Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering EGGN/ESGN 454 - Water Supply Engineering

Water Facts of Life

There is the same amount of water on Earth as there was when the Earth was formed. The water from your faucet could contain molecules that dinosaurs drank Humans can live about a month without food, but only about a week without water Nearly 97% of the worlds water is salty or otherwise undrinkable and 2% is locked in ice caps and glaciers That leaves just 1% for all of humanitys needs:
residenFal industrial / agricultural community

Water Constituents and Water Quality Issues

The average total residenFal water use in the U.S is about 50 gallons/day/person The average cost for water supplied to a home in the U.S. is about $2 per 1,000 gallons, which is about 5 gallons for a penny

Surface Water

Groundwater

Conven7onal Surface Water Treatment Train

Public Water System Inventory data (2005)

http://www.epa.gov/safewater/data/getdata.html
Type CWS # of systems Pop. served % of systems % of population # of systems Pop. served % of systems % of population # of systems Pop. served % of systems % of population Total # of Sys. Very small <500 29,666 4,925,748 56% 2% 16,348 2,282,628 85% 38% 83,351 7,298,704 97% 52% 142,386 Small 501-3,300 14,389 20,851,292 27% 7% 2,707 2,710,912 14% 45% 2,721 2,667,051 3% 19% Medium 3,301-10,000 4,748 27,514,714 9% 10% 102 557,742 1% 9% 111 598,506 0.13% 4% 14,196 Large 10,001-100K 3,648 102,747,558 7% 36% 17 504,915 0% 0% 23 604,213 0.03% 4% Very Large >100,000 386 126,304,807 1% 45% Total 52,837 282,344,119 100% 100% 19,174 6,056,197 100% 100% 86,210 14,162,474 100% 100%

NTNCWS

TNCWS

0% 0% 4 2,994,000 0% 21% 156,582

Public Water System Inventory data (2005)

Type CWS # of systems Population served % of systems % of population NTNCWS # of systems Population served % of systems % of population TNCWS # of systems Population served % of systems % of population Total # of Systems Ground Water 40,018 89,539,197 77% 32% 18,438 5,410,376 97% 90% 83,930 11,305,555 98% 93% 142,386 Surface Water 11,737 191,130,147 23% 68% 607 611,002 3% 10% 1,852 801,399 2% 7% 14,196 Totals 51,755 280,669,344 100% 100% 19,045 6,021,378 100% 100% 85,782 12,106,954 100% 100% 156,582

Water Characteris7cs

Physical Measures: Stream Flow

Water ow impacts water quality, living organisms, and habitats in the stream Large, swiQly owing rivers can receive polluFon discharges and be minimally aected Small streams have less capacity to dilute and degrade wastes Oxygen level increases with ow Sediment transport aected by ow

Physical Measures: Temperature

Generally increases with stream size & open water surface area Rates of biological and chemical processes Oxygen content of the water Rate of photosynthesis by aquaFc plants Metabolic rates of aquaFc organisms SensiFvity of organisms to toxic wastes, parasites, and diseases Temperature inuenced by:
weather shading / stream bank vegetaFon impoundments discharges / urban storm water groundwater inows

Physical Measures: Turbidity / Suspended Sediment

A measure of water clarity (Nephelometric Turbidity Units NTU) Size range of 0.004 mm (clay) to 1.0 mm (sand) Suspended materials include soil parFcles (clay, silt, and sand), algae, plankton, microorganisms, and more Sources of turbidity include: soil erosion, waste discharge, urban runo, eroding stream banks, large numbers of bo_om feeders (such as carp), excessive algal growth Can aect the color of the water Higher turbidity increases water temperatures; suspended parFcles absorb more heat reduces DO concentraFon Higher turbidity reduces the amount of light penetraFng the water reduces photosynthesis and the producFon of oxygen Aects the health of aquaFc life

Cons7tuents in Natural Water

Constituents Dissolved Species Metals & Ligands Particles Inorganic: clay (Turbidity) Organic: bacteria, protozoa, virus Important Properties: Size, shape, density surface charge Gases Oxygen Carbon dioxide Ammonia, chlorine, ozone, et al. Important Properties: Solubility Volability Interface (G/L)

