PROGRAMA DE INGENIERIA ELECTRICA

SISTEMAS DE GENERACIN
COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION
FUNDAMENTALSOFCOMBUSTION Combustion of fuels must be considered both from theoretical and practical perspectives. From the theoreticalperspective,combustioncanbe defined asthe rapid chemical reaction of oxygen with the combustible elements of a fuel. From a practical standpoint, the engineer concerned with boiler design and performance mightdefinecombustionasthechemicalunionofthefuel combustibles and the oxygen of the air, controlled at a ratethatproducesusefulheatenergy. Both of these definitions implicitly consider many key factors. For complete combustion within a furnace, four basiccriteriamustbesatisfied:

COMBUSTION 1. Adequate quantity of air (oxygen) supplied to the fuel, 2.Oxygenandfuelthoroughlymixed, 3. Fuelair mixture maintained at or above the ignition temperature,and 4. Furnace volume large enough to give the mixture timeforcompletecombustion.

COMBUSTION
The combustion process follows fundamental principles that must be understood by the designers and operators of boilers toensurereliableserviceandhighefficiency. 1. Control of air supply. The amount of air required depends on the fuel, the equipment used for combustion, and the operating conditions and is determined from manufacturers recommendations.Toomuchairresultsinanexcessiverelease of hot gases from the stack with a correspondingly high heat loss and reduction in efficiency. A deficiency of air permits some of the fuel, unburned or only partially burned, to pass through the furnace, which also results in a reduction in efficiency. It is therefore important that the best proportion of air to fuel be determined and maintained in order to obtain thehighestefficiencypossible.

COMBUSTION
2. Mixing of air and fuel. Air and fuel must be mixed thoroughly, since each combustible particle must come into intimatecontactwiththeoxygencontainedintheairbefore combustion can take place. If the air distribution and mixing are poor, there will be an excess of air in some portions of the fuel bed or combustion chamber and a deficiency in others. Combustion equipment is designed with this principle in mind in an attempt to obtain the best possible mixingoffuelandair. 3. Temperature required for combustion. All around us we see combustible material in intimate contact with air, and still it is not burning. Actually, a chemical reaction is taking place, but it is so slow that it is referred to not as combustion but as oxidation. The corrosion (rusting) of steel when exposed to the atmosphere is an example of this id ti

COMBUSTION
When the combustible material reaches its ignition temperature, oxidation is accelerated and the process is called combustion. It is the rapid chemical combination of oxygen withthecombustibleelementsofafuel.Therefore,itisevident that it is important to maintain the fuel and air mixture at a temperaturesufficientlyhightopromotecombustion. When the flame comes into contact with the relatively cool boiler tubes, the carbon particles are deposited in the form of soot. When boilers are operated at a very low capacity, the temperatures are lower, which can result in incomplete combustion and excessive smoke if combustion controls are notsetproperly.

COMBUSTION
4. Time required for combustion. Air supply, mixing, and temperature determine the rate at which combustion progresses. In all cases an appreciable amount of time is required to complete the process. When the equipment is operated at an excessively high capacity, the time may be insufficient to permit complete combustion. As a result, considerableunburnedfuelisdischargedfromthefurnace.The rejected material may be in the form of solid fuel or combustible gases. The resulting loss may be appreciable and thereforemustbecheckedandcontrolled.

COMBUSTION
Combustion air requirements for various fuels at zero excess air a rangeofvaluesasanapproximatefunctionofhydrogencontent.

COMBUSTION
In combustion work the gas temperature varies over a wide range. Air enters the furnace or air heater, for example, at 70F,isheatedinsomeinstancestoover3000Finthefurnace, and is finally discharged from the stack at between 300 and 400F. During these temperature changes, the volume varies because the gases are maintained near atmospheric pressure. This is most important because fans, flues and ducts, boiler passes, etc., must be designed to accommodate these variationsinvolume.

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION
Whenoxygenandthecombustibleelementsorcompoundsare mixed in definite proportions at an elevated temperature under ideal conditions, they will combine completely. [The theoretical proportions (no deficiency and no excess) of elements or compounds in a chemical reaction are referred to as the stoichiometric ratio. This shows that a given combustible element requires a definite amount of oxygen to complete combustion. If additional oxygen is supplied (more than necessary for complete combustion), the excess will not enter into the reaction but will pass through the furnace unchanged. On the other hand, if there is a deficiency of oxygen,thecombustiblematerialwillremainunburned.

