of turns of the tensile armour, cannot be expected to have the sane curvature capacity as the free pipe span.HANDBOOK 1.18 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systens eer erimp lange and ring cop Epony reun a / Termination for Coflexip, nonbonded pipe Yar ates net (nd a! er seve (postal yada) —— yon ple “Dwaton! Flenble pipe ice clamp o%09 b Termination for Dunlop, bonded pipe bone ft f ioe eostomer "shades! to ebeqe Corrugated liner Flexible pipe 7 Termination for Pag-O-Flex, bonded pipe Figure 1.11 Alternative termination solutions.HANDBOOK 1.19 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems Bending Stiffeners Precautions have to be taken in order to make an attachment of a flexible pipe under tension to a structure that is stiffer than the pipe, cf. Table 1.2 and Pigure 1.12. Careful alignment. Hinge/swivel/flexjoint mechanism in the connector. Bending stiffener on the pipe end. Guide funnel. Table 1.2 Alternative solutions to prevent bending overload at terminations. Solution Alignment Simple, static application, not always possible Hinge/swivel Sealing problens Flexjoint Difficult to obtain sufficiently low bending stiffness Bending stiffener | Increases coupling load due to tension induced bending moment Guide funnels External pipe wear Three types of bending stiffeners are used, see Figure 1.12: a) External, conical support structure, clamped to the end connector. b) Integral stiffening of the pipe wall by increasing the wall thickness towards the ends. c) External clamped-on elements with an axial clearance to radius ratio that Limits the curvature. For nonbonded structures, only alternatives a) and c) are feasible. Observe that solution c) will also induce local tension in the pipe, and should not be used at terminations where the pipe has high tension.HANDBOOK 1.20 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems Jb Oh of 30 1) Hinges 2) Flexjoint 3) Bending 4a) 5) Externally clamped stiffener Guide fmasie. bending restrictor Figure 1.12 Illustrations of how to prevent bending overload at terminations. 1.3. CONFIGURATION CONTROL AND HANDLING DEVICES The following devices and equipment are used: During Installation © Reels for storage and transport. © ‘Tensioners for controlled rate of deployment, or optionally for controlled tension during deployment. © Guide rollers for curvature control. Permanent © Buoyancy modules, clamped to the pipe. Size limited by allowable point loads (bending stiffness and moment capacity). © Buoyancy modules and support cradles © Anchor lines clamped to the pipe. Buoyancy Buoyancy modules are used to control the pipe shape and partly to reduce the top support weight in a riser system. 2HANDBOOK Lan Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systens Primary properties are: 1. Density (net buoyancy) 2. Compressive strength (depth capacity) The properties should be maintained throughout the service life without unacceptable water absorption or other degradation. Table 1.3 shows examples of buoyancy material. Table 1.3 Range of Baltec foams Type pensity | Pressure Range Rating Specific Main (kg/m3} | Depth Range Characteristics| Applications (Metres) Baltec EH 33-400 | surface to 200 | Can be made Surface and sub- fire-retardant | sea buoyancy = must be clad | modules Baltec Gk 55-365 | max 750 Excellent fire | Subsea buoyancy, resistance low | especially smoke emission | diving bells = good thermal | and ROV’s insulation ané low water permeability Baltec 249-700 | max 10 000 Offers optimum | Most demanding 2 syntactic performance underwater o for hydrostatic| engineering pressure components requirements | operating at great depthsHANDBOOK 1.22 Chapter 1 - Flexible Pipe Systems 1.4 REFERENCES MacFarlane, C.J., (1989) x Pipes: Problems and Unknowns", Engineering Structures, Vol. 11, "Flexible Ri: october. Moore, F., (1989) “Materials for Flexible Riser Systems: Problems and Solutions", Engineering Structures, Vol. 11, October. Pettenati- Auziere, C., (1986) “Flexible Dynamic Risers - State of the Art", Flexible Pipe Technology Seminar, NPF, Oslo. eel chpt-litextHANDBOOK 24 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance 2 FLEXIBLE PIPE PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCE 2.1 GENERAL REMARKS The characteristic properties of flexible pipe may be classified into two groups, cf. Table 2.1. Flow related properties are related to the transport function, In the case of a bundle, a multibore riser or umbilical, these properties must bé available for each individual pipe or conductor. Support related properties are related to the terminal points, relative position, motion, external loading. In the case of a bundle, the properties for the bundle are relevant. Table 2.1 Flow and support related properties Property Comment low related Relevant data for transport function of the pipe. nsions - Transport capacity ure capacity - Pressure ranges Materials, composition | - Resistance against internal flow. Prevention of diffusion and leakage Support related Relevant data for structural integrity verific: tion for installation and operation phases. Bending flexibility = Entire motivation for using flexible pipe Weight - Governs requirement to tension capacity Axial force capacity, | - Relevant with respect to static and dynamic torque behaviour loadingHANDBOOK 2.2 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance The flow related properties are mainly determined by pressure capacity and inner diameter. These parameters may be measured and documented fairly easily. Accord- ing to the tables in Appendix 2.A, pipe suppliers give data on proof test Pressure and working pressure. Burst pressure may also be specified. Collapse pressure, either as external overpressure or rapid internal pressure drop, is more difficult to get reliable information about, cf. Chapter 3 for discussion of failure modes. Material properties are of particular importance for flexible pipes, due to the complex wall structure and due to interaction with the transported fluid. This is briefly discussed in Section 2.2. The support related properties, which are the main justification for selecting flexible pipe instead of conventional steel pipe, are discussed in Section 2.3 eeHANDBOOK 23 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance 2.2 PIPE MATERIALS 2.2.1 TYPES OF MATERIALS AND MAIN APPLICATIONS Materials used in flexible pipes are: Polymer materials Steel synthetic fibres Foam materials eeee Polymers are used for sealing, and also as spacer elements for keeping the strength armouring in place. Steel fibres and synthetic fibres are used for strengthening. Examples of some polymer and st 1 materials are given in the next sections. See also Chaperon (1991) for discussion of new, lightweight materials. Foam materials are used for buoyancy (Chapter 1.3.4) and for thermal insulation An example of foam used for insulation as an integral part of the pipe wall is “cofoam* (Chaperon, (1991)). This is a PVC foam that can he used to a water depth of 300 m and has a density of 500 kg/m’. 2.2.2 POLYMER MATERIALS Polymer materials in flexible pipe eze used mainly for sealing. Strength re- quirenents are related to the armour layer design. Polyner materials must have sufficient strength to retain shape and position relative to the armour elements, and must be resilient enough to maintain tightness and integrity under the required bending of the pipe wall. The description below is mainly based on a paper by Meland (1990), where further details are given. Types of Polymers ‘There are three main groups of polymers: = Thermoplastics - Thermosets - Rubbers, elastomersHANDBOOK a4 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance These materials consist of chain-like molecules of very high molecular weight, the links being identical (homopolymers) or made from a few monomeric units (copolymers). The thermoplastics consist of linear (or branched) chains with only relatively weak secondary forces between them. The rubbers and thernosets consist of three-dimensional networks of chain-like segments and crosslinks of primary bonds. The distance between crosslinks is high in rubbers, and very short in thernosets. The weak secondary intermolecular forces in the thermoplastics can be broken by sufficiently high temperatures or by the effect of certain solvents of similar polarity. In principle they can therefore all be melted and dissolved. on the contrary, as the thernosets and the rubbers are held together by strong primary bonds, these polymers can neither be melted nor dissolved. As a result, the thermoplastics can be processed by a range of methods simply by melting, forming and cooling of the material. The thermosets and the rubbers, on ‘the other hand, must go through a crosslinking/vulcanization step after forming, This is time-consuming and the processing of these materials is more complicated and costly than for the thermoplastics. For example, thermoplastic profiles, pipes and tubes can be extruded in long length in a very costeffective way, while rubbers and thermosets used for the same kind of products often have to go through a costly autoclaving step, making continuous production more difficult, The thermosets and a large group of thermoplastics have no ordered structure phase, being considered amorphous. However, many thermoplastics have the ability to form a well-ordered, crystalline phase within the amorphous matrix during cooling from the melt. They are therefore called (semijcrystalline. Some rubbers will also show some crystallization when kept at low temperature for long periods or upon stretching, Following crystallization the polymer is stiffened and reinforced so that the influence of mechanical stresses, heat, solvents and chemicals becomes less pronounced. General properties of these polymers are given in Table 2.2. They apply to the *pure” polymer; that is without further additives than the small amounts needed to give the material the required chemical stability during processing and use, colour, good flow properties during moulding, etc.HANDBOOK 2.5 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Table 2.2 Typical distinctive features’ of amorphous and crystalline thermoplastics, thermosets and rubbers Type Distinctive features Thermoplastics (TP) | Soften and eventually melt upon heating, often soluble in specific fluids, can swell - crystalline TPs Not easily soluble, soft to relatively stiff, mostly opaque and impact resistant, wear resistant = amorphous TPs Mostly easily soluble, stiff, often brittle, transparent ‘Thernosets (TS) Do not melt upon heating, insoluble, hardly swell, stiff, do not soften much upon heating, often brittle, transparent Rubbers (R) Do not melt ox soften upon heating, insoluble, swell considerably in specific fluids, soft, very flexible and tough, seldom transparent gue to necessary additives * unfilled, unreinforced and unplasticized types Other important features for all unmodified polymers ari - Low density (0.9-2.2 g/cm) - bow thermal conductivity - High electrical resistivity - Relatively low to very low stiffness - Moderate to low strength - Combustibility - Relatively low to moderate thermal durability = Good to excellent chemical resistance - Permeable to gases and vapours Requirements of a Polymer in Flexible Pipe ‘The use of polymeric material in a flexible pipe is multifunctional. Two of the most important functions are: i) sealing the pipe wall, and: ii) keeping the armour layers and elements in place by acting as a spacer element. Key requirements to the polymer are:HANDBOOK 2.6 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance a) high long term allowable static and dynamic strains b) internal and/or external fluid tightness ¢) required long term chemical resistance a) low permeability e) low swelling. Depending on the type of construction, additional requirements may b f) required resistance against blistering g) good wear resistance h) good abrasion resistance i) good adhesion to other structural components of the pipe. ‘The above requirements apply to all temperatures to which the polymer is exposed during installation and operation. Points f) and h) only relate to pipes where the transported fluid is in direct contact with the polymer, point g) to nonbonded structures only, and finally point i) to bonded structures only. High Allowable Strains With bending radii down to 7-10 times the outer diameter the polymer will be strained up to 5-7% both in tension and compression. This strain requirement can easily be met by most vulcanized and thermoplastic rubbers both statically and dynamically. In bonded structures much higher strain is experienced locally due to the relative displacement of neighbouring atour elements, Therefore rubber type materials are preferred for bonded pipe. Crystalline thermoplastic with a low degree of crystallization might also be strained up to 4-58, at least statically. Slight crosslinking can prove advantageous. The addition of small amounts of plasticizer will further increase the flexibility of the polymer, thus permitting strains of 7-8% or even higher. Fluid Tightness If correctly processed, the polymeric layers will be fluid tight. Using modern extrusion techniques it is a straightforward task to produce a porous-free sheath of a thermoplastic or a thermoplastic elastomer for use in a nonbonded flexible pipe. The large number of processing steps for producing the _ rubber matrix in a bonded flexible pipe (from making the mix of all ingredients to theHANDBOOK 27 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance autoclaving of the complete construction) requires a thorough control of the process. During use, however, macro or microcracking of the polymer may be a possible failure mechanism resulting in direct leakage of the pipe. Solubility, Diffusion and Permeation No polymeric material forms a complete barrier to gas or vapour molecules, which may be transported into and through the polymer. Even when the polymer is free from pinholes or pores, small molecules will he able to move through the space between the chain molecules. This is due to relatively large intermolecular distances, the thermal movement of the chain molecules, and the fact that part of the volume in a real material will alvays remain unoccupied (free volume of the amorphous phase), see Table 2.3. Further details of these aspects are given by Meland (1990). Ageing Ageing is a term that is used to describe the time-dependent degradation of a material due to high temperature or unfavourable environment, The degradation may be swelling, creep, reduction of breaking strength or reduction of breaking strain. The rate of degradation is highly temperature dependent. Some experimental data for polymers relevant for flexible pipes are found in FPS2000 Report 2.2-13, See also Section 3.4 in the present report. Sone data for five selected polymers used in flexible pipe are given in Table 2.4, The figures indicate the range of allowable working loads. Due to the large deformation and highly nonlinear properties, it is impossible to characterize strength and stiffness properties of these materials precisely by single numerical values. For a full design specification, the supplier should provide stress-strain curves for repeated loading under expected tenperature and environment.HANDBOOK 2.8 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Table 2.3. Relative permeability to carbon dioxide of some important thermoplastics and rubbers, Meland (1990) (Relative to PVDF) Silicone Rubber 10,000 Natural Rubber (NR) 2,500 Low Nitrile Rubber (NBR, < 40% ACN) 600 High Nitrile Rubber (NBR, > 40% ACN) 500 Neoprene = Chloroprene 500 viton 250 Polyacrylate Rubber 200 Buty) 150 3 Teflon FEE 50 iz High Density Polyethylene (HOPE) 50 Polyamide 11 (PA) 50 Polyamide 6 5 Teflon PFA PvOF 1 Pvoc 1HANDBOOK 29 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance ‘Table 2.4 Examples of polymer materials used in flexible pipe. ‘The data are to be used for comparative purposes only. (Strength, strain and elastic modulus represent range of working load, not ultimate values.) 20° Relative Material Name Type permea- |Density|Strength|Strain|Elastic|damping bility |(g/em)| (mPa) modulus to CO, (wa) Rilsan SENSO |PAIt 50 1.06 28 0.60 | 380 | nigh PaO TL Finathene 3802N] HDPE 50 0.95 16 ona | ses | nigh ‘Coflon PvP 1 1.77 32 0.21 | 1000 high Duralon 40535 | Elastomer 200 1.42 16 1.80 9 low compound Hypalon 8536 |Chloro- 14 8 5.00 low sulphonated polyethylene! 7 2.2.3 STEEL MATERIALS 1 components are used for different purpos: 1. Inner carcass, if required to either: © Prevent collapse of the inner liner in case of rapid pressure drop (ring stiffening) © Protect the inner liner against abrasion 2. Strength armouring, both tensile armouring and pressure armouring. 3. Outer carcass, if required to protect the outer liner against abrasion or other damage. 4, Metallic inmer liner, to prevent gas permeation into polymeric material (nonbonded pipe only).HANDBOOK 2.10 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Interlocked sheet steel is used for inner and outer carcass, For strength armouring, drawn steel wires of appropriate cross section are used. Because the pipe flow may contain sand particles, the resistance to mechanical wear is of particular importance for the liner material. An experimental investigation is reported in FPS2000 Report 2.2-10. Direct relations between material properties (hardness, ductility or strength) and wear resistance are not generally available. The local shape of the inner liner is expected to be an important parameter with respect to erosion. Examples of materials are shown in Table 2.5. Table 2.5 Steel materials Viela | Ultimate Capacity Application Description |stress Properties oy Oy e, (MPa)} (Pa) Inner carcass AISI 304/304u; 275 | 630 0.55 | austenitic stain- lese steel. AIST 316/316L| 285 590 0.50 | Acid resistant. AIST 409/430 | 260 450 0.30 | Ferritic stainless steel. Temperatures below 90°C. teta spiral FM 1S 7 780 7 Low-alloyed FM 35 aa aso 0.06 | carbon steels. Not acid resistant. Tensile armour FM 72 na 1400 0.01 Tensile armour IPS/EIPS n.a |1700-1900] (0.01) | Not corrosion wires resistant brass- or aluminium coated for use in bonded structures. 