Organics

Important Properties: Charge Hydrophobicity Solubility, volatility

Common Cons7tuents

Inorganic Cons7tuents
Cations Calcium (Ca2+) Magnesium (Mg2+) Sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+) Iron (Fe2+) Manganese (Mn2+) Anions

(Primarily derived from rocks and soils)

Bicarbonate (HCO3-) and Carbonate (CO32-) Chloride (Cl-) Sulfate (SO42-) Nitrate (NO3-) Fluoride (F) Phosphate (PO43-) AsO3-3, AsO4-3

Fluoride in Public Water Supply

Population Served

Inorganic Cons7tuents
Cations Calcium (Ca2+) Magnesium (Mg2+) Sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+) Iron (Fe2+) Manganese (Mn2+) Anions Bicarbonate (HCO3-) and Carbonate (CO32-) Chloride (Cl-) Sulfate (SO42-) Nitrate (NO3-) Fluoride (F) Phosphate (PO43-) AsO3-3, AsO4-3
> 4.0 220 40 14 2

Surface Water
Systems with Fluoride (mg/L) < 1.0 1.0 - 2.0 117 265 174 148 2.0 - 4.0 5 6 3 2 > 4.0 3 1 2 0 3,670 2,980 1,967 1,615 < 1.0 31,931 8,964 2,828 1,187

Ground Water
Systems with Fluoride (mg/L) 1.0 - 2.0 2,281 341 219 48 2.0 - 4.0 833 165 44 6

< 500 500-2,500 2,500-10,000 > 10,000

Many communiFes add uoride to their drinking water to promote dental health Higher concentraFons in groundwater than surface waters

Arsenic (As) has been associated with cancer h_p://www.epa.gov/safewater/arsenic/index.html

Arsenic in Groundwater Systems

Equal-area map: Arsenic concentraFons found in at least 25% of ground- water samples within a moving 50 km radius

Arsenic in Groundwater Systems

Data map: 31,350 ground-water arsenic samples collected in 1973-2001

Higher occurrence in groundwater than surface waters

Expressions of Concentra7ons
Weight ConcentraFon: gr/L, mg/L (ppm), g/L (ppb), ng/L (ppt) Molarity (M) : mol/L, mmol/L (x mole of A dissolved in water to make 1 liter of soluFon) Molality (m): x mole of A dissolved in 1 liter of water to make slightly more than 1 liter soluFon Normality (N): eq/L, meq/L,
equivalent weight:
EW = MW Z

Examples
What is the equivalent weight of calcium? What is the equivalent weight of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)? What concentraFon is 40 mg/l Ca2+ when expressed as CaCO3?

Z is:

The absolute v alue of the ion charge The number of H+ or OH ions a species can react with or yield in and acid-base reacFon

Classwork #1
mg/L mmol/L meq/L Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ 180 65 60 20 CO32 SO42 Cl NO3 SUM mg/L mmol/L meq/L HCO3 300 40 60 348 35

Classwork #1
mg/L mmol/L meq/L Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ 180 65 60 20 4.49 CO32 SO42 Cl NO3 SUM mg/L mmol/L meq/L HCO3 300 40 60 348 35 4.92

Fe(II) 0.5 Cd(II) 0.5 SUM

Fe (II) 0.5 Cd (II) 0.5 SUM

Calculate molarity and normality

Classwork #1
mg/L mmol/L meq/L Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ 180 65 60 20 4.49 2.67 2.61 0.51 0.009 0.017 SUM CO32 SO42 Cl NO3 mg/L mmol/L meq/L HCO3 300 40 60 348 35 4.92 0.66 0.625 9.8 0.56

Classwork #1
mg/L mmol/L meq/L Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ 180 65 60 20 4.49 2.67 2.61 0.51 0.009 8.98 5.34 2.61 0.51 0.018 CO32 SO42 Cl NO3 mg/L mmol/L meq/L HCO3 300 40 60 348 35 4.92 0.66 0.625 9.8 0.56 4.92 1.3 1.25 9.8 0.56 17.83