COMBUSTION
Example The atomic and molecular weights of elements and compounds are useful in determining the weights and volume of gases. It has been determined that at the same temperature and pressureagiven volume of all perfect gases will contain the same numberofmolecules.Totestthistheory,calculatethevolumein cubic feet of 32 lb of oxygen and 28 lb of nitrogen (weights equivalenttotheirrespectivemolecularweights). Solution The specific volume in cubic feet per pound of oxygen and nitrogen as given in Table 4.1 are, respectively, 12.03 and 13.75atapressureof14.7lb/in2andat68F.Therefore, 32lbx12.03ft3/lb=385ft3 ofoxygen 28lbx13.75ft3/lb=385ft3 ofnitrogen The weight of pounds of any substance, equal to its molecular weight, is known as a pound mole. Therefore, a pound mole of oxygenequals32lbandapoundmoleofnitrogenequals28lb.

COMBUSTION
Thefollowingisanexplanationofsomeofthechemical

COMBUSTION
The following is an explanation of some of the chemical reactions involvedincombustion: The volume of carbon dioxide (CO2) produced is equal to the volume of oxygen (O2) used. The carbon dioxide gas is, however, heavier than the oxygen. The combining weights are 12 lb of carbon (1x12) and 32 lb of oxygen (2x16), uniting to form 44 lb of carbon dioxide, or 1 lb of carbon requires2.67lbofoxygen(32/12=2.67)andproduces3.67lbofcarbon dioxide (1 + 2.67 = 3.67). The combustion of 1 lb of carbon produces 14,540Btu. When carbon is burned to carbon monoxide (CO), which is incomplete combustion,thevolumeofoxygenusedisonlyonehalfofthatrequired for completely burning the carbon to carbon dioxide; the volume of carbon monoxide produced is two times that of the oxygen supplied. The heat released is only 4355 Btu/lb, but it is 14,540 Btu when 1 lb of carbon iscompletelyburned.Thenet loss is,therefore,10,185Btu/lbof carbon and shows the importance of completely burning the combustiblegasesbeforetheyareallowedtoescapefromthefurnace.

COMBUSTION
Hydrogen is a very light gas with a high heat value. The combustion of 1 lb of hydrogen gas liberates 62,000 Btu. To develop this heat, two molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to form two molecules of water. One volume of oxygen is required for two volumes of hydrogen. The weight relations are 1 lb of hydrogen and 8 lb of oxygen, producing 9 lb ofwater.Thiswaterappearsaswatervaporinthefluegases.

COMBUSTION

Sulfur is an undesirable constituent in fuels. It has a heating value of only 4050 Btu/lb (Table 4.1), contaminates the atmosphere with sulfur dioxide unless controlled with air pollution control equipment, and causes corrosion in the flues, economizers, and air heaters. Someformsofsulfuradverselyaffectpulverization.

COMBUSTION
In the combustion process, 1 lb of sulfur combines with 1 lb of oxygentoform2lbofsulfurdioxide.(Actually,aportionofthesulfur isconvertedtosulfurtrioxide.Thesummationofallthesulfur oxides in the flue gases is referred to as SOx) The sulfur dioxide in the flue gasescanbeapproximatedasfollows: SO2 lb/h=KX lb/hfuelburnedX 2X S/100 where K = the ratio of SO2 in flue gases to a theoretical amount resulting from the combustion of the sulfur in the fuel (frequently assumed to be 0.95) and S = the percentage of sulfur in the fuel. It is customary to express sulfur oxide emission in pounds per million BTUsoffuelburned. SO2 lb/millionBTU=(SO2 lb/hX1,000,000)/(lbfuel/hX Btu/lbinfuel)

COMBUSTION
Example Coal containing 1.5 percent sulfur with a Btu content of 11,500Btu/lbburnsattherateof3tonsperhour.What is the sulfur emissioninpoundspermillionBtusinputtofurnace? Solution

In practice, the oxygen supplied for combustion is obtained from the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases that for practical purposes may be considered as being composedofthefollowing:

COMBUSTION
Only the oxygen enters into chemical combination with the fuel. The nitrogen combines in small amounts with the oxygen to form nitrogen oxides, commonly called NOx. These are an atmospheric pollutant. The amount of NOx produced depends on the combustion process. The higher the temperature in the furnace, the greater the amount ofnitrogenoxides.Theremainderofthenitrogenpassesthrough the combustion chamber without chemical change. It does, however, absorb heat and reduces the maximum temperature attained by the productsofcombustion. Since 1 lb of carbon requires 2.67 lb of oxygen (see Table 4.2), we mustsupply:4.32x2.67=11.53lbofairperpoundofcarbon The 11.53 lb of air is composed of 2.67 lb of oxygen and 8.86 lb of nitrogen. 11.53 2.67 =8.86 lbair lbO2 lbN2.