2.2.4 FIBRES Fibres are used in the form of yarns or woven fabric for strength armouring in bonded structur The main function of the fibre armouring is to prevent unwanted deformation and extrusion of the elastomers relative to the steel armour layers.HANDBOOK chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Examples of materials used: Rayon yarn Breaking force 250-310 N Breaking strain 0.12-0.26 Nylon (polyamide 6.6) cord fabric Breaking force 250 N Breaking strain 0.20 aTHANDBOOK Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance 2.3 > SUPPORT RELATED PROPERTIES 2.3.1 OVERVIEW Table 2.6 Overview of support related properties 2.12 Torsional stiffness ory Property symbo1 | Comment, relations Weight a mass per unit length va weight in air “ weight in water, water filled 25 average material density of pipe wall Wy + ag Wy = M9(1-04/Dp) ‘Bending Curvature x, Minimum radius of curvature, static, MIN, s saath storage. Burg * 5-5-T-ent Purw,g | PO+ Aynamic. Ryrg g * 8-12 Geet Bending moment - Complex relationship, also involving curvature rela~ hysteresis and visco-elastic properties tionship Bending stiffness Er Simplest model. Some data available x Tension capacity Tax | Max allowable support force (effective tension) Te Collapse tension Axial stiffness EA Elastic stiffness. Nonlinearities and k hysteresis/visco-elastic properties nay be significant but not as important as for bending Torque Capacity e Max allowable torsion angle é Collapse torsion angle Stiffness may be nonsymmetricMANDBOOK 2413 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Three cases are shown in Figure 2.1 in order to illustrate the connection between weight, tension and curvature radius for a suspended pipe: Case a) shows the straight configuration, demonstrating that required support force is the product of weight and suspended length. For the submerged part, w is the submerged weight according to Table 2.6. Case b) shows the catenary configuration where the curvature is governed by the horizontal tension Ty, R= Tw Qa) T= Tyawh Qa) Case c) shows the interaction between tension and bending stiffness. with zero horizontal support force the curvature radius is entirely controlled by bending stiffness and weight. ES aes sw f ¢ as (_- th Ball 4) Bre a ° He ott vn 1 Alaa Rah yl 2 fab oe tg Swaight sttinass controeg curvature Figure 2.1 Relation between weight, tension, and curvature radius. If a linear curvature vs moment relationship is assumed, a "natural" bending radius R, can be calculated, cf. Fylling (1991) In = 0-88 (EL/w) 1/3 7 (2.3)HANDBOOK 214 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Te R, i larger than the minimum allowable radius, then the line can be suspended without any tension control. It should be observed that 0.88 is only a rough estimate for the nondimensional natural radius, see Pigure 2.2. Nordin. vagus RAEU W's ‘Zero bending stitiness Nondm. tension Taw (EUW) Figure 2.2 Relation between weight, curvature, radius tension and bending stiffness. In order to illustrate the importance of weight and stiffness in governing the Limiting radius, Eq. (2.3) can be used to check if a pipe is “self supporting”, ice. if Rury Ry Ryyy § 0.88(EI/w) 1/3 (2.4) Inserting the following relations as average cross sectional properties: Rutn = /2Eyq5 I = natya v= nato,¢ gives: 4 5 0.88344 ,3E/Dp9 2.5)HANDBOOK 2.15 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance ‘This shows that for given material properties there is a maximum diameter for the cross section to be self supporting, i.e. to be suspended without tension. For a steel pipe, assuming an allowable bending strain, Cy, x=0.002, the limiting diameter is 15 mm, For any larger diameter, which covers all practical pipe Sizes, the bending stiffness contributes little to the limitation of the curvature of steel pipe. In the case of a composite pipe wall the bending stiffness and allowable curvature can be manipulated within a wide range. Table 2.7 shows examples of 4 different flexible pipe specifications. The first has a natural radius that is larger than the allowable operational radius, and the sag bend tension control is not critical. The three other cases require some tension to keep within the specified curvature radius. It should be observed that the bending stiffness may be nonlinear, and if progressive stiffness properties may be utilized, the tension requirement may be further relaxed However, the conclusion from Eq. (2.5) is also valid for a composite wall: with inex ing diameter it will become more difficult to design a suspended pipe to be self-supporting with respect to allowable curvature. Table 2.7 Examples of flexible pipe specifications showing specified allowable radius, Ryiy, and natural radius, R, Example ext] et | | Rain | Re (a) | cei?) | Ce/m) |] (my (m) 4° mud Line 7 | 7a] 83] 2.0 | 2.12 8° water inj. tine | .30 | 38.5 | 1.10 | 4.0 | 2.87 8" loading hose +26 | 20.8 | 0.37 4.0 | 3.37 16" Loading hose 50 | 194. | 1.40] 6.5 | assHANDBOOK Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance 2.3.2 WEIGHT ‘The weight of flexible pipe is mainly governed by diameter and pressure rating. According to supplier data, the average material density for a composite wall is ‘This is roughly half the density of a steel pipe in the range 3300-4400 kg/ (7850 kg/m?) Thickness vs diameter is shown in Pigure 2.3. The ratio dext/djnt is in the range 1.4-1,8 for 0.10 m diameter pipe, down to 1.2-1.25 for 0.5 m diameter pipe F/G 0 Coflexip 5 Wetatream 2 Mt 18 7 a Duneo ae ‘Upper pres range 16 . ae ‘dynamic appicavons Seo 14 NY wey Sil pte 12 ~~——2 8 ‘Lower pressure range of static appfeations: 010 020 030040080 Figure 2.3 Wall thickness vs diameter for typical flexible pipes Weight as a function of design pressure and diameter is shown in Figure 2.4. The ratio mg/pgdjq:% is used as a nondimensional weight. For bonded structures this ratio is in the range 0.7°1073-0.9°10-3,HANDBOOK 217 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 Diameter, d,, (m) Figure 2.4 Nondimensional waigh of flexible pipe (Weight vs design pressure and diameter for typical flexible pipes. } For nonbonded structures the ratio varies more 0.7-10°3 - 1,0:10°3 for static pipes 4.11073 - 2.0-10°3 for dynamic pipes 3.0-107? - 7,0°10°3 for some low pressure dynamic applications 2.3.3 CURVATURE RADIUS AND BENDING STIFFNESS According to supplier data, the minimum allowable curvature radius is in the range of 5.5-7 times the external diameter, This refers to static curvature during transport and installation, also under pressure. For dynamic applications a somewhat higher radius limit is specified. The dynamic limit is expected to depend upon the range of fluctuating curvature, but this is not reflected in specifications.HANDBOOK 2.18 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance ‘The maximum dynamic curvature corresponds to a radius of the order 1.5 times the minimum static radius, or typically 10 times the outer diameter. Due to the locking of the tensile armour elements at the termination, the end section is not as flexible as the free span. Therefore a higher limiting radius should be specified for the end sections. This must be considered in the design of terminations and bending stiffeners. ‘The bending stiffness is normally not a user requirement, but a consequence of the pipe wall composition. The bending stiffness is important with respect to: © Required support tension, cf. Section 2.3.1. © End coupling loads (bending moment). © capacity with respect to point loads (guide sheaves during han@ling, discrete buoyancy- or clamping loads. Constant stiffness This is the first level of stiffness description and is available from pipe suppliers, e.g. Table 2.7. The stiffness is to a large extent governed by the polymeric components, and may be more or less temperature sensitive. Nonlinear Elastic Stiffness Either a graph or a table of bending moment vs curvature is required in order to describe nonlinear stiffness. See Figure 2.5 for illustration. There are three basic reasons for nonlinearity: © Interaction forces between elements in the pipe wall, for instance blockage effects causing a stiffness increase at high curvature. © Flattening of the cross section causing a gradual stiffness reduction with iner ing curvature. © Material nonlinearlities.HANDBOOK 2.19 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Unear Nonlinear ‘Linear eI Curvature TR curvature Figure 2.5 Alternative levels of elastic stiffness specification, rotation symmetric. In a nonbonded structure, the first effect is purely geometric. In a bonded structures, the bonding material will also affect this phenomenon and temperature effects may be significant. The flattening effect is most pronounced in low-pressure pipes, and the pressure level will have a large impact on the degree of flattening as a function of curvaturt Material nonlinearities are most pronounced for large strain deformation of rubbers, which show an increasing stiffness (hardening material). Nonelastic Properties ‘Two types of nonelastic properties are important: © Stick-slip, friction between layers (nonbonded structures). ®@ Nonelastic material properties Friction properties are conceptually simple to describe according to Figure 2.6. Minimum data are: k, - Sliding stiffness. This is the normal stiffness parameter (EI) used for static configuration analysis.HANDBOOK 2.20 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance k, - Locked stiffness. This represents the stiffness for deformation within a range where friction forces are sufficiently large to prevent relative motions. My - Friction moment. a) Friction moment b) Visco-elastic moment Velocity dependent Figure 2.6 Stiffness description including nonelastic properties. ° The friction moment will depend on the pressure differential, and will increase with increasing internal pressure. The dynamic stiffness represented by k, may be in the order of 10 times the static stiffness (k,). This description is idealized. In reality the relative motion will be gradually activated in different parts of the cross section and along the pipe. The hysteresis loops may become more like ellipses than parallelograms. = ‘The nonelastic or viscoelastic material properties are difficult to describe in a well-defined manner, The two simplest options for a two parameter model are: Moe Ukgget ADK (2.6) Now yg KR gk (7) The first model, Eq. (2.6), is a complex stiffness in which ke, is called storage modulus and 2, is called loss modulus. This will give amplitude dependent damping.HANDBOOK 2.21 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance The second model, Eq. (2.7), gives a damping force which is proportional with the rate of curvature change. This will give both amplitude and frequency dependent damping. The models are equivalent for a frequency, , for which Oy, Nonelastic material properties are more pronounced for thermoplastic materials than for elastomers, and are strongly temperature dependent. Standard data for visco- available. lastic cross section properties are at present not Nonelastic behaviour can affect both the static and dynamic responses, see Fylling and Bech (1991). ‘Two noticeable effects on the dynamic behaviour are that the dynamic stiffness for moderate curvature amplitudes may be much higher than the static stiffness, due to locking of layers. Furthermore, the frictional damping of large amplitude bending will be large. 2.3.4 ‘TENSION CAPACITY AND AXIAL STIFFNESS The tension capacity of flexible pipe can be designed according to actual support requirements. Typical tension capacities for nonpressurized pipe corre- spond to the dry weight of 800-1200 m of pipe. Some data are given in Appendix 2.A by Uniroyal (breaking load) and by Furukawa (maximum allowable tension). Data for combined tension and pressure capacities are not readily available. Compression is generally not allowed, hence, the (effective) tension is required to be positive, Observe that in cases with large hydrostatic pressure, the axial wall force can become negative (compression) while the tension is positive or zero. ‘The axial stiffness is fairly high. The range of allowable elongation is of the order 0.5-1.5%, Although the deformation is small, the stiffness may be important with respect to dynamic loading in eystems where the lateral geometric deformation is affected (restrained) by hydrodynamic drag.MANDBOOK 2.22 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance The axial stiffness characteristics have nonlinear and nonelastic properties similar to those of bending stiffness. In general, there is scarce or an absence of data for description of these properties. 2.3.5 TORQUE CAPACITY AND TORQUE STIFFNESS Flexible pipes have a high torque stiffness, mainly due to the cross wound tensile armour, Allowable torsion is in the range 0.5-1.5 deg/m. The relation between torque stiffness and bending stiffness will govern the response of a suspended (U-shaped) pipe to relative end motions and rotations. ‘The effect is illustrated by a example of a 16" riser, Figure 2.7. ‘The torque generated by maximum bending is in the order of 20 percent of maximum torque Observe that while bending stiffness by default refers to a curvature in radians/m, torque stiffness often refers to a torsion given as deg/n. My c ‘90 deg. deflection M,=M, Mg, ax = Eley = 230 KNeVS.5 m My ge ™ 220 KN = Mg na Max curvature: 1 rad/5.5 m= 10 degim 220 kNm 240 kNm/deg Max twist: = 1degim Figure 2.7 Torque generated by maximum bending moment (90 deg deflections).HANDBOOK 2.23 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Ratio of torque stiffness to bending stiffness: Steel pipe 0.77 Flexible pipe 60 (example) Another important aspect of torque behaviour is tension. Due to the nonsymmetric pressure arnouring armouring, there is a coupling so that a pressurizing or tensioning a pipe with rotation free, the pipe will twist. If the pipe is the relations to pressure and and nonperfect symmetric tensile torque will be generated by prevented ends. If the ends are curved and end rotations are prevented, the pressure induced torque will give out-of-plane deformations. Data for pressure and tension to torsion coupling are generally not availableHANDBOOK 2.24 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance 2.4 REFERENCES Chaperon, G.R., (1991), ‘A New Generation of Flexible Pipe", Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference, OTC 6584, Houston. Fylling, I., (1990) ‘Installation and Handling of Pipelines and Risers", 14th WEGENT School, NTH, Trondheim, Fylling, I. and Bech, A., (1991) vEffects of Internal Friction and Torque Stiffness on the Global Behaviour of Risers and Unbilicals", OMAE Paper No. 91-507, Stavanger Meland, T., (1990) “Polymer Materials for Flexible Pipes", Lecture notes Fleksible rer og slanger offshore, Norwegian Society of Chartered Engineers (NIF), NTH, Troridheim. chpt-2:textsanos00r (ajo) Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance APPENDIX 2.A Producers” Data Examples of pipe property specifications given by various flexible pipe producers are given in the tables and figures to follow. Table 2.A.1 Physical properties of typical Coflexip structures Physical properties of typical COFLEXIP structures Diy. Ths it inby a» men ese ainda he dancin of oe Clee i OC ftoune) = fone oo. wee | senna =e le Le pen [om [wee [ t A 3000 | 207 tlh StS 44 66 Laz | 037 2 08 3000 | 207 3th as 12 107 Las | 05s. 7] we [om | oo | ee [we | mr | 23 | ar Pa [as | awe [ie + [ws | ar 2 | ee 3 162 5000 | 345. 5 a5, 2 a ost be + [wae [owe | oo | sme [|e | ess 6 «fami [owe [oo [fae | sts as «fine | soe fa | sm [mp me | are | Fa boy ope awe [as |e pws ms | wa | a | 6 | asea | 7500 | siz 9 | 2 33 | 194 | 49 | as Fy) tf 02 | tow [ae | wie [st [mr | we ss |e a | ms | sooo] sas | mts | 297 gs | ies | 63 | 2 366 Lae [aso fos em | ao [ss | ees [oe | wo | 2 | soo] no | om | a | wo | me | 7s | 28 SMH R md 1090, o Wii | 368 m2.1 | 108 19 4 iz | sous | so | ie | sm | soe | ue | se | 03 | 286 tos 2 5045 | 162 uz 108 a HE ste ay woied Cen my ieHANDBOOK Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance 2.26 Table 2.A.2 Characteristics of some Coflexip pipes with full bore couplings, in @rilling applications and oil field services. - COFLEXIP PIPE, WITH FULL BORE COUPLINGS, IN DRILLING APPLICATIONS AND OIL FIELD SERVICES. Listed below are the characteristics of some Coflexip pipes designed for drilingapplications or use in oilfield services, This sampling is not an exhaustive lst and is only meant to indicate the wide range of pipe structures Coflexip can offer Blelee| 2 > | 5s SE 2 e)2i/ih) ¢ ¢ | 28/23] 2 = |8° | es] = 8 S*| 8, 3 mm 89 101.6 | 101.6 | 203.2 | 254 ‘Nominal diameter (actual ID) in 3 v2 4 4 8 1 bar 345 690 345 172 207 Moximum sence pressure psi | 5000 | 10000} 5000 | 2500 | 3000 bar 690 | 1034) 517 | 259 | 310 Standard test pressure psi | 10000 | 15000} 7500 | 3750 } 4500 mm 125 | 157.5 | 156.5 | 277 | 575 OD (without the stainless steel euterwrap) one | | a lemlew| n few ke/m | 264 49 347 | 813 | 66 Linear weight in air, without the stainless steel outerwrap Ibs ft 17.7 | 328 | 233 | 545 44 m 0.81 | 1.05 1 18 | 0.37 ‘Minimum bending radius under pressure ft 27 34 33 6 1.22HANDBOOK Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Table 2.A.3 Characteristics of some Wellstream pipes. DYNAMIC OFFSHORE RISERS \Wellstream has been pioneering development work in the engineering of dynamic risers and in the prediction lof safe service life. Special attention is given to end-fiting design for this service. OFFSHORE SERVICE LINES Service lines generally feature smooth bore lines where the thermoplastic is selected t0 meet the internal fluid properties TYPICAL TEST AND SERVICE LINES TYPICAL RISERS, Vioning | on | Rie, Maren, BR) BB 152 [4000] 28 | 87 | 221 78/116, $9) 18 | 203 26 | 110) 280 ang Peart | RE nr Ra ¥ ‘Wagitn | Maina wo | Ree [on [SSR neni Tambo [rl Tam pe MPL a [om Brin | Bsa a Dash ep 76 [6900] 48 | 54| 1371 28) 42/ 29 | 089 3%) 89 | 8.000, \ 53) 124) 19 | 29) 3 TBS [$880] Se | SS] tes | 58] 52) 35 | 10s $e) ee) Sabo 4a | 38) He Ls | 123309 | 33 | 6a 158 | Bal 42] 33 | eo aie] doe | fe eB) 5 3 cd | RELER) Bag LBS | gn Bs) 85 | 240 8 {203 3 |103 | 262 | 4 | 75 | & [203 2800, 19 | 102 | 268 | 43 | 6 | OFFSHORE FLOWLINES Flowlines, and other in-field and inter field pipelines, are designed in accordance with AP! RP 17B, Recommended Practice for Flexible Pipe. Range of temperatures are from 50°C to +130°C, TYPICAL FLOWLINES DRILLING SERVICE LINES Drilling lines, including kill and choke lines, cement lines, fraclines, and acid lines, are examples of the need for extra high-pressure flexible pipes. Kill and choke lines are made in accordance with AP! RP J6C, Draft Specifications for Kill ad Choke Systems, and are suit able for H,S service. on | eer See L* ate ee TYPICAL DRILLING SERVICE LINES in [own | psi IC me T Wor Weight in Ninimare Ff srizmet as [soy 8] us BT 19 | Ose wo | yamine Top | SRN pending Raha 3] 3TSom0 $3) 34) go, 8 Tr 13 | aso Co : 34158) Sov0! fe | Go) 153 | 28/ ai. 28 | ons Traps [ re [in [m ible em Stee) 4800; 35 | $3] Me Te ae oat 7/55 iaa00'” 6 | 407 Ine! 16 | NBO OT ffi taae: | al eas, ae 33 | tee Z| sitweer aS RELIST A | 30 | oat 6 | 152] 6100) 42 | se, 217 | 48) 72) 122 2%, 65 (20.000) 138 | $4 3753) ay ons $1533) Saool 42 | $5] bor, 25) 38 os 3s 65 [1s000 108 | 43 B14 | 25, 0% $ |205| 5200, 40 | 109 | 276) 75) 114 80 2h 65 |10.000, 69 | 45 i938 | 23 | 070 $123) 2390) $3 tna! doo | Gs | 96) 51 | 150 3" Sp seo, 38 | 63 5033) 32 G9 $ Bs sm Bir Be 13 3 | Jeltsao! tos | $a |e! 395829 On PEER SEU Bg. ch te 3 RAS BE BS eae Bil Sao! 3 | 333 | tae in 3 els $3132. Br 153 6 | on Bal deo is [29] 3a | 57] ee tol Swi 91, $000, 34 | 55 3835) 28 08s 395| 1600 11145 | 369, Bi | 12 204 "| 104 10.000; 69 | 66 40159 33 torHANDBOOK Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Table 2.A.4 characteristics of some Pag-0-Flex pip iI 219)2 Leow) woos | st | ween | saan | | [BE elise comm | enessure | omessuee | own | sono | | |z]8 S| /elSi818\5 Se lel laloleisigialets wos | | Elec false esl oleate ste lSie eg lsis eagle PB REREREEEECEERE meres | Pst rs [eGanl eat prcned won [Blo] 3/3] 515]5) 3] 3] 8) =| a] Q]E]2/9 Fee fe ee atta ats nO aig SEES tes Stage are aE atta tata 3 5000 7500, 3» 25 | 2 | 30 lolelo} olele| lol lejolo| a a Ss Se att tar[5} iS [err er ote lalalstel telat 1 tet tol ee Sie Sa Ete ise iste fat Cea Soe er a eet tet ee 3 ee eS BCH Hat te He Coe Soe ee Ce pam foto tele ot te n 0, 7000, 3000 9 | _o7 [sa | 1350 [olor 0/9] Tol Jo! -T 10. 1500 2250 ea | 56 | si | 1300 [ole AG jo 10 1000 1500 77 2 | | 1250 [olo ofol lo. a ce o Be See pe ett 2 1500 2250 vor | 72 [or [550] 10 old | cc 3 16 1500 2750 isa [tos [a3 | 2100 G o O} o| ee 7 0 1000, 1500, 75 T ina [93 _T 2500 oe 0 2) 2.28HANDBOOK 2.29 Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Table 2.4.5 Characteristics of some Dunlop pipes HIGH PRESSURE FLEXIBLE PIPE TYPICAL PIPE PROPERTIES MAXIMUM BORE MAXIMUM = WORKING = MINBEND WEIGHT BENDING DIAMETER. LENGTH PRESSURE RADIUS STIFFNESS in km PSI m kgm kgim2 2 5.60 15000 0.50 18.0 15 3 5.00 15000 0.75 26.0 50 4 450 10.000 1.00 38.0 118 6 2.80 5.000 1.50 60.0 395 8 1.60 4000 2.00 80.0 935 10 4.20 3.500 2.40 110.0 1825 2 075 3.000 3.00 120.0 2775 NOTE: The bore diameters are actual inside diametersHANDBOOK Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance Table 2.A.6 Characteristics of some Uniroyal Manouli pipes. ‘STANDARD TEXTILE REINFORCED LONG LENGTH HOSE DATA OSE ESSE ore | weer) ons. | .soue os a BAS | RAGM | ERE | Eh aN) LOAD HOSE | APPLICA- IN. mm. | PSI (8S | uaet | kgim | TYPE TION “4480115 180-225 600 9000 62.00 300 H1944 A 4 ss 118280475. 1000 t1000 «280420 «Hise =k @ 473 120 250378 1000 11000 280430 M2200 0B 8 669 177 780 375. 1000 20000 780 1149 ~HaTESP oc 6 673 17" 250 378 1000 20000 380 $80 H2760 © © 650 165 150 (228 «6008000300 ao HeRED 6 650 165 150 225 600 16000 320 470 Hise =A © 670 170 280375 1000 27000 420 «630 HYBee =A 8 68s 174 250 375 1000 27000 480 7.10 M220 = 6 647 tot 180225600 8000282375 Meze? OF 8 880 223 280 375 1000 43000 600 800 HIB A 8 800 229 260 375 1000$0000-730« 1080 ~H2280 STANDARD WIRE REINFORCED LONG LENGTH HOSE DATA wos FRESSURE wae | weer) gona] sone TE] Ob wor Test yauRsT] SSA | ESM | UERSGL | SOME (MIN) {iMIND | LOAD HOSE APPLICA- N. IN. mm. PSL PSI Pst (BS. ua Kgim TYPE TON © 80 203 740 1110. 3309 80000 2000 2870 H1s8G G & 80 203 725 980 3300 e000 2210 9290 HI902 2.30HANDBOOK Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance na y shy iy d | tir a ay fg ey ms iy “+ ye at 8 laoo} + fe TI sooo uo fh thes J+ Fi Le att | | ; Fog), a See Sa nears ‘OUTER DIAMETER wo wor td i sit Ste t i { a a = | : : oes ww. o awe) 05 . we 7a "0p wo ow) 7 wwe} by i * ' CT at 7 S006si f we) 1 ee EC Figure 2.A.1 Characteristics of some Furukawa pipes.HANDBOOK Chapter 2 - Flexible Pipe Properties and Performance PIFLEX - BURSTING PRESSURE i 8 g Pane eovig, i: f: 2 00h seri Figure 2.4.2 Characteristics of somo Pirelli pipes. . SELEEEEE EEE EEE Peo eter reas || weg EOS roa ove i ro 0 = a as" = { 0 x > , Lt 7 | > L Bee | a a, THEOG EOS swe = . fy ‘ending ods fr storage tml ae a | toe k 2 0 wo 2 xo : 00 Z aye oe cc) 000 Pad Figure 2.A.3 Characteristics of some Pirelli pipes. 