Fe (II) 0.5 Cd (II) 0.5 SUM

Fe (II) 0.5 Cd (II) 0.5 SUM

0.0044 0.0089 17.49 SUM

Total Ions Sum, meq/L 0 3.0 3.0 10.0 10 - 800

Principle of Electroneutrality

Acceptable % Difference 0.2 2 25

Water Quality Indicators

pH

basic

Alkalinity
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 Unpolluted rain 5 4 Acid Rain 3 2 1

good indicator of natural water quality important for aquaFc life sandstone/shale watersheds ~6.0-7.0 limestone watersheds ~7.0-8.0 impacted by acid rain, mine drainage

AT = [HCO3] + 2[CO32] + [B(OH)4] + [OH] + 2[PO43] + [HPO42] + [SiO(OH)3] [H+] [HSO4]

neutral

acidic

Alkalinity

measure of resistance to pH change high in limestone streams lower in headwater areas someFmes measured as Acid Neutralizing Capacity (ANC)

Classwork #2
mg/L mmol/L meq/L Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ 180 65 60 20 4.49 2.67 2.61 0.51 0.009 0.0044 8.98 5.34 2.61 0.51 0.0089 17.49 SUM 17.83 HCO3 CO32 SO42 Cl mg/L mmol/L meq/L 300 40 60 348 35 4.92 0.66 0.625 9.8 0.56 4.92 1.3 1.25 9.8 0.56

Classwork #2
mg/L mmol/L meq/L mg/L mmol/L meq/L

Fe (II) 0.5 Cd (II) 0.5 SUM

0.018 NO3

SUM [Alk] = [HCO3-] + 2 [CO32-] + [OH-] [H+]

What is the total alkalinity as CaCO3?

Classwork #2
mg/L mmol/L meq/L mg/L mmol/L meq/L HCO3- 300

Classwork #2
mg/L mmol/L meq/L mg/L mmol/L meq/L HCO3- 300 4.92 4.92

SUM [Alk] = [HCO3-] + 2 [CO32-] + [OH-] [H+]

SUM [Alk] = [HCO3-] + 2 [CO32-] + [OH-] [H+]

Classwork #2
mg/L mmol/L meq/L HCO3- CO32- mg/L mmol/L meq/L 300 40 4.92 0.66 4.92 1.3

Water Quality Indicators

Total hardness (mg/L as CaCO3): Ca2+, Mg2+ Total dissolved solids (TDS) ConducFvity: TDS = k * EC Dissolved oxygen Turbidity (NTU)
SUM 6.22

ParFcle count Stability of water: Langelier SaturaFon Index (LSI)

[Alk] = [HCO3-] + 2 [CO32-] + [OH-] [H+]

Total alkalinity = 6.22 meq/L * 50 mg CaCO3/meq = 311 mg/L as CaCO3

Classwork #3
mg/L mmol/L meq/L Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ 180 65 60 20 4.49 2.67 2.61 0.51 0.009 0.0044 8.98 5.34 2.61 0.51 0.0089 17.49 SUM What is the total hardness as CaCO3? 17.83 CO32 SO42 Cl mg/L mmol/L meq/L HCO3 300 40 60 348 35 4.92 0.66 0.625 9.8 0.56 4.92 1.3 1.25 9.8 0.56

Classwork #3
mg/L mmol/L meq/L mg/L mmol/L meq/L

Fe (II) 0.5 Cd (II) 0.5 SUM

0.018 NO3

SUM

SUM Ca2+, Mg2+

Classwork #3
mg/L mmol/L meq/L Ca2+ Mg2+ 180 65 mg/L mmol/L meq/L

Classwork #3
mg/L mmol/L meq/L Ca2+ Mg2+ 180 65 4.49 2.67 mg/L mmol/L meq/L

SUM

SUM Ca2+, Mg2+

SUM

SUM Ca2+, Mg2+

Classwork #3
mg/L mmol/L meq/L Ca2+ Mg2+ 180 65 4.49 2.67 8.98 5.34 mg/L mmol/L meq/L

Classwork #3
Total hardness = 14.32 meq/L * 50 mg CaCO3/meq = 716 mg/L as CaCO3

Is it hard water?