COMBUSTION
Byreferringtotheequationforthechemicalreactionofcarbon and oxygen, we find that 1 lb of carbon produces 3.67 lb of carbon dioxide. Therefore, the total products of combustion formed by burning 1 lb of carbon with the theoretical amount ofairare8.86lbofnitrogenand3.67lbofcarbondioxide. In a similar manner it can be shown that 1 lb of hydrogen requires 34.56 lb of air for complete combustion. The resulting products of combustion are 9 lb of water and 26.56 lb of nitrogen. Also, 1 lb of sulfur requires 4.32 lb of air, and therefore, the products of combustion are 3.32 lb of nitrogen and 2 lb of sulfurdioxide.

COMBUSTION
MethaneCombustion.

Theconditionunderwhich,ordegreetowhich,combustiontakes placeisexpressedasperfect,complete,orincomplete.Perfect combustion,whichwehavebeendiscussing,consistsofburning allthefuelandusingonlythecalculatedortheoreticalamount of air.Completecombustionalsodenotesthecompleteburningof thefuelbutbysupplying morethanthetheoreticalamountofair. Theadditionalairdoesnotenterintothechemicalreaction. Incompletecombustionoccurswhenaportionofthefuelremains unburnedbecauseofinsufficientair,impropermixing,orother reasons.SeeSec.4.4foradiscussionofcoalanalysis.

COMBUSTION
The values given in Table 4.6 will now be used in determining the amount of air required and the resulting products involved in the perfectcombustionof1lbofcoalhavingthefollowinganalysis:
Constituent Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Sulfur Ash Total Weightperlb 0.75 0.05 0.02 0.09 0.01 0.08 1.00

COMBUSTION
Therefore, when analyzing following Table, it takes approximately 10 lb of air to burn 1 lb of coal, and this combustion results in approximately11lboffluegas(10.942)onatheoreticalbasis.

COMBUSTION
In practice, it is necessary and economical to supply more air than the theoretical amount in order to obtain complete combustion. The air supplied to a combustion process in an amount above that theoreticallyrequiredisknownasexcessair. The flue gas analysis is effective in determining the amount of air supplied for combustion, as indicated by following figure. This graphshowsshowtheamountofexcessairusedinthecombustion process can be calculated by the percentage of either carbon dioxide or oxygen in the flue gases. When a single fuel is burned, thecarbondioxidecontentofthefluegasesprovidesasatisfactory indexoftheamountofexcessairbeingused.Thiscanbeexplained by the fact that with the complete combustion of 1 lb of carbon, 3.67lbofcarbondioxideisproduced.(seenbefore)

COMBUSTION
Therefore, the amount of carbon dioxide formed depends on the amount of carbon burned. When a relatively large amount of air is used, the fixed amount of carbon dioxide gas will be diluted and the percentage correspondingly lowered. Conversely, if only a small amount of excess air is used, there will be less dilution, and thepercentageofcarbondioxidewillberelativelyhigh.Foragiven percentage of excess air, fuels with higher carbonhydrogen ratio will have a higher percentage of carbon dioxide in the flue gases than fuels with lower carbonhydrogen ratio. For a given percentage of excess air, the flue gases from a coalfired furnace will have a higher percentage of carbon dioxide than when fuel oil is burned. For example, flue gas will contain 12 percent carbon dioxide when 54 percent excess air is used with bituminous coal andonly27percentexcessairwithfueloil(seefollowingFigure).

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION
The percentage of oxygen in the flue gases provides an adequate measurement of excess air when either single or multiple fuels are being used. The oxygen in the flue gases represents that portion which entered but did not combine with the combustible elements in the fuel. This oxygen in the flue gases and the nitrogen with which it was mixed are the excess air. The theoretical oxygen and therefore air requirement is approximately proportional to the heat content of the fuel even with variations in the carbon hydrogen ratio. For a given percentage of oxygen, the excess air is approximately the same for either coal or fuel oil. For example, a flue gas will contain 6 percent oxygen when 40 percent excess air is used with bituminous coal and 38.8 percentexcessairwithfueloil.

