Page 1 1. What is the fundamental Diff between Single crystal, polycrystal and amorphous solids?

What are the defects in crystal structure? The fundamental difference between single crystal, polycrystal and amorphous solids is the length scale over which the atoms are related to one another by translational symmetry ('periodicity' or 'long-range order'). // A structure is said to have translational symmetry if it can be mapped exactly onto itself by translation of the whole structure through a specified translation vector. In crystal structures, the translation vectors are known as lattice vectors. Single crystals have infinite periodicity, polycrystals have local periodicity, and amorphous solids (and liquids) have no long-range order.

An ideal single crystal has an atomic structure that repeats periodically across its whole volume. Even at infinite length scales, each atom is related to every other equivalent atom in the structure by translational symmetry. A polycrystalline solid or polycrystal is comprised of many individual grains or crystallites. Each grain can be thought of as a single crystal, within which the atomic structure has longrange order. In an isotropic polycrystalline solid, there is no relationship between neighboring grains. Therefore, on a large enough length scale, there is no periodicity across a polycrystalline sample. Amorphous materials, like window glass, have no long-range order at all, so they have no translational symmetry. The structure of an amorphous solid (and indeed a liquid) is not truly random - the distances between atoms in the structure are well defined and similar to those in the crystal. This is why liquids and crystals have similar densities - both have shortrange order that fixes the distances between atoms, but only crystals have long-range order.

Page 2 The range of crystalline order distinguishes single crystals, polycrystals and amorphous solids. The figure shows how the periodicity of the atomic structure of each type of material compares. Many characteristic properties of materials, such as mechanical, optical, magnetic and electronic behavior, can be attributed to the difference in structure between these three classes of solid. Crystal Defects A perfect crystal, with every atom of the same type in the correct position, does not exist. All crystals have some defects. Defects contribute to the mechanical properties of metals. In fact, using the term defect is sort of a misnomer since these features are commonly intentionally used to manipulate the mechanical properties of a material. Adding alloying elements to a metal is one way of introducing a crystal defect. Nevertheless, the term defect will be used, just keep in mind that crystalline defects are not always bad. There are basic classes of crystal defects:

Point defects, which are places where an atom is missing or irregularly placed in the lattice structure. Point defects include lattice vacancies, self-interstitial atoms, substitution impurity atoms, and interstitial impurity atoms Linear defects, which are groups of atoms in irregular positions. Linear defects are commonly called dislocations. Planar defects, which are interfaces between homogeneous regions of the material. Planar defects include grain boundaries, stacking faults and external surfaces.

2. Differentiate between Elastic/Plastic Deformation When a sufficient load is applied to a metal or other structural material, it will cause the material to change shape. This change in shape is called deformation. The recovery of original dimensions of a deformed body when the load is removed is called elastic deformation. The limiting load beyond which the material no longer behaves elastically is the elastic limit. In other words, elastic deformation is a change in shape of a material at low stress that is recoverable after the stress is removed. This type of deformation involves stretching of the bonds, but the atoms do not slip past each other. When the stress is sufficient to permanently deform the metal, it is called plastic deformation.

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Plastic deformation involves the breaking of a limited number of atomic bonds by the movement of dislocations. The force needed to break the bonds of all the atoms in a crystal plane all at once is very great. However, the movement of dislocations allows atoms in crystal planes to slip past one another at a much lower stress levels. Since the energy required to move is lowest along the densest planes of atoms, dislocations have a preferred direction of travel within a grain of the material. This results in slip that occurs along parallel planes within the grain. These parallel slip planes group together to form slip bands, which can be seen with an optical microscope. As long as the load does not exceed the elastic limit, the deformation is proportional to the load. Hooks law require the load deformation relationship to be linear. However there are cases were stress-strain relationship in elastic region need not be linear and can be non-linear as in rubber like materials.

Elastic deformations in metals are quite small and require very sensitive instruments for their measurements. The initial and the

Page 4 deformed shapes differ very little. In some materials they may not return to their original shape instantaneously after the load is removed. This reversible but time dependent deformation is called visco elastic. In such materials the deformation increases with the time after the application of the load and it also decreases with time after the removal of the load. In both cases the elastic limit of the material is ultimately reached. 4. Engineering and True stress and Strain In drawing the stress-strain diagram as shown in figure, the stress was calculated by dividing the load P by the initial cross section of the specimen.

But it is clear that as the specimen elongates its diameter decreases and the decrease in cross section is apparent during necking phase. Hence, the actual stress which is obtained by dividing the load by the actual cross sectional area in the deformed specimen is different from that of the engineering stress that is obtained using undeformed cross sectional area as in equation

True stress or actual stress,

Though the difference between the true stress and the engineering stress is negligible for smaller loads, the former is always higher than the latter for larger loads.

Page 5 Similarly, if the initial length of the specimen is used to calculate the strain, it is called engineering strain as obtained in equation shown below

But some engineering applications like metal forming process involve large deformations and they require actual or true strains that are obtained using the successive recorded lengths to calculate the strain.

