Database Designing Concepts

Data Base
A Data Base is shared collection of logical interrelated data.

A Data Base System

Every organization needs to record data relevant to their every day activates. The
organization can choose from the data collected & stored some of these data in an electronic
Data Base.

Eg: A university needs to record data to help in the activates of teaching & learning therefore
three record what kind of students & lectures they have what are the courses & modules they
are running which lecturers are teaching what modules.

One the data is entered in to a database it could be utilization to get complete & accrete
information’s such as list of students who have enrolled for each modules. this can help to
make decision on room utilization .etc..

Data vs. Information

The Word data refers to facts concerning things such as people, objects or events.
Information is data that have been processed & presented in a from suitable for human
interpretation.

Disadvantages of manual system

1. A Constant stream inter company paper work
2. Telephone calls or faxes are required to communicate changes & keep the file
synchronize.
3. These systems cannot provide “what if” type of questions.
4. Managers cannot easily obtain summarized information required for decision making.
5. Duplicate data can exist throughout organization resulting in lack of consistency.

Disadvantages of file processing system

1. There is limited data sharing
2. Inconsistency of data
3. Duplication of data can occur.
4. Excessive program maintenance
5. Poor enforcement of standard.

Advantages of Database
1. Better data sharing
2. Better security & integrity
3. Reduced redundancy
4. The program & data are independent
5. Multiple views of data.
Disadvantages of Database

1. New specialized persons are required.

2. Need to get
3. Problems in data sharing explicit backup.

Database Approaches
Database approach emphasizes the integration & sharing of data. There are 2 designing
approaches.

1-process Driven Design

Requirement Analysis

Process Design

Data Design

Implementation

File processing system a process driven approached was traditional being used with this
approche organization process such as order processins, inventory control, pay roll are
identified & analyzed.
Process and data flows between processed are described using tools such as
DED. Designers work backwards from the required outputs of the system to determine the
requirement unput. They can use flow chart into outputs. Finally they design data file as a
wide product of product of process divan design.

2- Data Driven Design

Requirement Analysis

Data design

Process Design

Implentation
 It forcuses on entities person, Plese, events or concept about which an organization choose to
record data. This approche ideenti files the attributes of the properties of these entities & the
relation ship among them. It also identities the business rules that speifiese how the entities
are managed or used. After creating the suitable module of the data structure and related
business rules the designer developes the application reqired to manage the data.

Designers now have discovered a balance approche to combine to different applications

approprialely suitable.

Database development

Enterprise Requirement Conceptual Logical Data

Data module Analysis model modle

Implementation Physical Data

Model

Conceptual data model

This involves building a “real world” model expressed interms of data requirements. The
initiaset of information & processing reqirements are gathered from the users. The
developments of the large databases conception modeline may consis of view integration
(combining the user views into onces schema) The output from this stage is the entity
relationship digram.
(3)

Logical data Model

This involves the building of the real world expressed interms of a data model.
Eg. Hierarchical, Network ,Relational.

This involves determind the concept of the database using the conception model as input &
transforming it into the architectural data model.This is the mapping of the ER model.to the
relational model & caring the process of normalization.

The output of this stage is relational schema up or set of table.

Physical data model.

This involves building a model of the real world expressed interms of data structures &
Acces mechanisum available in a choosen Database management system.
 This involved in a transformation of a logical data model suitable for a specific software
/Hardware specification. This is usuall expressed in data dominion language & theoutput of
this stage is implementation plan.

Entity

An entity is the thing we modeled & it is something about which we wish to store
information we name the entities with the singular noun. An entity can be 1-Aperson –
Employer, student, customer etc. 2-A place – It could be a state country , region etc.3-An
object – chair,Table, building etc. 4- An Event – sales, Rigistration, Renewal. 5- A concept –
Acount ,Course

The organization. ER models are usually constructed during the analysis phase of the DB
development process. Output of this stage is a coceptval data model expressed in the form of
a detailed ER digram. The ER digram consist of entities relationships & attribules.