2.32HANDBOOK gt Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3 FAILURE MODES AND CROSS SECTION ANALYSIS 3.1 GENERAL REMARKS The understanding of pipe performance characteristics and the failure modes is important for a reliable design of flexible pipe systems. These topics are not @iscussed in much detail in existing recommended practices, which mainly give a review of analysis objectives, requirements and general procedures The performance characteristics may be determined by the use of analytical methods or testing procedures. This chapter will deal with analytical methods, while testing and test methods will be discussed in Chapter 5. It should be noted that the load cases that need to be considered, should reflect both operational and extreme load conditions, as well as loads imposed on flexible pipes during transient conditions such as storage, handling, transportation and installation. Accidental load scenarios should also be considered Due to the composite nature of flexible pipes, it is more difficult to relate forces and moments to stresses, than for rigid pipes. However, considerable analytical efforts during recent years have given improved methods for local response calculations. ‘This has enhanced the possibility of extrapolating experimental results to different pipe constructions, thereby reducing the number of tests for both static and dynamic applications. In spite of these improvements, there is still a need for more research before there are generally accepted analytical methods for analysis of flexible pipes unéer all relevant loads. This {s particularly true for the analysis of bending behaviour, which plays an important role in any procedure for analytical prediction of service lifHANDBOOK 32 Chapter 3 - Failure Nodes and Cross Section Analysis The aim of this chapter is to: © review relevant failure modes and failure mechanisms © Giscuss methods for assessment of pipe response and pipe strength, both simplified and numerical methods © discuss problems related to service life prediction“ nanpBooK 33 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3.2 FAILURE MODES AND FAILURE CAUSES The statistical basis for the identification of the most probable failure modes is poor, due to the Limited use of flexible pipes so far. AME (1990) “have con- piled a database of incidents involving North Sea offshore pipelines in which containment was lost or jeopardized. The database contains details of 145 incidents that were associated with operating pipelines. Twelve of these incidents were associated with flexible lines, eleven of which resulted in loss of containment. The causes of incidents to these eleven flexibles may be summerized as follows: @ Six of the léaks were due to material problems, four of these incidents were due to embrittlement of the liner due to inappropriate operating conditions for the available liners. © Five incidents were due to external damage, two of these incidents were due to trawl gear and one was due to damage caused by an anchor. The remaining two incidents were caused by damage incurred during installation and aggrava- tion of earlier damage during maintenance operations. Apart from there only being a few reported failures, these may not necessarily be relevant for future applications of flexible pipes involving larger water depths, increased pressures and temperatures. As a consequence of the lack of failure data, the study of failure nodes and failure causes for flexible pipes is usually based on a careful evaluation of: Pipe structure Function of each Layer Interface between pipe and end fitting Materials Documentation of pipe properties operational experience eee eeee Application.HANDBOOK 3. Chapter 3 - Failure Nodes and Cross Section Analysis DEFECT LEAKAGE REDUCTION OF INTERNAL SECTION Hote througn|lexcessive|| Separation | lovetszation Deposits|| creep Pipe wat |Joitrusion|| Proesetppie| |/Fiattening of Liner of Pipe Figure 3.1 Main Failure Tree for Flexible Pipes, from FPS2000 Report 2.3-1. There are only two main failure modes that can impede fluid transportation through a flexible pipe: © Leakage © Reduction of internal cross section As illustrated py the "failure tree” in Figure 3.1, leakage can be caused by the following failure modes: © Hole through pipe wall © Excessive diffusion © Separation pipe/nipple Reduction of internal cross section can be caused by: © ovalization/flattening of pipe © Collapse of liner © Deposits © Creep of liner Because of the complexity of the flexible pipe structure, listed above are often results of a sequence of events or partial the failure modes failures. It is unlikely that the initial failure or degradation mechanism in itself will beHANDBOOK as Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis serious enough to cause complete failure. The first partial failure will typically result in a condition that was not intended in the original design, producing further degradation that in the end leads to full failure. This is illustrated by the diagram in Figure 3.2,: indicating possible sequences of partial failures for a Coflexip pipe (nonbonded structure) when erosion/ corrosion is the initial degradation mechanism. Such diagrams, which may be established for different initial degradation mechanisms and/or conditions causing a failure, are useful when devising inspection strategies for flexible pipes, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.3-3. EROSION /CORROSION Material thinning Hole in carcass, Structural weakening Possible collapse Hole in internal of carcass and thermoplastic thermoplastic layer increased pressure in layers Leakage along zeta Blockage Leakage spiral and tensile armour Leakage through Leakage at pipe wall nipple Figure 3.2 Possible sequences of failure in case of erosion/corrosion of a Coflexip pipe, from FPS2000 Report 2.3-3.HANDBOOK 3. 6 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Tables 3.1 and 3.2 present a summary of factors influencing the modes of failure by which either bonded or nonbonded pipes may fail. All these factors need to be considered when designing flexible pipes, and they may be grouped into the following main areas of consideration: © Initial strength considerations © Service life considerations The latter aspect can further be divided into: (a) mechanical deterioration, and (b) material degradation. A more detailed discussion of failure causes and failure mechanisms will be given in the subsequent sections of this chapter. Table 3.1 Failure modes and associated failure causes/mechanisms Wole through Excessive Separation pipe wall diffusion pipe/nipple - excessive straining | - fluid - improper force - accidental loads composition transmission - steel spiral - corrosion - exceeding of breakage - ageing design loads = mishandling ~ blistering - corrosion > burst ~ disbonding - improper material ~ tensile failure ~ weld defects selection ~ improper material - fatigue/wear - fatigue/wear selection = erosion - weld defects - ageing ~ improper adhesion - corrosion ~ blistering = erosion - weld defects - fatigue/wear = abrasionHANDBOOK Chapter 3 - Failure Hodes and Cross Section Analysis Table 3.2 Failure modes and associated failure causes/mechanisns ~ local compression loads - tension - bending = pressure build-up (diffusion) ~ fatigue/wear - fluid tempere- ture - sharp bends = no pigging possible Ovalization/ Collapse of Deposits Creep of flattening of pipe | liner Liner - axial compression | - rapid ~ fluia - permanent strain - excessive torsion | decompression} composition - high temperature ~ external pressure | - ageing (wax content) | - aggressive fluid - internal vacuum | - fatigue - fluid velocity | - long time in service ~ improper material selectionHANDBOOK 38 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3.3 DETERMINATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 3.3.1 AXIAL LOADS When a pipe is tensioned most of the tensile load will be carried by the helically wound tensile armours. The plastic sheaths only provide a negligible part of the pipe resistance, The tension in the armours creates an inward radial force which is analogous to external pressure. Due to this loading mechanism, there are two possible modes of ultimate static pipe failure: Mode 1: Rupture of armours when the ultimate breaking strength is exceeded. Mode 2: Buckling of pipe when the radial pressure caused by tension in the armours exceeds the buckling strength of the inner layers. Normally, the above failure modes do not represent a problem for a properly designed pipe, since it is possible to build in a large axial load carrying capacity. Figure 3.3 shows a pipe subjected to an axial force T, (effective tension). The lay angle of the tensile armours is denoted by G. The axial resistance from all N, resisting layers must equal the true pipe wall force T, Pao cos Oy) = TH Te +H Pint THe - Pext TExe, an -1 where nj = number of tendons in layer i 9, = tensile stress in a tendon Ay + cross section area of a tendon a, = lay angle, the angle between a tendon and the pipe axis 1, = effective tension Pints Pext * internal/external pressure Tint) Text * internal/external pressure radiiHANDBOOK 39 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis a | wire length in one wrap Lp — corresponding pipe length (pitch) 1 2nr Lota - wens nr 1 = sino: Figure 3.3 Axially loaded flexible pipe It is seen from Eq. (3.1) that the pressure armouring layers, which are wound at 90°, make a minor contribution to the axial load carrying capacity. For a nonbonded pipe (see Figure 1.8) with two cross wound armouring layers, i.e. N,92, the following formulas may be used for a quick evaluation of the stresses in the tension layers net Ty G.2ay or O, = ——————_ (3.2b) 2tF, mr costa where n is the total number of tendons in the two armouring layers, A, is the cross section area of each tendon, t is the total'thickness of the double helical tensile armour and Fy it the "fraction filled", The value of Fy gives the fraction of surface area covered by the tendons, and thus takes into account the noncontributing gaps between neighbouring tendons. For the tensile layers in a nonbonded pipe, this factor is typically 0.9. The lay angle of the helical armour layers tends to decrease when the pipe is subjected to axial tension. However, this is prevented by the support of the underlying layers, such as the pressure layers and the carcass. The external pressure, pr, on these layers created by the axial force, may be approximated by the following expressionHANDBOOK 3.10 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis n tote Pree (3.3) an x2 where x denotes the mean radius of the helical armour layers. For a bonded pipe of the Dunlop type (see Figure 1.9a), this pressure must be xesisted by the interlocked carcass alone. This is why Mode 2 described above is the typical tensile failure mode for Dunlop pipes. For such pipes the tensile strength can be determined by the collapse strength of the interlocked carcass. For nonbonded pipes of Coflexip and Wellstream types, the resistance to the external pressure p; is usually shared between one or two pressure layers and the interlocked carcass. The pipe stiffness characteristics are important for the analysis of flexible pipe systems. Generally, the stiffness characteristics depend on defornation, deformation rate, pressure and temperature. However, it is possible to obtain initial estimates of pipe stiffness by manual calculation techniques, as described by Feret et al. (1987) and Olivera et al. (1985). However, full scale testing generally provides the best data on stiffness properties for most pipes An estimate of axial stiffness may be found by use of Eq. (3.2a) and the following expression, which links the tendon stresses and the pipe deformations Oy OL a a} = = costa SE. sint 7 og F 7 costa TH + sinta + x sina cosa D B.4) QL, Or and O8 denote the global axial, radial and torsional pipe deformations, respectively. This leads to the following expression for the axial stiffness, neglecting the torsional deformation O8 EA = nEA,y cose (cosa - vsin?a) (3.5) where the apparent Poisson ratio is defined as follows (3.6)HANDBOOK 31d Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section analysis The first term in Eq. (3.5) reflects the elongation of the tensile wires while the second term reflects the increase in axial length associated with a decrease in tensile layer diameter. The value of v depends on the response of the underlying layers to the squeezing pressure from the tensile wires. For a nonbonded pipe with radially stiff pressure layers, like the one shown in Figure 1.8, v will become small (*0.2). Consequently, the first term in the stiffness expression in Eq. (3.5) dominates. It should also be noted that the expression in Eq. (3.5) assumes small geometric deformations and that the layers resain in contact. The last assumption signifies that initial gaps introduced during fabrication may influence the initial axial pipe stiffness. Figure 3.4 shows experimental results on the axial load - relative elongation behaviour of an 8m long 4" I.D. Coflexip smooth bore dynamic pipe, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.2-8, with zeta layer and pressure back-up layer. The results are presented for different levels of internal pressure and signify: - relatively little hysteresis - axial stiffness ranging from 1-10-2103 kN, depending on internal pressure Figure 3.5 indicates that increasing frequency increases the hysteresis, but the stiffness is aot significantly affected. The discontinuity at the loop ends are due to resolution problems at the high frequency, and is not a physical effect of the pipe. Axial tests of a Pag-0-Flex pipe (bonded structure) have also been reported, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.2-5, showing similar results to those shown in Figures 3.4 and 3.8. Existing methods for the determination of pipe response to axial tension are fairly reliable. However, this is not the case for axial compression, which is a more complex area. Such loads depend on the configuration of the riser system, but can occur in practice with severe effects on the pipe. Flexible pipes are not designed for this load condition an@ their performance is therefore uncertain. As MacFarlane (1989) suggests, the “birdcaging" of the helically wound armours and ultimately loss of containment and strength can be envisaged Some experience from umbilicals has indicated that this can be a potential‘HANDBOOK Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis potential failure mode. This mode of loading should therefore be studied more carefully in the future, Figure g TEST 4 - 7bar (0.1 Ha) TESTS - r00bar (0.1 He) TESTE - 250bar (0.1 Hz) Axial load (KN) 8 3 100 20 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 ‘al strain (ooo) 3.4 Axial load-elongation behaviour of 4" Coflexip pipe. Loading frequency = 0.1 Hz, from FPS2000 Report 2.2-8. 280 | —__—— TEST «7 oar(o5 He) TESTS - 250.ar (0.5 Hx) — ‘Axiatload (kN) 100 2 oo 02 OeOGSCRCCS Axial stain (ofeo) Figure 3.5 Axial load-elongation behaviour of 4" Coflexip pipe. Loading frequency = 0.5 Hz, from FPS2000 Report 2.2-8.HANDBOOK 3.13 Chapter 3 - Failure Nodes and Cross Section Analysis 3.3.2 INTERNAL PRESSURE Bursting of a pipe by excessive internal pressure can occur if the pipe is not properly designed, or if the maximum internal pressure is considerably under- estimated. However, if the internal pressure is known this failure mode is not likely to occur. According to API (1988) the burst pressure should be at least 2 times the design pressure. The design pressure includes operating pressure and allowances for surges or other factors affecting the internal pressure. This should be combined with atmospheric external pressure. When a pipe is subjected to internal pressure the load will be carried by the helical armour layers and the pressure layers. The equilibrium between stresses and radial forces may be expressed by the following equation Np myayay sing, tyay Gaia Pint Bint > Pent Fant an where N, is the aunber of pressure resisting layers. A good approximation is to assume that the plastic sheaths transmit pressure, i.e. there is no pressure differential through the plastic layers. The interlocked carcass does not carry any part of the internal pressure. Consequently, for a nonbonded Dunlop pipe the cable layers must carry the internal pressure. As a result, the pressure capability of this pipe is based on the total breaking strength of the cable layers. In the case of a Coflexip or Wellstream pipe, the pressure resisting layers are the zeta layer, back-up pressure layer and the crossvound armour layers, with the two former layers taking the major role. The number of tendons in a helical armour layer may be determined by the following expression anz, ny = Fy cosa; (3.8) wy where w, denotes the width of each tendon. Eqs. (3.7) and (3.8) may be combined to arrive at the following expression for the helical armour contribution to burst pressure resistanceHANDBOOK at Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis ry = Ey oy sina (3.9) where t is the total thickness of the double helical tensile armour, r is the mean radius of the helical armour layers and o, is the ultimate tensile strength of the layer. Eq. (3.2.b) may be used to derive the following expression for the helical armour contribution to endcap pressure resistance P,=2 7 t Fy Oy costa (3.10) Fat In the case of no zeta or back-up pressure layer, the stress in the helical armours alone must balance the hoop and endcap effects of the internal pressure, ice. PpeP,. Assuming rjqt%r, this gives tg’ae2, or ae54.7°. This is the neutral" or "balanced" lay angle at which there is no tendency for the helical armour to change shape under load. Since a pipe is usually reinforced by several layers, the balanced angle will depend on the relative amount of steel in the helical armour layers and the pressure layers. The optimum lay angle is then typically 35-40%, ef. Nielsen et al. (1990). ‘The contribution to burst pressure resistance from the zeta layer or the back-up pressure layer, P, or Py, may be obtained from the following expression Bete 9, Bam where t ond + denote the thickness and the mean radius of the pressure layer, respectively. The tote noop pressure resistance is then obtained by summing the contribution from each layer Pnoop * Pz + Pou * Ph (3.12) The burst pressure is given by the smaller of Phoos and Py, i.e. hoop and axial resistance Py = min (Phoops Ps) (213)HANDBOOK 3.15 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis In pipe design, the lay angle is usually chosen to give equal burst resistance in the axial and hoop directions. The procedure for burst pressure calculations, described above, is quite simple and straightforward. Experimental results, reported by Chen et al. (1992), show that the above procedure gives quite reliable estimates of burst pressure. ‘The average deviation from test results was reported to be within 3%, and with a maximum deviation of 7-8%. 3.3.3 EXTERNAL PRESSURE Excessive external pressure may lead to collapse of the pipe. Collapse usually involves flattening of the pipe which impedes the flow through it. However, this is not considered to be a critical failure mode since the design depth is usually well defined. This is also refiected in design recommendations for flexible pipes, where the safety factor is normally smaller than for bursting strength. APE (1988) recommends the ultimate depth rating to be at least 1.5 times the design depth rating, The ultimate depth rating is to be verified for atmospheric internal pressure. When a pipe is subjected to external pressure, the loads are carried by the helical pressure layers and the interlocked carcass, all having a lay angle close to 90°. However, the collapse pressure given by the producers is often taken as the collapse strength of the interlocked carcass, disregarding the contribution from the zeta layer and back-up pressure layer. This is based on the pessimistic view that the outer sheaths may have been damaged in such a way that the external pressure acts directly on the inner plastic sheath. ‘therefore the interlocked carcass is normally a igned to carry the full external pressure alone. The elastic buckling strength of the carcass may be determined from the following expression, assuming that there is no restraining effect from the outer layers 3(EL)eq _——_— (3.14) 2HANDBOOK 3.16 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis where r is the mean radius of the carcass and (ET),, is the equivalent ring bending stiffness per unit length of pipe. For a cylinder 3 (EI) eq = (3.15) 12¢1-v2) where V is the Poisson ratio. For the interlocked carcass and the pressure layers: (EDeg = Kon (3.16) where n is the number of tendons for the layer, L, is the pitch (see Figure 3.3) and I, is the smaller moment of inertia of the section, as illustrated in Figure 3.6 for an interlocked steel profile. Yrpelyaa 7 Figure 3.6 Interlocked steel profile. K is a factor whose value depends on the lay angle and the moment of inertia in S the section. For massive sections K is close to 1 The equivalent stiffness may also be determined from a static ring test carried out on a piece of the carcass. Such a test consists of measuring the derforma- tion 6 of an interlocked carcass subjected to a radial force F as shown in Figure 3.7. The equivalent ring bending stiffness may then be determined from the following relation (EX)eg 2,8 ~Ge4E 3.17) 7 aSHANDBOOK 3.1? Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Figure 3.7 Static ring test. ‘The elastic buckling strength given by Eq. (3.14) overestimates the capacity of the carcass. The true or chara¢teristic buckling strength, Py, may be fcund by a modification of the elastic strength, accounting for inelastic material behaviour and initial ellipticity of the carcass. The following equaticn, which was suggested by Timoshenko (1950), may be used to determine P, P24 B- me C20 (3.401 oe preret Sele fo oy F 2 p-t (ot. sean, | ob 79 sas (Ol 787), hehe le haf Of Fr Por é oy See * ~ : jrole Md (3.20) o< net (3.21) 7 13.22) uv, is the initial ellipticity, and o, is the yield strength of the saterial. This procedure has been adopted by Wellstream, and according to Nielsen et al. (1990), an assumed initial ellipticity u,/ 0.008 gives a predicted collapse pressure that agri well with experimental results.HANDBOOK 3.18 Chapter’3 - Failure Nodes and Cross Section Analysis Ag an alternative to the above approach, one may assume the pipe to be undamaged in such a way that the external pressure load acts outside the zeta and back-up Pressure layer. Two types of failure may be envisaged for this cas © ‘reaching the buckling pressure of the complete pipe Ne Nr 3(EI) ; B 2 re ol aad (3.23) CEP gay OF ist x} © reaching the yield stress of the inner layer, O (Py) te a (3.24) ‘The ultimate pressure will be the smaller of these two values. Only layers having a lay angle close to 90° should be included in the summation in Eq (3,23). An alternative to Eq. (3.23) is to carry out a static ring test for the complete pipe, and determine the equivalent stiffness using Eq. (3.17). The failure mode expressed by Eq. (3.24) assumes the inner layer to be restrained by the outer layers. It should be noted that Eq. (3.23) gives the elastic pressure resistance. The true pressure strength can be found using a similar procedure as described above, cf. Eq. (3.18). Finally, it should be noted that the total external pressure effect to be used in the capacity check normally consists of two contributions, i.e. contributions from external hydrostatic pressure and tension induced pressure. 3.3.4 TORSION Excessive torsion may give lock-up of the tendons causing “birdcaging” or structural damage to the pipe. This is not a very likely failure mode under normal operational conditions where the torsional loads are small. However, there have been cases of excessive torsion during pipe installation, which have caused failure in a pipe. Existing design guidelines typically specify a torsional strength of a minimum of 2 times the design torsional load, cf.HANDBOOK 3.19 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Section 8.2. An axial tensile force will prevent torsional damage. This positive effect is nornally taken into account by verifying the torsional strength for a tensile force not greater than the minimum axial force predicted from the aynamic analysis of the riser systen. The torsional resistance from all N, resisting layers must equal the torsional moment My Ma FP rynojay sing, = my (3.25) int The major contribution to the torsional resistance cones trom the helically wound tensile armours, which leads to the following formula for a quick evaluation of the stresses in the tension layers Me oO = (3.26) where nis the total number of tendons in the armouring layers, Ay is the cross section atea of each tendon and x is the mean radius of the armouring layers. By combining Eq. (3.26) and Eq. (3.4), disregarding the AL/L and Ar/r terms, the following expression may be used for an approximate evaluation of the torsional stiffness of the pipe GIy +n Ay Ex? sin2a cosa 0.27) The above formulas assume that all layers remain in contact. It should be pointed out that there is an asymmetry in the torsional stiffness. when the pipe is twisted, gaps will occur between the layers. The location of these gaps depends on the direction of the applied moment. Experimental studies of the torsional behaviour of a 4" I.D. Pag-0-Flex pipe and a 4" I.D. Coflexip pipe are reported in FPS2000 Report 2.2-5 and FPS2000 Report 2.2-8. The pipes exhibit torsional behaviour which is similar to the axial behaviour shown in Figure 3.4 for the 4" Coflexip pipe, although the hysteresis is less dependent on the load frequency.HANDBOOK 3.20 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3.3.5 BENDING 3.3.5.1 General Remarks The bending behaviour of flexible pipes is a more complex phenomenon to analyse than the axisymmetric load case. The flexural response shows a pronounced hyste- etic behaviour. This is illustrated by the moment/curvature relation in Pigure 3.8, The hysteretic behaviour of nonbonded pip: may be explained by the internal slip mechanism. Such pipes have a number of helical reinforcing layers, which tend to slip relative to each other when the pipe is bent. This is particularly the case for the two crosswound tensile layers. when the curvatures are small, slip is prevented by the internal friction between the layers, giving a high initial tangent stiffness. The moment needed to overcome the friction forces, My, is called the friction moment. My depends on the contact pressure between pipe layers, and consequently on the loads applied to the pipe. when the friction moment is exceeded, the curvature varies linearly with the moment variation, The slope of this line corresponds to the elastic bending stiffness EI, This stiffness is rather low and the main part of it is due to the stiffness of the plastic sheaths. It should also be noted that when the direction of the curvature is changed, the change in moment has to exceed twice the friction moment before elastic behaviour occurs. Figure 3.8 Bending behaviour of nonbonded pipeHANDBOOK 3.21 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3.3.5.2 Minimum Bend Radius Excessive bending can lead to local buckling destruction of the pipe as the interlocking elements or helical elements interfere and touch each other. This is a failure node, which can particularly occur during the handling of the pipe. Excessive bending may also occur near supports and end terminations, which xeguire properly designed bend stiffeners to keep the bend radius above a given critical value. This critical radius is usually denoted the minimum bend radius, Ryjq, and is a performance characteristic of the flexible pipe for a given design. It is specified by the manufacturer to prevent damage when the pipe is bent in @ynanic, static, installation and storage configurations. Normally, safety factors are applied to Raj, giving different values for Rqi, for varying conditions, ef. Section 8.2 Minimum Bend Radius for Storage The bend radius, R,, at which contact occurs between elements within the different ‘helical layers, may be computed when the layer geometry is known. Figure 3.9 shows typical geometries for interlocked carcass, zeta layer, back-up pressure layer and helical armour layer. Based on this information, the lateral gap for interlocked profiles may be computed from the following two expressions that consider contact on the compression and tensile sides of the pipe, respectively. a Bein Me 1 > Toa (3.28) 8 Dax 7 Sit = VE cosa ~ (G28) where n is the number of tendons in the layer, r is the mean layer radius and is the lay angie. The governing lateral gap is then taken as 9) = min (Sie, Sy] (3.30)HANDBOOK 3.22 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Deas" 2m San” Mm bo = 16 am : E ty +15m 3 8 b= 30m Carcass Z-spiral ae be6 mm eee Armour/Spiral Figure 3.9 Typical profile geometries for helical layers Figure 3.10 Definition of parameters for bent pipe oS For profiles that are not interlocked, the lateral gap becomes ab 1- =e | Bir cosa, (31) Assuming no slip of the tendons, a critical bend radius giving contact between the profiles may now be determined as Ro = = (3.32)HANDBOOK 3.23 Chapter 3 - Failure Hodes and Cross Section Analysis The contact radius for the pipe is taken as the largest R, for all helical layers. In order to maintain the integrity of the outer thermoplastic sheath, the manufacturers prefer to base the minimum bend radius on a permissible elongation of the outer sheath, €,;,, which is typically taken as 7.5%. This gives the following limit for the bend radius Trout Le" tae | (3.33) which gives the following minimum bend radius for the pipe Rain = max (Rey Re) G34) Minimum Bend Radius for Dynamic Applications In dynamic applications, the tendons will slip and induce a new partition of the gap between adjacent tendons. As discussed by Feret et al. (1987), this leads to the following definition of the minimum dynamic bend radius Pah aati a ys (3.38) —: | Tami) Sreinta, | Rajmig #efines the bond radive at which the Lateral gap is absorbed, and should not be exceeded to prevent overlapping of the tendons. 3.3.5.3 Slip Distance The nechanics of slip and its influence on the mechanical properties of flexible pipes is a topic that has been addressed by several researchers, such as Feret and Bournazel (1987), Peret and Momplot (1991), Witz and Tan (1989) and Tan et al. (1991). The main difference between these approaches is mainly related to the assumptions being made about which path the tendons follow on the surface of a bent pipe. A study of this topic requires some knowledge of the mathematical discipline of differential geometry. Feret and Bournazel (1987) assume that the helical armour strips form a geodesic path betw nthe lower and upper surfaces of the bent pipe. This assumption makes it possible to derive expressions forHANDBOOK 3.26 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis slip in both the axial and transverse directions of the tendons. Tan et al. (1991) have reservations about this approach, and assume that the armour strips follow the transposed curve on the surface of the bent pipe. This assumption only gives slip along the axis of the helical armour strip. When the pipe is bent at constant curvature, each layer is supported by a torus. A point M on this surface is defined by the radius of the layer (x), the radius of curvature of the torus (R) and the two angular parameters 8 and @ as shown in Figure 3.10. @ is equal to 0 at the upper surface of the pipe and equal to 7 at the lower surface of the pipe. On the torus each tendon follows a path which may be defined by a relation between the parameters @ and . If one assumes that the tendons slip towards the geodesic, Feret and sournazel (1987) have shown that the components of the slip are given by the following expressions tc - Esind (3.36) R to’ dp « 27 sind (3.37) R tga where Mc is the slip in the circumferential direction and Mp is slip parallel to the pipe axis. The total slip is then equal to O + (Mc? + Ap2yi/2 (3.38) The above slip components are defined relative to the core, and it should be noted that the slip becomes negligible for layers with lay angles close to 90°. ‘The total relative slip between two layers may be expressed as £2_sind Oe = tga f (3.39) aire where ¢ = ¢ for crosswound layers and ¢ + (4+——j for a helical layer and taza a sheath,HANDBOOK 3.25 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3.3.5.4 Stresses Due to Bending The bending of the pipe gives additional curvature of the tendons. The normal curvature, Ky, consists of two terms, cf. Feret and Momplot (1991), + F costa cos® = Kyy + Dky (3.40) where the first term corresponds to the curvature of the initial helix and the cond gives the additional curvature of the helix caused by bending of the pipe. Ky corresponds to bending about axis a-a in Figure 3.11. The transverse curvature Ks, which signifies bending about axis b-b, is zero for the geodesic. 7 eee — pipe axis Figure 3.11 Definition of local bending axes for tendons Under dynamic ben@ing conditions the stresses due to bending will consist of tvo components: 1, Static stresses 04, due to the mean curvature x, of the pipe Oy 2 Ft E ky costa cosd Gay Additional dynamic stresses O0,,, due to change of curvature Dk around the mean curvature Ky f t Boy, = £2 EDK costa cos (3.42) where t is the thickness of the tendons.HANDBOOK 3.26 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3.3.5.5 Stresses Due to Friction Friction prevents slipping of the tendons to some extent. According to Eq. (3.36) and Eq. (3.37) there will be no slip on the upper surface (G0) and lower surface (O=7) of the pipe. However, forces corresponding to the sum of friction forces over a quarter of pitch will exist at these points, giving the following alternating stresses due to friction bansneriasterrieet 7 0) Tym F- O) ope = +3 ) = «SO @.a) where , is the contact pressure determined from the axisymmetric load case and f£ is the friction factor. The summation sign I applied to the contact friction pressure (P,f) indicates that both sides of the tendons contribute to the friction The total stresses in the tendons may now be determined as follows: Oe = Oey + Tip + Mey + Adee (3.44) where 0, denotes the contribution from the axisymmetric load case. The forces developed by friction between layers generate an internal friction moment. Feret and Homplot (1991) have shown that this moment may be evaluated by the following expression, assuming that the tendons follow the geodesic: 4 my TE eee 0.45) where (4 when the contact occurs between crosswound layers and = ( taza when the contact occurs between a layer at angle a and a sheath or a layer at angle close to 90° By assuming that the tendons follow the transposed curve, one may derive a slightly different expression for My, cf. Section 3.3.7.3. This alternative formulation has proved to give better correlation to friction moments observed during the bending tests reported in FPS2000 Report 2.2-8.HANDBOOK 3.27 Chapter 3 - Failure Nodes and Cross Section Analysis 3.3.5.6 Bending stiffness ‘The bending stiffness is an important characteristic of the flexible pipe, and may be determined as a sum of three contributions EI « (ET), + (ET)y + (ET)p (3.46) For nonbonded pipes most of the stiffness comes from the plastic sheaths (EI),. ‘The contribution from the metallic tendons, (EI), comes from additional curvatures and torsion which they are subjected to when the pipe is bent. The third contribution, (EI),, represents the effect of internal pressure, and has been evaluated in FPS2000 Report 2.1-27. See also Eq. (3.53) in Section 3.3.7.3 Figure 3.12 shows the hysteretic behaviour of a 4" 1.D. Coflexip pipe for different levels of internal pressure. More details of these tests are given in FPS2000 Report 2.2-8. The curves show the following features: © the hysteretic behaviour is significant © the bending stiffness increases slightly with internal pressure @ the internal friction moment increases significantly with increasing pressure =o 8° qesre-res ert = | TEST 4 - too bar (0.1 Hz) —- E25 tests - 250 8ar(0,t Ha) —--— 5 i g4 f 3 : 2 10 08 08 04 02 00 02 O¢ 06 08 10 Curvature (vim) # 10 Figure 3.12 Bending behaviour of 4" 1.0, Coflexip pipe. Leading frequency = 0.1 fz, from FPS2000 Report 2.2-8.HANDBOOK 3.28 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3.3.6 COMBINED LOADS The preceeding sections have concentrated on the mechanical behaviour of flexible pipes with individual loads. In practice a flexible pipe will be subjected to combined loads. This will give several interaction effects which in general will mean complicated pipe behaviour. This is especially the case for load combinations where bending is involved. There is presently no theoretical model available to fully account for such interaction effects. However, existing methods for load effect analysis of pipes subjected to combined axisymmetric loads are fairly reliable. This will be discussed further in Section 3.3.7. Only a qualitative discussion of pipe behaviour under some common cases of load combination, will be given in the following, Combined Tension and External Pressure In this case both the radial inward pressure created by the tension (cf. £q. (3-3)) and the external pressure will act on the pressure resisting layers. as a result, the tensile strength of the pipe will be reduced when external Pressure is present. The different guidelines are vague on how to combine the loads in order to validate the pipe strength for this load combination. One way to do it could be to combine the maximum external pressure multiplied by a load factor with the maximum axial load condition. It is also often assumed that the outer sheath is damaged, so that the external pressure acts on the next pressure containing layer. When the total inward pressure has been determined, the pipe strength can be verified by the approach indicated by Eq. (3.23) and Eq. (3.24). Combined Tensicn and Internal Pressure An effect of internal pressure is to counteract the radial forces caused by tension, However, the internal pressure itself creates a tensile force in the pipe, and the end result of the interaction is dependent on the lay angle of the tensile layers. In cases where collapse of the internal carcass is the governing failure mode, the presence of internal pressure may increase the tensile strength. This may specifically be the case for bonded Dunlop pipes. reported by Chen (1990). However, if the tensile strength of the tensile layers is the limiting factor, an increase of internal pressure will reduce the axialHANDBOOK 3.29 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis strength. Combined Bending and axisymmetric Loads For a pipe subjected to axisymmetric loads it is possible to determine the contact pressure between the pipe layers. As shown in Section 3.3.5 there is a strong interaction effect between the bending behaviour and the contact pressure, signified by the expressions for the friction moment My (Eq. (3.45) and the friction induced stresses Moy; (Eq. (3-43)). Thore is also an interaction between bending stiffness and internal pressure. It should be noted that existing methods are based on a simple superposition of axisymmetric stresses and bending induced stresses. There seems to be ro available methods for study of special effects such as @ possible ovalization of cross section in case of combined bending, tensile load and external pressure © variable curvature along the pipes, as typically encountered close to end terminations. The latter effect is now being studied by Sevik (1992) and is also discussed in more detail in FPS2000 Report 2.1-27 3.3.7 COMPUTER MODELS FOR CROSS SECTION ANALYSIS 3.3.7.1 General Remarks The simplified formulas presented in the preceding Sections 3.3.1 to 3.3.6 are useful for a quick check of flexible pipe behaviour. However, they are based on the following assumptions © the geometric deformations are small © the participation of the plastic sheaths to the resistance of the pipe is negligible © the plastic sheaths transmit pressureHANDBOOK 3.30 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis © the layers remain in contact More refined models, without the above shortcomings, have been developed and implemented in computer programs by several researchers. Such models are needed when a more reliable verification of the pipe behaviour is required. An overview of some existing computer programs for analysis of flexible pipe wall sections, is presented in Table 3.3. A short presentation of key features of existing models are presented and discussed in Section 3.3.7, More detailed information may be found in the given references. Table 3.3 Computer programs for analysis of flexible pipe wall sections Progran References EPLEX Feret and Bournazel (1987) CAFLEX Feret and Momplot (1991), FPS2000 Report 2.1-27, FPS2000 Report 2.1-28, FLEXABLE MeIver (1990) FLEXPIPE Letveit and often (1990) LAYERSTRESS McNamara and Harte (1989) 3.3.7.2 axisymmetric Behaviour The problem of assessing the internal response of flexible pipes in terms of stresses and strains due to internal and oxternal pressure, tension and torsion, has been addressed by several authors, e.g. Feret and Bournazel (1967), Feret and Momplot (1991), McNamara and Harte (1989), Lotveit and Often (1990), McIver (1990), Witz and Tan (1991). Useful information can also be obtained from related fields, such as reinforced cables and wire ropes, cf. Knapp (1979), Hobbs and Raoof (1984), Velinsky (1985) and Costello and Butson (1982).HANDBOOK 3.3t chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Since the load types listed above do not change the form of the overall pipe structure, the assumption of axisymmetric behaviour is valid. This gives cela- tively simple relations for prediction of strains and stresses in each layer. Existing computer programs, cf. Table 3.3, model the pipe as a pipe segment subjected to internal and external pressure, axial force and torsional noment as shown in Figure 3.13. The pipe is then divided into the respective number of layers, each representing an individual element. These elements may be of two fundamentaily different types, i.e. sheath element and helix element. The sheath element is used to simulate the tubular layers, whereas the helix element is used for the carcass, zeta-spiral and the armouring lay Figure 3.13 Axisymmetric