True strain is also called as actual strain or natural strain and it plays an important role in theories of viscosity. The difference in using engineering stress-strain and the true stressstrain is noticeable after the proportional limit is crossed as shown in figure below.

5. Ductile Vs Brittle

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Strain hardening is the phenomenon whereby a ductile metal becomes harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed. Sometimes it is also called work hardening, or, because the temperature at which deformation takes place is cold relative to the absolute melting temperature of the metal, cold working. Most metals strain harden at room temperature. It is sometimes convenient to express the degree of plastic deformation as percent cold work rather than as strain. Percent cold work (%CW) is defined as

6. What are the main three reasons for failure of structural /Machine members? Explain

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For different types of failure different significant parameters will be important. Elastic Deformation

Excessive elastic deformation of a machine part can mean failure of the machine just as much as if the part completely fractured. For example, a shaft which is too flexible can cause rapid wear of the bearing, or the excessive deflection of closely mating parts can result in interference and damage to the parts. Failures due to excessive elastic deformation are controlled by the modulus of elasticity, not by the strength of the material. Generally little metallurgical control can be exercised over the elastic modulus. The most effective way to increase the stiffness of a member is usually by changing its shape and increasing the dimensions of its cross section. Yielding or excessive plastic deformation For more complex loading conditions the yield strength is

still the significant parameter, but it must be used with suitable failure criterion. At temperatures significantly greater than room temperature metals no longer exhibit strain hardening. Instead metals can continuously deform at constant stress in a time dependent yielding known as creep. The failure criteria under creep conditions is complicated by the fact that stress is not proportional to strain and the further fact that the mechanical properties of the material may change appreciable during service. Fracture.

Page 8 The formation of a crack which can result in complete disruption of continuity of the member constitutes fracture. A part maid from Dutile metal which is loaded statically rarely fractures like a tensile specimen, because it will first fail to excessive plastic deformation. However metal fails in fracture in three general ways Sudden brittle fracture Fatigue or progressive fracture Delayed fracture. Brittle materials under static loading fractures under static loads with little outward evidence of yielding. A sudden brittle type of fracture can also occur in ordinarily ductile materials under certain conditions.

powerful and quite general method of analysis of brittle fracture is the technique called fracture mechanics.

occurs without any visible sign of yielding at nominal or average stresses that are well below the tensile strength of the metal.

7. Principle plane and principle stresses Though the state of stress at a point in a stressed body remains the same, the normal and shear stress components vary as the orientation of plane through that point changes. Under complex loading, a structural member may experience larger stresses on inclined planes then on the cross section. The knowledge of maximum normal and shear stresses and their plane's orientation assumes significance from failure point of view.

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Consider a prismatic element with sides dx, dy and ds with their faces perpendicular to y, x and x' axes respectively. Thickness of the element is t. xx and x'x' are the normal and shear stresses acting on a plane inclined at an angle measured counter clockwise from x plane.

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Note that Invariably, the sum of the normal stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes at a point has the same value. This sum is a function of the stress at that point and not on the orientation of axes that is independent of . Hence, this quantity is called stress invariant at that a point.

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Stress Tensor
An array of numbers representing either a material property (matter tensor) or an imposed condition (field tensor). The dimensionality of the array, referred to as the "rank" of the tensor, can be zero (a scalar or a

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single number), one (a vector, or single array 3 numbers - for a 3-D situation, two (3x3 array) three (3x3x3 array) or four (3x3x3x3 array). Stress, ||, and strain, ||, are 2nd rank field tensors.

Consider the free body diagram of an infinitesimally small cube inside the continuum as shown in figure Stress on an arbitrary plane can be resolved into two shear stress components parallel to the plane and one normal stress component perpendicular to the plane. Thus, stresses acting on the cube can be represented as a second order tensor with nine components. The stress tensor is a field tensor it depends on factors external to the material. In order for a stress not to move the material ie to be equilibrium, the stress tensor must be symmetric: ij = ji it has mirror symmetry about the diagonal. The general form is thus:

or, in an alternative notation, Consider a body under equilibrium with simple shear as shown in figure 2.3.

Taking moment about z axis, , To make things easier it can be rotated into the principal stress tensor by a suitable change of axes.

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Hydrostatic and deviatoric components The stress tensor can be separated into two components. One component is a hydrostatic or dilatational stress that acts to change the volume of the material only; the other is the deviatoric stress that acts to change the shape only.

where the hydrostatic stress is given by

In crystalline metals plastic deformation occurs by slip, a volumeconserving process that changes the shape of a material through the action of shear stresses. On this basis, it might therefore be expected that the yield stress of a crystalline metal does not depend on the magnitude of the hydrostatic stress; this is in fact exactly what is observed experimentally. In amorphous metals, a very slight dependence of the yield stress on the hydrostatic stress is found experimentally.

Linear Vs Non Linear Elasticity.

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