SoQ: Moderately soQ: Slightly hard: Moderately hard: Hard: Very Hard SoQ: Moderately hard: Hard: Very Hard

0 20 mg/L as calcium 20 40 mg/L as calcium 40 60 mg/L as calcium 60 80 mg/L as calcium 80 120 mg/L as calcium >120 mg/L as calcium 0 60 mg/L as CaCO3 60 120 mg/L as CaCO3 120 180 mg/L as CaCO3 >180 mg/L as CaCO3

SUM

14.32 Ca2+, Mg2+

Total hardness = 14.32 meq/L * 50 mg CaCO3/meq = 716 mg/L as CaCO3

Cons7tuents
Constituents Dissolved Species Metals & Ligands Particles Inorganic: clay (Turbidity) Organic: bacteria, protozoa, virus Important Properties: Size, shape, density surface charge Gases Oxygen Carbon dioxide Ammonia, chlorine, ozone, et al. Important Properties: Solubility Volability Interface (G/L)

Problems Associated with Organic Compounds

Turbidity and color formaFon DO depleFon Taste and odor problems Interference with water treatment processes FormaFon of disinfecFon by-products (DBPs)

Organics

Important Properties: Charge Hydrophobicity Solubility, volatility

Natural Organic MaTer (NOM)

Derived from natural decomposiFon of plants and animal materials

Natural Organic MaTer (NOM)

MacCarthy, 2001, Soil Science., 166, 738-751

Major Chemical Classes of NOM Compounds and Associated Water Quality Problems
Chemical Class of Compounds Humic species Carbohydrates

Major Chemical Classes of NOM Compounds and Associated Water Quality Problems
Chemical Name Acronym MIB Geosmin Odor Threshold Conc. (ng/L) 4 10 1.3 10 2-methylisoborneol trans-1,10-dimethyl-trans-9-decalol

Associated Compliance Problems

DBP, Chlorination Major role Not known, probably insignificant important important important DBP, Ozonation Major role Probably not significant May be significant important Generated by ozonation Biological Activity Little impact Major role Color Major role None Transport of Heavy Metals Major role Insignificant Taste and Odor Secondary importance Insignificant

Amino Acids Proteins Carboxylic acids Others

Major role Major role Secondary importance

Major Major None

Secondary importance May be significant Insignificant

Insignificant Insignificant Insignificant

Primarily Geosmin and 2-MIB

MIB

Geosmin

NOM and Disinfec7on By-products (DBPs)

Class of DBP
Humic Species Trihalomethanes (THM) Haloacetic Acids (HAA) Primary source Primary source

Class of NOM Compounds

Carbohydrates Not known, probably minor Not known, probably minor Insignificant Not known, may be significant Not known, probably insignificant Not known, probably insignificant Not known, probably insignificant Not known, probably insignificant Not known, may be significant Amino Acids minor Not known, probably insignificant Insignificant Not known, probably insignificant Not known, probably insignificant Important Proteins Important Not known, may be significant Insignificant Not known, may be significant Not known, probably insignificant Important Carboxylic Acids Secondary source Secondary source

Synthe7c Organic Compounds (SOC)

surfactants pesFcides (i.e., herbicides, insecFcides) cleaning solvents polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) disinfecFons by-products (i.e., THM, HAA)

Chlorophenols Haloketones

Primary source Primary source

Insignificant Insignificant

Chloral Hydrate

Primary source

Insignificant

Haloacetonitriles

Important

Insignificant

Trihalonitromethane

Important

Important

Important

Insignificant

Cyanogen halide

Important

Important

Important

Insignificant

Aldehdes

Primary source

Not known, probably insignificant

Important

Microorganisms
Bacteria: 0.1-10 m Viruses: 0.01-0.1 m Protozoa (i.e., giardia, cryptosporidium): 2-15 m Fungi and molds Algae Helminths (parasiFc worms)