loading of pipe segment. The sheath element used in CAFLEX, is based on the assumption of linear elastic and isotropic material behaviour. Thin shell theory is used, giving simple con- stitutive relations. NcNamara and Harte (1989) allow for having orthotropic material behaviour for the tubular layers, i the layers are allowed to have @itterent properties in the circumferential and longitudinal directions, respectively. However, this does not represent any significant improvement. The Young’s modulus for the tubular layers is small compared to the steel layers, and the main part of the loads will therefore be absorbed by the steel layers. For the helix element the same Hooke’s material law is used in all three ortho- gonal directions, taking full account of straining due to pressure betweenHANDBOOK 3.32 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis layers. This law should, however, be modified in the case of bonded pipe reinforcement, in order to take into account the fact that this armouring is made of thin helically wound tendons, giving different moduli in the longitudinal and transverse directions. Another distinction between bonded and nonbonded pipes, is that the armouring layers of a bonded pipe is surrounded by rubber having a Poisson’s ratio close to 0.5. This m ns that under pressure the elastomer will behave like a fluid imposing equal stresses in all directions. Consequently, a steel layer positioned between the pressure barriers, will have no circunferential stress in a nonbonded pipe. In contrast, for a bonded pipe this layer will have equal radial and circumferential components. There are also other effects that give a somewhat different axisymmetric behaviour of bonded pipes compared to nonbonded pipes, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.1-17 and Letveit and often (1990). Each tendon of the steel armouring represents a thin curved rod, which in the initial undeformed configuration can be described by a circular helix. From the theory of thin curved rods, the equilibrium can be described by six coupled differential equations, cf. Savik (1992) and FPS2000 Report 2.1-17, When the pipe is exposed to axisymmetric loads, the tendon can still be described by a circular helix. Hence, the equilibrium differential equations reduce te two equations having contribution from the local axial force, torsional moment and shear force along the binormal. These two equations may be written as 301 - 103 + a2 2 0 (3.47) KM, - KMy - Q) = 0 (3.48) where M, and M; denote torsional and bending moment as shown in Figure 3.14. K; represents the torsion of the cross section centreline, while k; denotes the normal curvature of the tendon corresponding to moment My. Q and Q3 are axial and shear force, respectively. az is the contact Line load pressure.HANDBOOK 3.33 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Figure 3.14 Curved tendon segment In the initial configuration, the torsion and normal curvature may be expressed as: sing cosa Kyo + Siac cose a.43) 2, in? Kao 2 SM (3.50) where a and r denote the lay angle and the radius of the helix, respectively The local shear force (Q;) and torsional moment (Mj) are often neglected in the analysis. These are considered to be small, since the bending stiffness and torsional stiffness of the tendon itself are omall compared to the stiffnesses of the pipe, cf. Feret and Momplot (1991), The effect of including Q, end my in the basic equilibrium equations are discussed in FPS2000 Report 2.1-27, and it is concluded that the effect on stresses are small for the thicknesses typically used in flexible pipe armouring layers (2-4 mm), However, for unbilicals having hydraulic steel pipes with diameter 10-20 mm, this effect should be considered By considering the equilibrium of external and internal forces, one gets an equation system with 6N+2 unknowns, where N is the number of layers. The different equations may be obtained as follows:HANDBOOK 34 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section analysis © For each layer there are three equations on local layer level, which are based on equilibrium of internal and external forces in the longitudinal, circumferential and radial directions. Similarly, there is a local (on layer evel) moment equilibrium equation, linking the external torsional moment with the contribution from each layer. This gives 4N equations. @ In addition there are 4 equilibrium equations on global level, linking the total contribution from all layers with the total axial force, torsional monent, internal and external pressures © By including the gap between layers as unknowns, N-1 relations can be established, expressing the size of the gap explicitly. © Dependent on whether the gap is positive or negative, there are N-1 additional relations. If the gap is negative, the constraint of zero gap can be introduced. If the gap is positive, another constraint can be introduced, namely that the contact pressure equals the local pressure... The local pressure is zero between pressure barriers. The last N-1 relations must be established by means of iteration. Further details concerning the establishment of these equations are omitted her , but may be found in the paper by Feret and Bournazel (1987) and in FPS2000 Report 2.1-27. 3.3.7.3 Bending Behaviour An accurate modelling of the bending behaviour of flexible pipes is important for the following main reasons: © Stresses and relative movement between layers are important response parameters that enter into any procedure for analytical lifetime estimation of flexible pipes. © A correct representation of the hysteretic bending behaviour (see Figure 3.8) is essential for a good representation of internal damping (cf. Section 4.2.4).HANDBOOK 3.35 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis ‘The response of flexible pipes to bending is less well covered than for the axisymmetric case. | Tne problem has been addressed by several authors, such as Lutchansky (1969), Feret and Bournazel (1987), Costello and Leclair (1987), Tan et al (1991). Major shortcomings of these formulations are ‘They do not properly consider tendon/pipe interaction due to friction. They do not consider the geometric stiffening effect of the tendons, when they are tensioned during operation © ‘They only consider the case of constant pipe curvature. © ‘They are based on analytical formulations, which are unable to represent boundary conditions induced by end restraints. The bending model suggested by Feret and Bournazel (1987) for nonbonded pipes is based on the assumption that the tendons will move towards the geodesic when they are prestressed. This assumption leads to simple expressions for slip and bending induced stresses, as described in Section 3.3.5. It should be noted that this approach gives an upper Limit for both slip and stresses, and can therefore be judged to represent a sound engineering practice, that can be used in fatigue/wear calculations of nonbonded pipes, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.1-27 However, the assumption of the geodesic curve does not seen to give correct prediction of the hysteretic bending behaviour. Experimental results presented in FPS2000 Report 2.2-8, have shown that the observed friction moment is approxi- mately 35% of the value predicted by Eq. (3.45), when using friction coefficients reported by Feret and Bournazel (1986). The reason for this deviation is that friction prevents transverse slip of the tendons for reasonable bend radii, cf. Savik (1992) and FPS2000 Report 2.1-27. Consequently, in most cases only Longitudinal slip will occur, as also pointed out by Tan et al. (1991). This means that the tendon follows the transposed curve, leading to the following modified expression for the friction moment, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.1-27. a3 Mm 2G Pe to (3.51) where ¢ = 2 cos when the contact occurs between crosswound layers and { -1 when the contact occurs between a layer at angle G and a sheath or a layer at angleHANDBOOK 3.36 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section analysis close to 90°, This gives much better agreement with experimental results. For the purpose of wear analysis, it may also be of interest to determine the curvature limit where slip between layers is initiated. This curvature can be found by an equilibrium consideration (cf. FPS2000 Report 2.1-27), which gives the following resul! f Op, sina Kye (3.52) Er costa Where ,,, £ and E denote the initial stress in the tendon from axisymmetric loading, the friction coefficient and the modulus of elasticity, respectively. Another effect observed from tests is that the tangential bending stiffness increases with increasing internal pressure. The physical explanation of this behaviour is most likely that the geometric stiffness of each tendon will increase when the tendon is pretensioned. The theoretical evaluation of this effect is described in FPS2000 Report 2.1-27, giving the following total increase of bending stiffness ay cosa; costa; {EQ)pe FF 3 14 4ry?2(9cos4a;sin2a,+6cos%a, + ° 2 MsITy J av Vis sin?a, sin@a,y (3.53) Q;j is the axial tendon force determined from an axisymmetric analysis, r, is the layer radius and a, is the lay angle. (EI), is found by summing contribution from n tendons and m armouring layers. Improved correlation with experimental results has been observed, by including (ET), from Eq. (3.53) in Eq. (3.46). As pointed out above, existing bending models are based on the assumption of constant curvature. However, at the end termination where the bending is important, the curvature distribution is far from constant. This means that existing bending models are not capable of simulating the effect of end restraints. in order to predict stresses and slip of the tendons close to end terminations, a model considering arbitrary curvature distribution as well as tendon/pipe interaction and the effect of end restraints is needed. This is currently beingHANDBOOK 3.37 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis studied by Sevik (1992), and should be an important part of further improvements of existing models for analysis of flexible pipe wali sections.HANDBOOK 3.38 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3.4 SERVICE LIFETIME 3.4.1. GBNERAL REMARKS There are three major sources of damage that may affect the service life of flexible pipes, i.e.: © cumulative damage effects due to flexure © erosion © material degradation ‘These topics will be discussed further in the following sections. 3.4.2 FATIGUE MECHANISMS OF FLEXIBLE PIPE 3.4.2.1 General Remarks: Flexible pipes are complicated structures, particularly fron a fatigue point of view. For each type of pipe there may be several possible fatigue mechanisms, that may becone critical. Because pipes in service may undergo different types of loading and different load histories, there is no such thing as a standard proof test of fatigue strength. Fatigue strength assessments and test procedures must be based on a mechanistic analysis of pipe behaviour, and knowledge of the relevant failure modes and the associated capacities. The following sections identify some fatigue failure modes. A more general discussion on fatigue mechanisms of flexible pipe is found in FPS2000 Reports 2.2-9 and 2.1-20. 3.4.2.2 Fatigue Mechanisms of Nonbonded Pipe Wear and Fatigue of Tensile Armour In oscillatory bending, armour wires in different layers of a nonbonded pipe will be sliding against each other. The oscillatory displacement amplitude ofHANDBOOK 3.39 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section analysis armour layers may be calculated for each layer, cf. Section 3.3.5. This and the calculated contact pressure between the layers has enabled a fatigue mechanism based on the wear of armour wire to be established. The model has been verified through Laboratory tests with bending loading, and a full-scale one year test in the North Sea described in qualitative terms in several papers; Panicker and Yancey (1983), Panicker (1985), Bratu and Narzul (1985), Feret and sournazel (1986). Based on wear coefficients established by Coflexip, the model has been implemented in a computer program for capacity and lifetime analysis (Heyte et al., 1991), The details of the test results and the wear coefficients are proprietary data which are not generally available. Independently, and using test data published by Coflexip, wear coefficients have been established by Nielsen et al. (1990) and implemented in a similar model. Two stages of deterioration are assumed in the wear model. The first stage is wear by reciprocating sliding, causing a decrease in the cross section of the armour, and an increase in stresses. The second stage is reached when the stresses in the armour have increased above the fatigue limit, The fatigue limit was assessed on the basis of uniaxial fatigue tests of individual wires of armour, ftom which a Haigh diagram was constructed, Figure 3.15. Feret and Bournazel (1986) define the onset of fatigue due to loss of cross section from wear as the end of life criterion for the pipe. In the Coflexip bending tests slip amplitudes between the individual layers of armour were large, and in the regime of reciprocating wear. Under these conditions, fretting fatigue mechanisms are suppressed. An important question is whether that is a realistic simulation of the tribological conditions within @ dynamic riser. Conditions leading to fretting fatigue vould cause a very large reduction of fatigue strength of individual armour wires, particularly in the low stress/long life region, Endo and Goto (1976). In the Haigh diagram for armour wires (Figure 3.15) the Goodman line under fretting conditions would be considerably lowered. Fretting should therefore be subjected to closer scrutiny by tests with different and more realistic types of loading.HANDBOOK 3.40 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis ‘350 ‘Statlo tress ~ 404 MP © braak © no break ‘Alternating stress, MPa 8 7 10° 108 10" Number of cycles, N = ER tatigue region Stet LE ger “See, I BL a EL non fatigue region | zt LAL a Static stress. o (MPa) Figure 3.15 Fatigue strength criterion for tensile armour of nonbonded pipe, from Feret and Bournazel (1986) In fretting fatigue, cracks are nucleated at the stick/slip interface, primarily by the oscillating tangential (friction) force transmitted in the stick region, Edwards (1981). Surface reactions (oxidation and other environmental inter- actions) are important parameters. when cracks reach a length of about 1 an, the crack driving force of the tangential stresses has decayed. In the absence of normal stresses in the wire, the cracks may becone arrested at that point. With oscillating normal stresses, the cracks may continue to grow, and the net result is a significant reduction in fatigue life, particularly in the low /long life region. ‘This emphasizes the possible role of axial stresses in the fatigue testing of nonbonded pipe. str Damage to the outer thermoplastic sheathing would lead to water ingress. In the absence of cathodic protection, fatigue strength due to fre¥ting would be decreased even more, Nakazawa et al. (1989).HANDBOOK Bat Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis An experimental complication of the fretting/wear model is the role of lubrication, and the effect of test frequency. Accelerated testing has shown that heat will be generated at the contact points between wires, which had an unrealistically adverse effect on fatigue life (Coflexip, oral communication). In a recent development of pipe construction, a polymer layer is applied between the armour layers, thus eliminating wear between different layers of armour, Nielsen et al. (1990). Production or cost factors may be limiting for general application of this innovation, but for dynamic risers this construction could be cost effective, However, durability of the polymer layer must be proven by tests. For high “temperature applications, this could be a limiting factor. Furthermore, wear or fretting contact between armour wires in the sane layer will not be prevented. Fatigue of Interlocking Profiles The interlocking profile constituting the pressure barrier ("zeta” wire) has been reported to fail in fatigue tests where the loading was a combination of constant ‘axial stress and oscillatory bending. Neither data nor fatigue models have been reported for this failure mode, and a discussion of relevant test parameters must be tentative. ‘The primary loading parameters for the interlocking wire are: @ static tension and contact pressure due to internal pressure and axial tension, © oscillating volume stresses, sliding and friction forces due to bending. Repending on the specific conditions, failure of the interlocking profile may occur by fatigue, fretting fatigue, or wear, A specific consideration for the zeta wire is that in many cases, only a single fracture may be critical for the whole pipeHANDBOOK 3.42 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Fatigue of Polymer Components, End Termination It has not been possible to obtain information on fatigue characteristics of polymer liner materials and of end terminations of nonbonded pipe, and a discussion of these points would only be speculative. There is clearly a need for realistic tests in which the loading, temperature, and environmental parameters are relevant for pipe applications. 3.4.2.3 Eatigue Mechanisms of Bonded Pipe Fatigue of Tensile armour The fatigue characteristics of the armour of bonded pipe is very different trom those of nonbonded pipe. The load-carrying longitudinal armour of bonded pipe is embedded in elastomeric material and there is very little metallic contact with neighbouring armour wire. The wear mechanism is not likely to be a problem. Fatigue strength of the armour is therefore basically the same as for’ individual wires, which SN data have already been established (Pag-O-Flex, oral communication). Fatigue of Interlocked Carcass Chen et al. (1991) have examined three full-scale dynamically tested Dunlop pips whose fatigue resistance determined the entire service life of the pipe. The ‘This examination identified the interlocked carcass as the key component, results indicate that the carcass can be axially loaded under dynamic tension or bending. ‘This gives rise to fatigue cracking at section A (cf. Figure 3.16), where stress concentration due to geometry and the effect of cold working due to manufacture are most significant, In light of this, it is concluded that the fatigue analysis of the pipe can be concentrated on the interlocked carcass, which may be regarded as the weakest component from the fatigue standpoint.HANDBOOK 3.43 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section analysis Figure 3.16 Illustration of interlocked carcass and position of cracking, from Chen et al. (1991), Fatigue of Metallic Liner For bonded pipe with internal metallic Liner, the liner may be vulnerable to fatigue. The fatigue mechanism is fatigue crack initiation and growth, with cyclic strain as the driving force. In high cycle fatigue, the strains are essentially elastic. Due to the geometry of the liner, and the interaction with the elastomeric material, the relation between global deformations of the pipe and the true strain in the liner material is not known, For this reason, SN data for the liner material from standard uniaxial testing, e.g. ASTM (1989), cannot be used in design. Fatigue strength of the corrugated liner has therefore been assessed by component testing, and related to global strain, Figure 3.17, (Pag-O-Flex, oral communication). Actual data have not been published, and it has not been possible to obtain information on whether the model accounts for the effect of welds which join sections of liner, typically every 4-6 m. This is an important point, because these welds may cause a very significant reduction in fatigue strength.HANDBOOK 34d Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis | ww au N Figure 3.17 Component testing of a corrugated metallic Liner (schematic), from FPS2000 Report 2.2-9. The corrugated liner of the Pag-0-Flex pipe is a compliant element which is totally supported by the pipe structure. This means that the load conditions for the corrugated liner are controlled by the global deformations of the pipe. On this basis, a fatigue model has been established by Pag-O-Flex, relating curvature and tensile strain of the pipe to fatigue life of the liner, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.2-7. This model is developed for straight sections of pipe. As discussed in the FPS2000 Report 2.2-7, in regions of cross sectional transitions, like at a bending stiffener, it may be difficult to relate global deformations of the pipe to deformations of the liner. The reason appears to be shear strains developing in the pipe wall, invalidating the assumption that plane cross sections remain plane. The Pag-O-Flex model is based on the assumption that with a bending stiffener, which in the