COMBUSTION
FlueGasAnalysis Thisiscontinuouslymonitoredinaboilerasitisthe onlyway to measure the completeness of combustion. Commercial controlroomindicationisforO2,CO2,andCObypercentage ofvolumeondrybasis. AdequateO2 readingonpanelassuresthatthereisexcessair. Little or no CO indicates a good mixing of air and fuel leading tocompletecombustion. O2 or CO2 is measured by the gauge instrumentation. O2 measurement is generally preferred due to ease and consistencyofmeasurementanddirectnessofresult. For testing purposes, CO2 measurement is mandatory and is usuallyperformedbyOrsatanalyzer.

COMBUSTION
The flue gas analysis is obtained by use of the Orsat, or by a Zirconium oxideprobe. Excess air also can be considered as providing a safety factor above the actual air that is required for combustion. A boiler that is operating without sufficient air has the potential for a dangerous condition because the fuel-air mixture is fuel-rich, and the possibility of an explosion exists. Everything discussed so far shows how important it is to control correct combustion in boilers, if you want to save fuel. Normally these combustion units are designed to operate between 10 and 30% excess air, depending in part of the fuel used, with which oxygen gas in the chimney will be between 2% and less than 5% as shown in the following Figure

COMBUSTION
Orsatanalysisisstillconsideredthebest methodtoanalyzethefluegases accurately. Orsatapparatus(Figure)consistsof(A)a burette graduatedbottomupwardinto100 divisions,(B)anaspiratorbottle,and(D1 D3)threepipettescontainingabsorbentsfi lledwithglasstubesorbeads(forincreasing theareaofabsorption). Potassiumhydroxidesolution(KOH)for CO2(andalsoSO2).Freshlyprepared alkalinepyrogallolorpyrogallicacidforO2 Asolutionofcuprouschloride(CuCl2)in NH3orHClforCO(andalsoforethylene andacetylene). Eachpipetteisconnectedtoanempty pipettebehinditsothattheabsorbentcan recedeintoitasthegasisadmitted.

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION
There is (C) the main isolating cock for gas retention in the system along with (F1F3) the three isolating cocks for the threepipettes. Theprocedureconsistsof(1)aspirating100ccofgaswiththe helpoftheaspiratorbottle,(2)absorbingthegasinthethree absorbents in a defi nite sequence, and (3) noting the absorption by difference in the measuring burette. Care, strict adherence to the procedure, and the correct preparation of absorbents to specifi ed concentration are needed to obtain errorfree results. For getting proper samples on a sustained basis, a suction pump is used for sucking flue gas, as the aspirator alone is usually not adequate.

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION
Quemador F.O

Quemador gas

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION

COMBUSTION
Kindsofpollutants,sourcesandimpacts Air pollutants are contaminants in the atmosphere which, because of their quantity or characteristics, have deleterious effects on human health and/or the environment. Key pollutants from utilities and industrial boiler systems are SO2, SO3,NOx,COandparticulatematter.Anotherclassofemissions iscalledairtoxics. Sulfur dioxide Most of the sulfur in fuel converts to SO2 with small quantities of sulfur trioxide (SO3). The main source of sulfur oxides is from the combustin of coal, with lesser amounts from other fuels such as residual fuel oil. Based upon the August 2003 revision of the U.S. EPA National Emissions Inventory (NEI) program, the utility and industrial sectors (smelters, iron and steel mills, refineries) remain the largest emittersofsulfuroxides(seeTable).

COMBUSTION
Kindsofpollutants,sourcesandimpacts Sulfur oxides have been related to irritation of the human respiratory system, reduced visibility, materials corrosion and varying effects on vegetation.Thereactionofsulfuroxideswithmoistureintheatmosphere hasbeenidentifiedascontributingtoacidrain. Sulfur trioxide Some of the sulfur dioxide that forms converts to sulfur trioxide (SO3). The typical conversin rate is 1% or less in the boiler. However, the catalytic process that is frequently used to control NOx levels has the undesirable side effect of converting additional SO2 to SO3, which can range from 0.5 to 2% additional conversion. The SO3 readily combines with water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4) at flue gas temperaturas less than 500F (260C). This acid can create extremely corrosiveconditions.Thesulfuricacidcondensestoformafine mistwhen the flue gas passes through a wet flue gas desulfurization system that is used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO2). This sulfuric acid mist contributes to the total stack particulate loading. Such mist is extremely fine, less than 0.5micron,andverysmallamountsof this mist (5 ppm or less) can cause visible,bluishstackplumes,evenintheabsenceofsolidparticulate.