Pag-O-Flex design also provides a gradual transition of axial stiffness, fatigue will not take place at the liner/nipple weld. If this assumption does not hold true, the fatigue model is invalid, for the following main reasons, © Fatigue strength of the liner/nipple weld is most probably quite different - and inferior - compared to the strength of welds joining sections of liner, due to a different local geometry and notch effect.HANDBOOK 345 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis @ at the pipe/nipple transition the relation between the global strain of the pipe and the true strain at the weld is very different from the design relation of Pag-O-Plex, which assumes a fully compliant and corrugated liner structure. Due to the sudden transition in compliance at the nipple, it will be very difficult to obtain a relation between the true strain at the weld and global deflections or loads. These pects are discussed more in detail in FPS2000 Report 2.2-7. Fatigue of Polymer Liner, End Terminations It has not been possible to obtain fatigue data for polymer liner materials, and for the end terminations of bonded pipe. There appear to be no fatigue problems associated with the elastomeric parts of bonded pipe. 3.4.3 EROSION The production of reservoir sand from oil and gas fields is a common problem in a number of areas throughout the world. This may give internal erosion of flexible pipes. Experience from various fields has shown that the sand production rate may be highly variable. For fields in the North Sea sand production in the order of 1-30 ppnw (1 ppnw = 107% kg sand/kg wellfluid} are commonly reported under normal production conditions, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.2-2. For some other cases sand production rates up to 100-200 ppmw and in extreme cases higher than 1000 ppmw have been experienced. The size of the sand particles will depend on reservoir characteristics and on the success of sand exclusion. However, the main bulk of particl 2.202. will be in the order of 200-400 pm, cf. FPS2000 Report Limited investigations have been carried out by manufacturers with respect to the effect of erosion of the internal steel carcass. In several cases the maximum allowable velocity is determined based on empirical equations given in API 14E. These equations are, however, not in general applicable for theHANDBOOK 3.46 Chapter 3 - Failure Nodes and Cross Section Analysis internal steel carcass or steel liner, and do not take the effect of particles in the well stream into account. The most important parameters that influence the erosion rate are the fluid velocity, the anount and size distribution of the produced sand and the geometry of the inner steel carcass. Also the steel quality and the effect of CO, and HzS have to be considered. FPS2000 Reports 2.2-2 and 2.2-6 present results from a study of the erosion of the inner steel carcass in a Coflexip pipe. Both experimental results and results from computer simulations are reported. Tt is shown that the predicted erosion rates agrees quite well with measured rates. It also is shown that unacceptable high erosion rates in the order of 0.1-1.0 mm/year may be expected for relevant particle concentrations and production rates in a gas field ca: For an oil field the erosion rate will be much lower, typically less than 0.01 mm/year. It should also be noted that the presence of sand in the well flow may give ri to an increased corrosion rate due to removal of the protective film. The combined erosion/corrosion effect may be important with respect to the determination of service life of the inner steel carcass. Results from an experimental investigation of the erosion/corrosion characteristics of the inner steel carcass in a Coflexip pipe are reported in FPS2000 Report 2.2-10. The tests were carried out for varying partial preseve of CO, (0-10 bar) and varying temperature (40-120°C), and show significant effects of the corrosive atmosphere 3.4.4 MATERIAL DEGRADATION The following material degradation processes influence the service life of flexible pipes © corrosion of steel elements © ageing and chemical resistance of the polymer materials © rapid decompression effects on polymer materials.HANDBOOK 3.47 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Corrosion Corrosion of the steel elements may reduce the pipe strength. Here one should make a distinction between the inner steel carcass and the other losdbearing elements, such as armour wires, zeta spiral and back-up spiral. The inner carcass is in direct contact with the internal fluid, and is usually made of stainless steel. Corrosion of the carcass will reduce the collapse strength. The corrosion problem may be avoided by proper selection of steel grade. However, the stainless steels will have application limits, above which severe corrosion may take place. Important parameters with respect to determination of the corrosion rates are: temperature co, partial pressure chloride content #8 content oxygen content eecceee amount of free water The effect of these parameters on corrosion rates is discussed in more detail in FPS2000 Reporte 2.2-2 and 2.2-4. ‘The most commonly used stainless steel grades are AISI 304/304L/316/316L. Grade 304/304 has been used extensively and is suitable for most applications, cf. Moore (1989). The higher grade 316/316L is recommended in specific cases of high fluid temperature (100-130%C) and @ high level of HS and Oz, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.2-4. For very agressive environments with temperatures around 130°C and very high levels of #25 and CO,, higher steel grades such as Duplex may be used. The loadbearing elements of flexible pipes must sustain high loads and have good fatigue resistance. High strength carbon steels are therefore used for these components. Coflexip uses steel grades derived from the AFNOR 35.051 specification, and the following grades are used: FM15, FM35 and FM72, cf. Moore (1989). Typical characteristics of these materials are given in Table 2.5.HANDBOOK 5.48 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis The loadbearing elements vhich are located between the inner and outer plastic sheaths of a nonbonded pipe, are not in direct contact with the internal fluid or seawater. However, they may be in contact with corrosive gases such as 7S and COp, permeating through the inner polymer layers, and seawater if there are any accidental tears in the outer polymer layer. This makes it necessary to consider the following failure modes: © corrosion (uniform or pitting) @ sulphide stress corrosion cracking. According to Coflexip, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.2-4, the corrosion is limited to only a few micrometers per year and does not cause any serious problems. It is accounted for in the pipe design through extra thickness of the steel wires. ‘The second problem of sulphide stress corrosion cracking is characterized by a brittle breaking when steel is subjected to tensile loads in an H,$ environment. This problem is avoided by selection of proper steel grades such as PN15 and FN3S. In cases where H)S is not present, higher steel grades with high resistance, such as FM72, may be used. Ageing Ageing of polymer materials is an irreversible deterioration process, which may occur when the polymer is exposed to certain chemicals over long periods of time. ‘The degradation of the material ic characterized by loss of strength or Guctility, and often embrittlement or softening. Long exposures to solvents can also result in extraction of plasticizer in the polymer, which will give irreversible changes in the physical properties of the polymer. The ageing processes are thermally activiated, which means that the combination of high consentration and nigh tenperature will speed up the degradation of the polymer. Ageing tests performed in the laboratory are therefore often carried out at higher temperatures than normally considered for flexible pipes. This shortens the total time needed for lifetime estimation.HANDBOOK 3.49 chapter 3 - Failure Nodes and Cross Section Analysis An example of ageing results for Rilsan is shown in Figure 3.18, which shows the variation of both yield and ultimate elongations as a function of temperature and time. From this kind of results it is possible to make a plot showing the experimental lifetime of the material as function of temperature. This is shown in Figure 3.19, where the time, t,, to critical reduction of ductility is plotted in log-linear scale (Arrhenius-plot). The following criterion has been used for definition of t,, cf. Moore (1989), i) the yield strain in a uniaxial short time tensile test at 20°C must remain higher than 30% ii) the ultimate strain must be at least 1.5 times higher than the yield strain This dual criterion ensures a satisfactory margin of safety compared to the maximum elongation of 7.5% that the pipo is likely to experience, cf. Section 3.3.5.2. Ageing studies are also reported in FPS2000 Report 2.2-13. These studies were carried out for five different polymer materials typically used in flexible pipes. The main part of the work consisted of accelerated ageing exposure in crude oil/ with and without co,, at elevated temperatures (100 and 140°C) and pressures (100 and 500 bar) for maximum 300 days. After various exposure periods, the materials were tested for changes in mechanical and physical properties. The effect of pressure is reported to be uncertain, but there seems to be an increased rate of degradation of the elastomers at high pressure, particularly in Co, environment. another interesting observation was that at 300 days exposure, some of the test cases showed a heavy degradation, which had not been @iscovered at 100 days. This confirms the necessity of performing long term ageing tests, as short time immersion tests can often be misleading. Purther details about experimental details and test parameters are given in FPS2000 Report 2.2-13,HANDBOOK 3.50 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis woo 120 T4080 180 Tine (wt Figure 3.18 Yield and ultimate elongations of Rilsan (PAI!) vs. ageing time, from Dawans et al. (1986). aS cue. see sama Figure 3.19 Critical time vs. temperature for Rilsan (PA11) exposed to crudes of different origins, from Dawans et al. (1986).HANDBOOK 3.51 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Blistering All polymers are able to absorb a certain amount of gas or vapour molecules. The absorption of gases increases with temperature and pressure. If rapid Gepressurization occurs in the pipe, the dissolved gas expands violently and explosive decompression of the polymeric material occurs. This may give blistering of the material and even delamination of bonded pipes. The effect of such forces on the leakproofness of the pipe may be dramatic. The blistering phenomenon is linked to the permeability P, or more specifically to the diffusivity D and solubility § of gases according to the equation P=DS (3.54) An ideal polymer should have low solubility and high diffusivity to the actual gas. This would improve the possibility of the gas to escape during depressuri- zation without causing serious blistering or cracking. In general the thermoplastics have better blistering resistance than the elastomers. It has proved to be difficult to make a rubber compound with satisfactory blistering resistance at a moderate price. To solve this problem, Pag-O-Flex applied a diffusion tight corrugated inner liner made of stainless steel. Dunlop uses a relatively blistering resistant rubber as the inner seal between the armour and inner carcass. Further details on blistering of polymer materials have been presented by Noore (1969), and Melana (1990)HANDBOOK 3.52 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis 3.5 REFERENCES Advanced Mechanics & Engineering Ltd (AME), (1990), “The Update of Loss of Containment Data for Offshore Pipelines", Final Report prepared for United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association (UKOOA), Job No. 226.1, August. Bratu C., and Narzul P., (1985), *bynamic Behaviour of Flexible Riser", Proc. Behaviour of Offshore Structures, Delft, pp. 375-381, Elsevier. chen, z., (1990), "The Mechanical Behaviour and Fatigue Analysis of Flexible Pipes", Ph.D Thesis, Department of Offshore Engineering, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, June. chen, 2., Reuben, R.L. and Owen, D.G., (1991), 7 "Development of a Fatigue Model for Prediction of Flexible Pipe Life Expect- ancy", Proc., First International offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Edinburgh, 11-16 August. Chen, B., Nielsen, R. and Colquhoun, R.S., (1992), “Theoretical Models for Prediction of Burst and Collapse and Their Verification by Testing", Flexible Pipe Technology, International Seminar on Research Reserach and Development, The Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, 18-20 February. Costello, G.A. and Butson, G.J., (1982), "Simplified Bending Theory for Wire Rope", ASCE, Vol. 108, No. EM2, April. Costello, G.A. and Leclair, R.A., (1987), "Axial, Bending and Torsional Loading of a Strand with Friction", Proc. offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Conference (OMAE), Houston. Dawans, F.A., Jarrin, J., Lefevre, T.0. and Pelisson, M., (1986), “Improved Thermoplastic Materials for Offshore Flexible Pipes", Proc. Offshore Technology Conference (OTC), Paper No. 5231, Houston, May.HANDBOOK 3.53 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Edwards P.R., (1981), "The Application of Fracture Mechanics to Predicting Fretting Fatigue Life’, in “Fretting Fatigue", Waterhouse R. B. (ed.), Applied Science. Endo X., and Goto H., (1976), "Initiation and Propagation of Fretting Fatigue Cracks", Wear, Vol. 38, pp. 311- 324. Feret, J.J. and Bournazel, C.L., (1986), "Evaluation of Flexible Pipes Life Expectancy Under Dynamic Conditions, OTC Houston. Paper $230, Proc. Offshore Technology Conferencé Feret, J.J. and Bournazel, C.L., (1987), “calculation of Stresses and Slip in Structural Layers of Unbonded Flexible Pipes", Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, Vol. 109, pp. 263-269. Feret, J.J, and Momplot, G., (1991), "CAFLEX * A Program for Capacity Analysis of Flexible Pipes, Theory Manual", SINTEF Structural Engineering, Report STF71 P91019, SINTEF, Trondheim, Hobbs, R.E. and Raoof, M., (1984), “The Bending of Spiral Strands and Armour Cables Close to Terminations", Journal of Energy Resources Technology, Vol. 106, September. Hoyte, J., Engseth, A. and Nomplot, G., (1991) “CAFLEX - A Program for Capacity Analysis of Flexible Pipes, Users Manual”, SINTEF Structural Engineering, Report STF71 F91020, SINTEF, Trondheia. Knapp, R.H., (1979), “Derivation of a New Stiffness Matrix for Helically Armoured Cables Considering Tension and Torsion”, Int. Journal of Numerical Methods, Vol. 14, pp. 515-529HANDBOOK 3.54 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Lutchansky, M., (1969), vaxial Stresses in Armour Wires of Bent Submarine Cables", Journal of Engine ing for Industry, August. Lotveit, S.A. and Often, 0., (1990), “Increased Reliability Through a Unified Analysis Tool for Bonded and Nonbonded Pipe ing, Vol. 24: C.P, Ellinas (ed.), Advances in Subsea Pipelines Engineering and ", Advances In Underwater Technology, Ocean Science and Offshore Engine! Technology, pp. 79-110, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. MacFarlane, C.J., (1989), “Flexible Riser Pipes: Problems and Unknowns", Engineering Structures, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 281-289. McIver, D.B., (1990), "Stress Analysis of Flexible Pipes and Umbilicals, Summary of Theory", Report prepared by MAI Ltd for BP Engineering, London. NeNamara, J.P. and Harte, A.M., (1989), “Three Dimensional Analytic Simulation of Flexible Pipe wall Structure", Proc. Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Conference, The Hague, The Nether- lands, March. Melana, T., (1990), "Polymer Material for Flexible Pipes", Lecture notes "Fleksible rer og slanger offshore", Norwegian Society of Chartered Engineers {NIF}, January. Moore, F., (1989), "Materials for Flexible Riser systems: Problems and Solutions", Engineering Structures, Vel. 11, October. Nakazawa K., Sumita M,, Maruyama N., (1989), “Fretting Fatigue of High Strength Steel in Sea Water", Proc, Evaluation of Materials Performance in Severe Environments”, Kobe.HANDBOOK 3.55 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section Analysis Nielsen R., Colquhoun R.S., and NcCone A., (1990), “Tools for Predicting Service Life of Dynamic Flexible Risers", Proc. European Offshore Mechanics Symposium, NTH, Trondheim. Oliveira, J.G., Goto, ¥. and Okamoto, T., (1985), “Theoretical and Methodological Approaches to Flexible Pipe Design and Applica- tion", OTC Paper 5021, Proc. Offshore Technology Conference, Houston. Panicker N.N., (1985), ‘Flexible Pipes in Production Risers", Petroleum Engineer internatioral, June pp. 58-67. : Panicker N.N., and Yancey I.R., (1983), “Deepwater Production Riser", OTC Paper 4512, Proc. Offshore Technology Conference, Houston. Savik, S., (1992), YOn Stresses and Fatigue in Flexible Pipes", Ph.D. Thesis, Division of Marine Structures, The Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, (to appear). Tan, Z., Witz, J.A., Lyons, G.A., Fang, J. and patel, #.H., (1991), von the Influence of Internal Slip Between Component Layers on the Dynamic Response of Unbonded Flexible Pipe", Proc. Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engi- neering Conference, Stavanger. Timoshenko, S., (1950), “strength of Materials - Part II Advanced Theory and Problems", D, Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, New Jersey, pp. 186-193. Velinsky, S.a., (1985), “Analysis of Fiber-Core Wire Rope", Trans., ASME, Vol. 107, pp. 388-393, September.HANDBOOK 3.56 Chapter 3 - Failure Modes and Cross Section analysis Witz, J.A. and Tan, Z., (1989), ‘An Analysis Method for the Prediction of the Long Term Mechanical Degradation of Unbonded Flexible Pipes", BPP Report No. 7419A, University College Londen, Department of Offshore Engineering. Witz, J.A. and Tan, Z., (1991), “Om the Axial-Torsional Structural Behaviour of Flexible Pipes, Umbilicals and Marine Cables", Department of Mechanical Engineering, University College London, May. chpt-3:textHANDBOOK aa Chapter ¢ - Design Analysis Procedures 4 DESIGN ANALYSIS PROCEDURES 4.1 GENERAL REMARKS ‘The objective of this chapter is to give recommendations with regard to © modelling, © analysis methods, and © analysis procedures, that are relevant for design verification of flexible pipes and risers. The succeeding three sections of this chapter are devoted to these keywords. Each section gives practical recommendations and guidelines that should be of value both for engineers when dealing with analyses, ané for operators in connection with verification of systems or installation procedures. Only global behaviour is considered in this chapter. This means that the pipe cross section is defined in terms of parameters like area, unit weight and bending stiffness. Information on pipe capacities in terms of pressure, maximum tension or minimum bending radius is assumed to be predefined. Mechanisms for fatigue and wear are not discussed here, but it is assumed that statistics of tension and curvature are needed in order to estimate the lifetine of a pipe exposed to such degradation. Chapter 3 in this handbook contains information on failure modes and capacity models. The modelling techniques, methods for analysis and design procedures outlined here will in many cases represent improvements of today’s engineering practice. It is, however, believed that in the near future computerized tools needed toHANDBOOK “2 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures support these procedures will be in common use. The intension is therefore to describe what is anticipated to be state-of-the-art in a few years from now (991). Computer programs for global response analysis must be available when conduct ing the outlined design procedures. Several suitable codes are found for this purpose, but no specific programs are described here. When dealing with computerized analyses of complicated systems such as flexible risers, one should always bear in mind that the program, the actual model and the result application all call for thorough quality control. This is why a short section on this matter is included at the end of the chapter. The finite element method (FEM) is today by far the most applied method in structural analysis. Most of the discussion with regard to modelling is therefore related to this method. The structure is discretized into elenents connected by nodes, and equilibrium is found by solving a set of linear or nonlinear equations giving the displacements at these nodes. "System modelling” means how the inertia, damping and stiffness matrices, and the load vector are established. “Load effect analyses” mean how the equations are handled in order to obtain the,solution. "Design procedures" basically refers to which methods are to be employed and which cases are to be analysed. Furthermore, these procedures are related to the application of the results in design or design verification. This chapter stresses the strong links between modelling, solution techniques and procedures In the exposé, enphasis has been laid on general methods. Issues of design Philosophy and practical design processes have not been addressed explicitly, for the following reasons: The_design philosophy must be linked to specific sets of rules or recommendations issued by classification bodies or authorities. Consequently, a discussion of design philosophy adresses one or more sats of rules. It was felt that such @ discussion would be inappropriate in a Handbook.x HANDBOOK 43 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures The design process must start from a specifice concept, where field characteristics are defined like type of petroleum product (chemistry, pressure, temperature}, production characteristics (number of wells, rate), lay-out of field (number of platforms, fixed vs floating, water depth), environmental condition, technical and economical restraints, etc. Again, it would be difficult in a Handbook format to enter into specific discussions of these mattersHANDBOOK .4 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures 4.2 SYSTEM MODELLING 4.2.1 GENERAL REMARKS This section advises about how to establish an adequate mathematical model for static and dynamic load effect anaiyses of flexible risers. It is not possible to describe the "best" model, as a selection of models must be seen in relation to the required accuracy of the results and the costs involved in terms of computer effort and manhours It is, however, important to understand the limitations of a model and, hence, be able to select a proper model for a given application, In general, the description of loads is regarded as the weakest chain in a load effect analysis. This is particuarly true for hydrodynamic loads from waves and currents on a flexible structure. It is therefore important to understand all implications of the load model that is being investigated. 4.2.2 LOADS 4.2.2.1 Weight and Buovancy Basically, the static equilibrium of a submerged pipe can be expressed in two different ways: 1, equilibrium between "pressure resultant” and “axial stress resultants", 2. equilibrium between "effective weight" and “effective axial force". The relation between “axial stress resultant" and “effective axial force” will always be given by + Jy AN + PextRent - PintAint an) a where T, is the effective force and the integral term represents the stress resultant. These terms are illustrated in Figure 4.18HANDBOOK Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures The terms “pressure resultant" and “effective weight” are illustrated in Pigure 4.1b for a continuous submerged pipe with internal fluid. EFFECTIVE FORCE a) Effective force and wall b) Pressure resultant’ and effective stress resultant weight Figure 4.1 Pressure resultants and effective weight. 1, we have the following expressions for load intensities: Referring to Figure B : Archimedes buoyancy force, = PyGAext Weight of flvid/gas content = PcgRjat These two forces are alvays vertical Resultant of external pressure, always directed normal to the pipe axis B,-Bcos & Resultant of internal pressure, always directed opposite to 8, Mente 'c08 @ Weight of pipe in air ‘The effective weight will then be given by Wet Wo ty -B (4.2)HANDBOOK 46 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures The effective weight is constant as long as the section remains submerged. On the other hand, the pressure resultants 5, and v,, are dependent on pipe orien- tation and hence displacenents. This means that the first alternative for equi- Librium formulation will involve nonconservative forces, which is theoretically complicated and will lead to increased computational denands. The second alternative should therefore always be applied in flexible riser analyses. It should, however, be noted that both equilibrium formulations are correct and involve no simplifications. The preference is only based on convenience considerations. A detailed discussion of buoyancy and pressure effects is given by Sparks (1984), while Mathisen (1990) presents numerical testing of the alternative procedures. Most computer programs are based on an effective weight/force formulation. when comparing tension forces to strength criteria, one must always have in mind that the real wall force might be considerably larger than the computed effective tension due to internal pressure. Real axial strains will also be different from the predicted values. This problem is addressed in Section 4.2.5.1. 4.2.2.2 Loads trom Internal Fluid Flow Internal fluid flow will have an effect both on axial stresses and effective tension in the pipe. Three different cases will be considered: © Stationary, uniform flow © Accelerating, uniform flow © Multiphase flow Friction forces between the fluid and the pipe wail are not considered. The stationary, uniform flow case is simple and may serve to illustrate sone basic effects of interest: © ‘The static shape of a riser will not be influenced by the flow velocity. © ‘The internal flow causes an increase of pipe wall tension given by OT, = PcAratvi? (4.3)HANDBOOK 7 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures where v; is the velocity of the internal flow. The force is independent of the curvature of the pipe. It is also interesting to observe that in a straight pipe with clamped ends, this tension can cause an elongation that might lead to a controlled lateral buckling. ‘The buckling is controlled as the shape is completely controlled by the elongation from this tension. © Ina curved pipe there will be a centrifugal force acting laterally. Tf this force is included in the analysis, the effective tension needs to be increased by the term Ory = Deas nts? ay which is the part of the wall tension that will perfectly balance the centrifugal forces Stress and force due to internal flow - like the internal and external pressure - can be handled in two different ways. It is certainly recommended to apply the simplest formulation as both are correct: a ~ A stationary, uniform flow has no influence on the effective tension. - The wall stress resultant is increased according to Eq. (4.3) If the pipe is moving, the inertia forces of the internal flow will cause an additional dynamic response, particularly in strongly curved parts. This is partly due to the well-known Corriolis force, but also because fluid inertia due to pipe motions will travel with the flow. This phenomenon was investigated , cf. FPS2000 Report 2.1-4, Here, @ test with a submerged pipe model was subjected to a range of flow within the FPS2000 project on Flexible Risers and Pips velocities and end motions. The only significant effect that was observed was a change of sag bend motion phase relative to the upper end motions. Curvature and. Afotion amplitudes were insignificantly affected by a stationary internal flow. An accelerated, uniform flow - for instance caused by a sudden stop or start of the flow - will cause an in-plane excitation of a curved pipe. Both of these uniform flow cases can be analysed by a time domain, nonlinear finite element program, by including the appropriate inertia and acceleration terms in the dynamic equilibrium equations. A complete updating of the pipeHANDBOOK Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures geometry is also mandatory when dealing with these problems. In principle, any computer progran able to perform nonlinear time domain analyses can handle this problem, provided that a proper load description is available, see Fylling et al. (1988). The multiphase flow is mainly of interest for gas risers. This problem is far more complicated than the previous ones, due to the interaction betw nn riser motions, external hydrodynamic loading and the internal flow. Some results based on theoretical models are published by Fylling et al. (1988) and Patel and Seyea (1989). A practical approach is to separate the internal flow problem from the motion problem. A simplified flow pattern, e.g. passing a fluid slug through a gas riser with a specified velocity or acceleration, can then be specified as input loading to a pipe motion response analysis. The separation of internal flow analysis from the pipe motion analysis will be a reasonable simplification in cases where the flow velocity is much larger than typical pipe motion velocities An estimate for the change of tension and curvature in the sag bend due to a slug can be obtained from a simplified catenary analysis. The static radius of curvature is Ro * THo/me (4s) where Tyg is the horizontal force component and we equals the effective submerged weight per unit length. With a slug in the sag bend position the normal load is increased wee Meta (6) where the unit slug load, ag, is expressed by ds = My (9 + V52/Rsq) (4.7) where m, is the slug mass and v, the slug flow velocity.HANDBOOK 49 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures - Jobs ‘The horizontal load must then be increased so that é Ti * Tao * Gs ts ¥/2 (4.8) t where x is the horizontal distance and z is the vertical distance from the sag bend to the top. 1, is the length of the slug. Eq. (4.8) is valid for a symmetric catenary provided that the vertical deformation due to the slug is small and that the slug length is much smaller than x. ‘The tension change in the line will be identical to the change of Ty OT, + dels x/2 (4.9) ‘The curvature in the sag bend during the slug passage can now be approximated by Ri = Tai/s (4.10) where w, is given by Eq. (4.6). The bending moment relative to the static bending moment can be expressed by the ratio of curvature radii Ms) Rso THolWetds} V+ de (We oS eee eee eae eee aa Myo” Roy” We(TyorGyls #/2) ” T= Gly /kWR5p uatiae where kaz/x. Examples of calculated quasi-static and dynamic behaviour in the form of “snap- shots" are shown in Figure 4.2. The quasi-static model appears to be good for low velocities. The dynamic response becomes strongly unsymmetric with increasing velocity. The deformation of the sag bend is delayed due to pipe inertia forces and external hydrodynamic loads. For high velocities the pipe does not have time to move at all. In this case, the main effect of the slug is a temporary increase in tension.HANDBOOK 410 Chapter 4 - Design analysis Procedures Quasi- dynamic static a r t T TT f T ° % Sea fo ® To Figure 4.2 Static pipe configuration and examples of dynamic response to slug passage. For the dynamic analysis the pipe is modelled with 40 beam elements, linear bending and axial stiffness, and clamped ends. The simple quasi-static formulas given above have been compared with results fron finite elenent models. The conclusion is that tension increase can be well predicted by the simple quasi-static catenary model. The magnitude of bending nonent increase in the sag bend is also fairly vell predicted by quasi-static analyses. However, dynamic FEM analysis shows that sag bend deformations tend to decrease with increasing velocity, which means that the bending moments pre. dicted from the catenary model are conservative estimates. The bending moment in a fixed support cannot be predicted by a quasi-static enalysis. Results from nonlinear dynamic analysis show that the bending moment increases with increasing slug velocity, slug mass and also with decreasing pipe weight. For a realistic range of slug masses and velocities the forces are found to be significant, but not dramatic. The tension increase is of the order 10-40 percent depending on the pipe weight. The moment increase in the sag bend is ia the range of 60 to 80 percent. The dynamic bending moment in a clamped end is in most cases of the same order of magnitude as for the sag bend.HANDBOOK 411 chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures 4.2.2.3 Hydrodynamic Loads Hydrodynamic load models are recognized as one of the crucial factors when dealing with motion and stress analysis of slender marine structures. For risers, which are typically small volume structures, these loads are dominated by viscous forces where the complexity of the flow problem so far has excluded the use of purely theoretical methods. In practical engineering, such calculations are carried out by semi-empirical methods, like the Morison equation, where the input of empirical force coefficients is needed. In recent years, considerable effort has been made to develop numerical methods for the calculation of vortex generation and vortex tracking, and the corresponding induced forces. Unfortunately, these methods are still not applicable in practical engineering work. An alternative, simpler approach based on the wake/momentum theory has been proposed, see FPS2000 Report 2.1-3, but this method is still at a preliminary stage of development. Seni-empirical load models will probably be used for years to cone. Consequently, the main objective of the present text is to describe and discuss the most frequently applied formulations, and give recommendations on how to select the coefficients. A far more detailed presentation of load models and coefficients is given in ‘Handbook of Hydrodynamic Coefficients of Flexible Risere” (FPS2000 Report 2.1-16). With respect to the problems of hydrodynamic load models, there is (at least) one main topic that is not covered by this text. That is the issue of vortex induced vibrations and the corresponding effects upon the hydrodynamic coefficients to be used. This complex and important field of hydrodynamics is beyond the scope of the present handbook. the reason for not including such models is mainly that many different formulations exist, but no model has so far been developed to a common standard. Hence, the use of hydroelastic load/response models in practical design introduces an additional source of uncertainty since one has to be very careful to avoid the application of a model outside its experimental or theoretical basis. Consequently, for practical engineering it is recommended to use a simple load formulation and then concentrate on a careful selection of coefficients.HANDBOOK 412 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures The Morison load formulation is well established and will be used as the main reference here. The only suggested modification is to include a linear drag term in addition to the quadratic term. This has been proposed by Huse, cf. FPS2000 Report 2.1-7, and h riser areas with low motion amplitudes. proved to be successful for adequate damping modelling in Flow Characterization The coefficients in Morison“s equation are primarily dependent on the parameters: Re = Uden t/V Reynolds number KC = UpT/dey¢ -- Kewlegan-Carpenter number = 2Mg/degt - KC An harmonic flow Kent - Surface roughness Re/KC + 8¢44/VT Frequency parameter combining Re and KC - oscillation velocity amplitude = motion amplitude of water particle T = period of oscillation v= kinematic viscosity of the fluid 4yxt > external diameter The added mass coefficient C, is often used instead of the mass coefficient Cy. Cy is always given as 1+C, as long as the reference volume of the body is equal to the true volune. To distinguish the drag coefficient in oscillatory flow from that in steady flow, the notation Cqg is sometimes used instead of Cy. Morison Equation/Steady Flow Figure 4.3 shows an element of a curved riser. The element length is ds, and v is the resulting flow velocity. The curvature of the riser will be neglected in all load models. The resulting force on the element will have one component F in the v-ds plane, and for noncircular cross sections a lift component F, can beHANDBOOK 413 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures present normal to this plane. £,° is the resulting force component normal to the pipe axis, while F, is the component of F,” that is found in the v-ds plane. There is no lift component for circular cross sections, which means that F,“*F,- View in the V-ds plane Vex Cirevlar eross section Noneireular cross section Figure 4.3 Steady flow, velocity and force components. In general, there will be an angle 6*0 between F and v. From experimental results, and as generally used in the literature, F is conveniently decomposed into a local riser coordinate system, i.e. by one normal force component, F,, and one tangential force component, Fy (Figure 4.3). Alternatively, F may be decomposed into an in-line component, F,, and an in-plane lift component, F,. In the following, forces are given per unit length of the riser, i.e. f=F/ds ete.WANDBOOK aus Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures Normal Flow Drag If the relative flow angle G is 90 deg, the fluid force per unit length on a circular cylinder is given by the well-known drag force expression as fo * Coo Fede eev? (4.12) where Cy, is the drag coefficient, p, the water density, dg,, the characteristic external diameter and v is relative fluid/pipe velocity. Cgq is commonly denoted Cy only and is in general dependent on the cylinder cross section shape, the Reynolds number, and the relative surface roughness K/dext, where k is a characteristic roughness height. ‘The majority of published drag data for various cylinders refer to the Cy. value as defined above. Reference is made to Figures 4.4-4.7 for detailed information that is relevant for flexible risers and umbilicais. For a riser diameter in the range d,,,*0.1-0.5 m and for v=1 m/s, the Reynolds number is typically in the range Re=0.8-4.2°105, which is near to or in the critical regime. The basic drag coefficient Cy, is very sensitive to the surface roughn s in this regime, For noncircular cross sections one can in principle have direction dependent drag and lift coefficients. It is, however, more convenient to decompose the flow velocity into components along the symmetry axes where no lift forces will occur (see Figure 4.3). The force components along these axes will then be 2 1 fox * Coon 7 PwSx Vox (4.93) 1 foy * Caoy 7 Pwdy Yny The force resultant will in general not follow the direction of the velocity component.HANDBOOK Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures 3 ‘ ° Etriticat i suercriticol_jpost-superceitical Seberitical ‘shear lover near separation Fration, owole! curoules: uroulent Incompresible low regimes and their consequences Am——1 8 CHAD Figure 4.4 Drag coefficient for circular cylinders as a function of Reynolds number, from Sarpkaya and Isacson (1981). Figure 4.5 Drag coefficients of cylinder with various degress roughness (k/d), from Hoerner (1965), of surfaceHANDBOOK 4.16 Chapter ¢ - Design Analysis Procedures sereracen 1971/0 + 6.51075 seperocen 1971 w+ Last0"? Foams C561 AG COESFICHENN. Gy (aie ot a ane ¢ 2 se ew . REELS MOOSE, Be Figure 4.6 Drag coefficients for rough cylinders as a function of Reynolds number, from Sarpkaya and Isacson (1961). Contet9 corte Figure 4.7 Drag coefficients of stranded vires, steel cables and ropes, from Hoerner (1965).HANDBOOK 4.17 chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures In this formulation, fq. (4.13), the coefficients Cyox and Cypy should be regarded as independent of the incoming flow angle. This formulation is not consistent with Eq. (4.12), which is valid for circular cross sections. fq. (4.13) should therefore only be applied to cross sections that are significantly noncircular. Alternatively, one can establish drag and lift coefficients that are dependent on the flow velocity angle relative to local cross section axes. Figure 4.8 gives information on Cyox and Cyo, for some important cross section shapes. 4 104 10° 108 a = OS Figure 4.8 Drag coefficients as function of Reynolds number for different cross sectional bodies in steady flow, from Hoerner (1965) In constant current, a Munk moment that leads to torque in the pipe will also be present. This moment can be found by 2 2 Maunk = PwYnx Yay (CaxT@y + Cnyféy) (4a) where Cy, and Cy, are the added mass coefficients in x and y directions respectively.HANDBOOK 4.18 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures Effect of Riser Inclination, Crossflow Principle For the typical blunt section shapes like the circular cylinder (except for very low Reynolds numbers (Re<1000)), the drag force as given by Eq. (4.12) is totally dominated by pressure resistance drag due to a separation of flow. Furthermore, frictional drag can be neglected. ‘The pressure drag will dominate also for an inclined cylinder (a<90 deg) . The pressure acts normal to the cylinder and the drag must be proportional to the dynamic pressure in that direction, i.e. proportional to v,?