COMBUSTION
Kindsofpollutants,sourcesandimpacts
Nitrogenoxides(NOx)Thiscategoryincludesnumerousspeciescomprised of nitrogen and oxygen, although nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are the most significant in terms of quantity released to the atmosphere. NO is the primary nitrogen compound formed in high temperature combustion processes where nitrogen present in the fuel and/orcombustinaircombineswithoxygen.ThequantityofNOx formed during combustion depends on the quantity of nitrogen and oxygen available, the temperature, the intensity of mixing and the time for reaction. Controloftheseparametershasformedthebasisforanumberof control strategies involving combustin process control and burner design. Based on the most recent EPA emissions inventory, utilities account for 22% of NOx emitted in the U.S., with the transportation sector emitting 56%. Of thetotalutility NOx emissions,emissions,approximately90%comesfrom coalfiredboilers.

COMBUSTION
Kindsofpollutants,sourcesandimpacts
The most deleterious effects come from NO2 which forms from the reactionofNOandoxygen.NO2 alsoabsorbsthefullvisiblespectrumand can reduce visibility. NOx has been associated with respiratory disorders, corrosion and degradation of materials, and damage to vegetation. NOx hasalsobeenidentifiedasaprecursortoozoneandsmogformation. Carbon monoxide This colorless, odorless gas is formed from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuels. CO emissions from properly designed and operated utility boilers are a relatively small percentage of total U.S. combustion source CO emissions, most of which come from the internal combustion engine in the transportation sector. The primary environmental significance of CO is its effect on human and animal health. It is absorbed by the lungs and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood. Depending on the concentration and exposure time,itcancauseimpairedmotorskillsandphysiologicalstress.

COMBUSTION
Kindsofpollutants,sourcesandimpacts
PM10 and PM2.5 Subsets of particulate matter, PM10 is particulate matter 10 m and finer and PM2.5 is particulate matter 2.5 m and finer. Fine particles are emitted from industrial and residential oil combustin and from vehicle exhaust. Fine particles are also formed in the atmosphere when gases such as SO2, NOx and VOCs, emitted by combustion processes, are transformed into fine particulate by chemical reactions in the air (i.e., sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and photochemical smog). PM2.5 is considered to have more deleterious health affects than coarserparticulate.

COMBUSTION
Kindsofpollutants,sourcesandimpacts
VOC Volatile organic compounds represent a a wide range of organic substances. These compounds consist of molecules containing carbon and hydrogen, and include aromatics, olefins and paraffins. A major source is the refining and use of petroleum products. Also included among VOCs are compounds derived from primary hydrocarbons including aldehydes, ketones and halogenated hydrocarbons.

COMBUSTION
Kindsofpollutants,sourcesandimpacts
Carbon dioxide During the 1980s, concern increased about the potential impact of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from manmade sources. CO2 is one of several socalled greenhouse gases which may impact the climate and contribute to global warming. CO2 is emitted from a variety of naturally occurring and manmade sources including the combustion of all fsilandhydrocarbonbasedfuels. Greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. totaled 1906 million metric tons in 2000, of which 83% or 1583 million metric tons was CO2. CO2 from the electric power sector totaled 642 million metric tons or 33.6% of total greenhousegasemissions.

COMBUSTION
Kindsofpollutants,sourcesandimpacts
Improvingthepowercycle efficiency(morepowerfrom lessfuel) and the use of fuels with less carbon content are potential methods to address CO2 emissions from any combustion source. Another option is separation and capture followed by sequestration. However, technology similar to SO2 scrubbers or particulate collectors does not exist for carbon dioxide. Although CO2 separation technologies exist, they are at present not economicallyviable forthe largevolumesoffluegasproduced by electric powergeneration.Geologic,terrestrial,oroceansequestrationhavetheir own technical and political challenges. Geologic sequestration holds considerable potential, as the storage capacity is estimated to be centuries of emissions, and this route may be the most environmentally acceptable.

COMBUSTION
Selectivecatalyticreduction In the SCR process, a catalyst facilitates a Chemicals reaction between NOx and a reagent (usually ammonia) to produce nitrogen and water vapor. The most common and predominant reactions are represented by the following equations. While the reactions are exothermic, the temperature rise across the catalyst is typically negligible due to the low NOxconcentrations. 4NO+4NH3 +O2 4N2 +6H2O NO+NO2 +2NH3 2N2 +3H2O