+v?sin?a, Purther, it is assumed that the pressure distribution is independent of the tangential component of the velocity, vy. This is the so-called crossflow or independence principle (see e.g. Sarpkaya and Isacson (1981)). The normal force per unit length is then given by a = Con” ZPwdext¥?sinza (4.15) where the normal force coefficient, Cy,", is not necessarily equal to Cyg, but nay depend on G. However, the usual assumption is Cy,"=Cg- For the cixcular cylinder, this is strictly valid only for Re in the subcritical range where Cy, is fairly constant. In general, Cy," is dependent on the Reynolds number and the angle of inclination relative to the flow. The appropriate Reynolds number to be used is Gisputed, however, it is usually referred to the normal component of the velocity Re, = Yndext/V = Re sing (4.16) For circular cylinders, experimental results of Cy,"(Re,G) and Cgq"(R@,,@) in the critical flow regime are shown in Pigure 4.9. For a<40 deg the effect of the inclination seems to resemble that of surface roughness. The transition from laminar to turbulent separation is promoted and the minimum level of Cg," is increased. The flow conditions for flexible risers may often be such that they are near or in the critical flow regime.HANDBOOK Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures Se 7 usinso/v 5 rs ie wo 1? id [Normal drag coefficient versus Reynolds number of inclined eylinders Rept with “Normal Component” Reynolds numer (== Burma and Lotin 1951. “Timble 965) SP Pigure 4.9 Normal drag coefficient vs Reynold nvber of inclined cylinders, from Sarpkaya and Tsacson (1981). The crossflow principle can easily be extended to the noncircular cross section case. This is achieved by decomposing the normal flow velocity (v-sinc) into the local coordinate system and using Eq. (4.13). Normal and Tangential Forces (Bare Riser) For cylinders and rij rs without buoyancy elements, the tangential force, fy, mainly due to friction and is small compared to the is normal drag force, fy. analysis under various flow conditions and for very long risers, it is often necessary to include the However, for an accurate tangential force. with reference to the total resultant velocity, v, the forces may be written as fy = Con FPudent ¥? (any) 1 fy = Cory Pudent v2 where Cy, and Cy, are the tangential and normal force coefficient, respectively.HANDBOOK 4.20 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures According to the crossflow principle, the normal force coefficient CyqnCyn"sin2a is usually applied. The tangential force f; is generally not proportional to the square of the tangential component of the velocity, i.e. vy?ev? cos?a, although this is widely used in computer codes etc. Guidelines on the selection of the tangential force coefficients Cy, can be found in FPS2000 Report 2.1-16. The following formula is proposed by Eanes (1968) and could be used under normal flow conditions for flexible pipes Cot * Cao (0-03 + 0.085 © sina) - cosa (4.18) where & is defined in Figure 4.3. Cg. is the drag coefficient for normal flow, see Eq. (4.12). Riser With Buoyancy Elenents For riser sections with buoyancy elements, the drag area and shape of the elements usually imply that the hydrodynamic loads are dominated by the forces acting on the elements. The effects of flow drag on 3-D bodies are then pronounced compared to the 2-D cylinder drag as described above. Hence, the application of the crossflow principle is questionable. Furthermore, tangential forces become equally important as normal forces. With cespect tu cefecence velovily fur Une definition of the force coefficients, there are several possible alternatives. A suitable choice is the alternative giving the least dependence on the coefficients with respact to the relative flow angle a. In general, the drag force in each direction (normal and tangential) for a riser with buoyancy elements can be written 1 £y(G) © Cqy lO) ~PwSy V1 Ve (4.19) where d, is a characteristic reference drag diameter. The following options nay be used for v; and vp:HANDBOOK 421 Chapter ¢ - Design Analysis Procedures alt. a b c ve v v Yj vw + v yy vy where v is the total relative velocity and vy is the velocity component in direction j. Hence, the force components of the riser with buoyancy elements can be written as: alt. a) t+ (4.20) tye Alt. B) a al : = Can’ $048 ¥ Yn = Cyn “8ina Zoya) ; ay a4 aed f_ = Cat’ feud ¥ ve = Cat “coea 9,8, v? alt. ep fn * Can” $Pudy Yo? = Cyn*sin2a,tpydy v2 2 * Can” Pwd1 Yo? * Can Pad (4.22) 1 1 Coe” doudi ve? = Caeteos?a Loyd) v2 wher Can’s Can” = Normal force coefficients Cav’ Cae” = Tangential force coefficients - A/lg, here chosen as a reference “drag diameter A = Projected area for normal flow (a » 90 deg) ds ~ Length of section with buoyancy elements and Con’ + Con/8inae Con” = Can/sin?a Cat * Cat/cosa Catt = Cye/cos2aHANDBOOK 4.22 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures Special attention must be paid to the selection of hydrodynamic coefficients when modelling a riser with buoyancy modules, The coefficients used as input parameters to the actual computer code must comply with the implied load model. Examples of how to determine the coefficients are given in the following. Coefficients for Riser Buoyancy Sections Several investigations have been carried out for riser sections with buoyancy elements subjected to oscillatory flow within the FPS2000 project on Flexible Risers and Pipes. For large KC numbers, the flow conditions are approaching the steady flow conditions. Such test results may also be useful for the steady flow ca ‘The geometry of the tested buoyancy section is seen on Figure 4.10. 20mm Figure 4.10 Geonetry of tested buoyancy sections, from FPS2000 Report 2.1-1, According to FPS?000 Report 2.1-1, the axial drag coefficients, Cqy, for a riser section with buoyancy elements may be found from Can = Cor NyTe Choral (4.23) ia sping aeboun Yomngs wins Coe song Tyct aca aro aoa forse ad be M6 Fon One aeraFANDBOOK 4.23 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures where: Cqy = tag coefficient of one singie sucyancy element for GeO dog and the geometry in question, refesring to the axes 7&y2/4 =A dy = Aianeter of buoyancy elenent Ng = number of buoyancy elenents Ty = interaction factor depending on KC, Nand the elenent spacing Ce: can be taken from Figure 4.11, Note that for the steady flow case this coefficient appears to be 1.0 for the tested geometry. Curves showing the interaction factor I, as function of Ny, Sp/4y and KC are presented on Figure 4.12. Again, KC > 100 will give an approximation to the steady flow case. Fo convert Cyy to the tangential coefficient according to Eq. (4.20), the following expression is valid Cha A (ara Dens, Cone Cht > Tang dglg Va = Mormd eral 1 dz) (see ersten) worenep Car = ean Puda2/aite Cae = Cn CE IG Qe Ley a rea g 1 Ania dg dott (A Flan) > cay Mean Cre ay where 1, is the lengti of thé riser section with (PL Acey elements and ay as defined under Eq. (4.22). cat 00 ° 20 40 60 80 100 120 KC Figure 4.11 Cg, as function of KC, from FPS2000 Report 2.1-1HANDBOOK 4.24 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures en Ny = 10 0.8 > 0.6 pos 0.4 = o2 |. at 00-7] tee SEES) eee eee eee peo eee PoC 1 2 § 10 203050 100 x¢ ost 96% 4 Ny =20 10} oa 0.6 = 0.4 0.2 0.0 Ie > 1 2 5 10 2030 50 100 Ke Figure 4.12 Interaction factor I, from FPS2000 Report 2.1-1. ‘The normal drag coefficient should be taken as for a cylinder with the actual average diameter. This is a needed simplification to avoid direction dependent coefficients. Oscillatory flow Due to direct wave actions and top end excitation from yave induced vessel motions, marine risers will be subjected to an oscillatory fluid flow. A considerable effort has been made over the last decades to develop practical load models for these kinds of problems, but still the Morison equation with constant coefficients is the only model in common use. This is the situation in spite of the fact that there is a lot of information on how these coefficients depend on the flow parameters. In principle, such dependencies could be implemented into computer codes. The main reasons for this somewhat contradictory situation are:HANDBOOK 4.25 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures © alternative models are more complicated in use and would require increased computation resources. @ alternative models would also require qualified users in the sense that a user should know more about hydrodynamics to avoid misuse and, hence, erroneous results. © normally, the use of simple models combined with a check involving upper and lower bond values of the coefficients will ensure a conservative estimate of the load effect: An extension of the Morison equation is needed to include the combined effects of wave, current and structural oscillations. The normal fluid force per unit length at a given location may be expressed by . a 1 fy = CeOwAentiin = (Cat) Puderthn + Co 5 Pudext!¥nI¥n (4.25) where: Cp, Cy - hydrodynamic coefficients, may depend on the actual combined flow field (see below) lay = normal component of wave particle acceleration ¥, = normal component of structural acceleration ; va, = normal component of resultant velocity (see below) In Eq. (4.25), it 4 assumed that the current is stationary, so that the wave field is the only contribution to the fluid acceleration, The relative velocity is usually determined by the vector summation of the velocity contributions from the waves, current and structure motion veurt-k (4.26) For noncircular cross sections the normal velocity ,v,, should be decomposed as for the steady flow case, This is also required for the acceleration terms. The inertia coefficient must then be found for the main directions, as for the drag. Tangential friction and inertia forces can be found by considering the relevant components, cf. Eq. (4.17) The drag and inertia coefficients in Eq. (4.25) are well-known to be dependent on flow parameters like Reynolds number, Keulegan-Carpenters number, and surface roughness, Such effects are discussed in more detail in FPS2000 Report 2.1-16. Formulation and the application of sophisticated models are needed to consider these effects.HANDBOOK 4.26 chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures For practical design purposes, the following simple rules shoulda be followed: 1. The inertia force coefficient should always be taken as 2.0. The only case reported with larger values is a combination of low KC and low Re numbers. This is outside the area of interest for flexible riser design. Reduction of the inertia coefficient is often seen for low Re numbers, but this reduction should not normally be considered. See Figure 4.13. 2. The drag coefficient for the wave and current case in a typical design condition should be taken as the coefficients found for steady flow, with the same Re nunber and roughness. This follows from the fact that such conditions have high KC numbers, which approximate steady flow. The only exception is that even for smooth cylinders the drag coefficient should never be taken less than 0.7. See Pigure 4.14. 3. The drag coefficient increases with decteasing KC values. However, such low KC values are not of interest for extreme conditions. Neverthell 5, it might be relevant to increase the drag coefficient for lower sea states in a fatigue study. An average KC value should then be estinated for each sea state. The drag coefficient in the wave effected zone could then be taken from the average curve in Figure 4.15. 4. Tangential drag or friction coefficients for a bare riser should be taken as for the steady flow, cf. Eq. (4.18). 5. With respect to the tangential drag on a riser with buoyancy modules, the following observations arc made: © ‘The bovyancy modules are normally found at the lower part of the riser, where drag forces often will act as damping forces. The use of Cy taken from high KC numbers will hence lead to reduced damping. Consequently, the results will be conservative. © Extreme waves (long periods), may impose wave induced forces directly on the buoyancy modules. Hence, the flow can give moderate KC values. Such conditions might be important for the design cf the bottom termination of the riser From these observations it is concluded that the drag coefficient for design analysis should be varied within reasonable limits (cf. Figure 4.12). 6. Results have been published showing a reduction of the drag coefficient for a cylinder in oscillatory flow, due to the presence of current, see FigureHANDBOOK 4.27 Chapter ¢ - Design Analysis Procedures 4.16, This reduction is limited to relatively low KC values and should therefore not be taken into consideration in a design analysis. Significant uncertainties are still present when dealing with hydrodynamic coefficients. In addition, one cannot be sure that increased numerical value of the drag coefficient gives more conservative results when computing ynanic responses, One should therefore always carry out a simple sensiti- vity analysis with reasonable variations of the coefficients, whenever a high level of confidence is required. re T ott Re/kc = 5260. | Nae 1107 gg7 Ke esl Lo Figure 4.13 C, vs KC for various values of Re/KC, from Sarpkaya and Isacson (1981). Figure 4.14 Cy vs Reynolds number for various values of KC, from Sarpkaya and Isacson (1961).HANDBOOK 4.26 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures 0 Test data Re ——— Nean fitted line te Te Kc Figure 4.15 Drag coefficient vs KC for a smooth circular cylinder in waves, : fron Chakrabarti (1987). Re/kc = 1594 = 0.0 3.63 6.17 (ay * 8 7 10 2 3 OK S (b) Figure 4.16 Drag coefficient for a smooth oscillating cylinder in un:form colinear current for (a) Re/KC+1594 and (b) Re/KC= 2487, from Sarpkaya et al. (1984)HANDBOOK 4.29 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures Linear Drag Fore The drag force on a body in oscillatory flow may be expressed by the usual quadratic drag term as Fa = Cae detent v2 (ean or, by including « Linear drag tern Py = Ky, ¥ + Ky v2 (4.28) where Kg, and Ky; are the linear and quadratic coefficients. The usual requirement is that the work done by the drag force over one cycle must be the same in the two cases. Traditionally, with respect to damping models, the linear term has been associated either with a low Re number, viscous (skin friction) force, or wave making (radiation) when the body is oscillating close to the free surface. However, both experiments and theory cf. FPS2000 Report 2.1-7, show that it is relevant and convenient to include a linear drag terms also when the above effects are small. This may be particularly useful in the case of buoyancy element bodies. The advantage of using the linear drag term is that the KC dependence of the drag coefficients is reduced, and constant coefficients can be used at least within a given KC range. The physical explanation is that the linear term accounts for the memory effect of the wake. Further details about this model and how to implement it is found in FPS2000 Reports 2.1-6 and 2.1-16). 4.2.2.4 Borced Motions Flexible risers and jumpers are often connected to a floating vessel or buoy. A dynamic riser analysis must therefore also consider the motion of this body. Normally, such motions can be found in a separate analysis and thereafter be introduced as predescribed displacements in the riser analysis. This approach is possible as long as the riser has a neglible effect on the motions. If a signi-HANDBOOK 4.30 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures ficant coupling is present, a simultaneous analysis of riser dynamics and body motions must be performed (coupled analysis). This might be necessary for offshore loading systens with buoys, but certainly not required for risers connected to seni-submersibles or production vessels. ‘The parameter to control the interaction effect is the "inertia stiffness" of the body related to the dynamic stiffness of the riser. With reference to Figure 4.17, the uncoupled approach may be applied if Trax Tain w2 m>> key, = (4.29) Xmax nin where © is the wave frequency, m is the mass and the minimum and maximum tension and displacement (1,x) values are taken during one wave period. t Figure 4.17 Riser/body interaction. An approximate coupled approach is possible by introducing the riser as a (Linear) quasi-static spring in the motion analysis. Thereafter to apply the calculated motions in the dynamic riser analysis. This method is meaningful if the difference between quasi-static and dynamic riser tension is small compared to the inertia forces of the body. The damping effect from the riser on vessel motions can also be included in a similar way. sel motions are defined in terms of transfer functions. The Normally, v transfer function is often described by an amplitude and a phase angle, both being wave frequency dependent. The motion amplitudes are given per unit wave height. The phase angles are the time lag between the wave and motion.HANDBOOK aay Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures It is extremely important to be sure that the phase angle definition applied in the motion analysis is identical to the convention applied in the dynamic riser analysis. This is because the relative riser/water particle velocities close to the sea surface - and hence the drag forces - are strongly dependent on this phase angle. When dealing with the separate approach, it is also important to handle wave induced velocities consistently. Normally, first order vessel motions are calculated by theories considering the body as not moving, when calculating the wave forces. When using such motions as predefined end displacenents in the riser analysis, it is not correct to update the riser node coordinates when calculating wave forces. If such updating is performed, an incorrect phase between the force displacements, and wave actions will be introduced. the consequence of this error is difficult to quantify. If the vessel motions are found from nonlinear theories allowing the body to move in the wave potential, the riser geometry should also be updated during force calculation in the riser analysis. It is of course more correct to consider the real motions in the wave potential. However, to do this for only one part in an uncoupled analysis is to compensate for one simplification by introducing an error. Vessel motions are often seen to be separated into one wave frequency component (first order motions) and one low frequency component, from wind and second order wave forces. The last component is normally not considered in a dynamic riser analysis, mainly due to the extremely long records needed if a meaningful stochastic analysis should be performed. There is one possible shortcut to include the effect from low frequency motions when dealing with extreme response stimation. That is to establish a probability distribution for this effect from a quasi-static analysis based on a simple functional relationship between the vessel excursion and the actual response parameter. This component can then be ssumed statistically independent of the high frequency component found from a traditional dynamic analysis. This approach is based on the assumption that the two components are independent, also in that sense that the low frequency position does not affect the dynamic behaviour of the risor.HANDBOOK 4.32 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures ‘The dominant periods for low frequency motions are controlled by the eigenperiod of the surge for an anchored vessel or the characteristics of the dynamic positioning control system, if present. For deep water applications, the eigenperiod of a flexible riser may appear in the same range as the vessel, which means that dynamic amplification may occur. Such systems call for special attention. 4.2.2.5 Concentrated vs Consistent Loads A concentrated force model means that a distributed load on an element is lumped to the nodes and introduced in the global load vector as discrete forces. According to St. Venant’s principle, this model will give (close to) correct overall displacements even, if the stresses in the area close to the loaé might have significant errors. A consistent load model calculates nodal loads by applying the displacement interpolation functions B= [NT qx) ax (4.30) 1 where P is the consistent load vector, Nis the interpolation function vector and q is vector containing the distributed load functions. Typically, P will contain node moments while the concentrated load model will give forces only from distributed volume and hydrodynamic forces. The use of a concentrated force model on a long slender beam subjected to a uniform distributed load is illustrated in Figure 4.18. The error in the node moment found from node displacements and stress matrices is seen to occur from the load distribution on the element and is given by giz Merror ™ “Ty (.3ty where q is the distributed load intensity and 1 the element length. The error is nto be strongly dependent on the actual discretization, This term should be compared to the termHANDBOOK 4.33 Chapter 4 - Design Analysis Procedures MEI K (4.32) where x is the riser curvature and £I is the bending stiffness (tim 2 Distibuted load ; Be ——— Conconrated forces he 7 Moment diagram trom FEM solution Tear function

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