(4)
Basic Systems of an ER digram.

Entity Relationship

Attributes

Registration

Primary key Primary key Primary key

Attributes.

This is the property for entity.

 Eg:
Student
Relationshipjhhgvf
Rel

Student No

Attributes

Name

Add

Tel No

ationship
Association between entities. Can be specified using relationship. There are 3 basic kind of
relationship. 1- 1:1 (one – to – one)
2.- M (one – to – Many) / (1:*)
3 – M:M (Many – to – Many ) / (*:*)

1:1 (5)

1.
Country H Capital

1 1
Lock
2. H Key
1 1
Husband H Wife
3

1:M/ / 1:* *
1 Invoice
B
1. Customer

1 *
2. Mother Child
H
ave
.
1
3 Sales Man
Shop has

M: M /*:*
PE *
. *
Student Regis Sales Man
ter

Cannot allow M:M for introduced “Link Entity” with two 1:M relationship.

(6)

Student Student
OR
1
***
*
Course
Enrolment Student

Course Link Entity Course

 * *
Country
Person Communi
cate

Country
C

1
*

Language

*
1

Person

(7)
British counsil library
Library items – Book / CD – DVD / Enayclopedia

Reception
Membership Readers
Libraraian

British Councial H Reception Regi Reader

Library ave ster
 CD
DVD

Library Item books

H H
ave ave

Encyclopedia

Copy
D
A eati

1.*

Librararian
Lending
Collection

Accomerdation of ER model to a relational

Data model. After drawing a ER digram it has to be converted into relational schema
it can be done as follows. Convert each entity into a relational table in your relational
data model the identifier of the entity becomes primary key of the table, all other
attributes become nonkey attributes of the table.

(8)

Eg. Student (Entity) (RegNo,Name,Add)

Primary Key
Table Name

1: M Relationships are represented as relational schema by taking the key field of the
table at one end gide as a foreign key to the table at the many end side.
Eg: Customer Customer (CNo Primary key, Name, Billno,goods-------)

Foreign Key
Order Order (Order No,Name---------(No)
 1:1 relationship can represented as one table A turnary relationship is respresented as
1 table with the compersit primary key which consist of all & identifiers of the 3
tables.

1:M Recursive relationship is represented in1 with a forigenkey which is effectively

primary key.

Manage
Employee **
Employee (EmpId , Name,
Add.DoB ------

If there are M:M relationship they should be avoided by breaking them into 2, 1:M
relationship for that we have to introduced additional entity call link entity. LE is
added which cross references between instances of 1 entity & instances of other
entity. The many ends of the relationship upper at the LE. Thhe PK of the 2 entities
are in corperated into the linkentity.

(9)

There can be two types of entities avatable in ER digram 1- Super type entity
2. Sub type entity

Super type entity

This is an entity that stores attributes commen to 1 or more entity sub types

Sub type entities

This is an entity that inherites some common attributes from an entity super type.

Attributes
These are the charatristics of entities can be used to disscribe entities and relationship
in the ER digram.

An entity can have many attributes but should have an identification key. A key is an
attribute or group of attributes which can identify an entity uniquely. A key attribute
can be underlined in the ER digram.

There are single valued attribute is 1 that can have sigle valued attribute

Is 1 that can have sigle value.

Eg.A persons 1D ,Subject,Mark ,Grade, etc.
Multy valued attributes they can have many values.
Eg.An office can have different officeno.A person have sevelan qualification.

Cardinaler & optionarity

Cardinality we already discussed.

Relationship partiapation
Praticipation in an entity relationship can either optional or mandertary

Optional relationship
Here the participation is optional if one entity occurrence doesnot require the
corresponding entity occurrence, Entity.

Mandertary relationship
Relationship participation is mandertary (must) if one entity occurrence in a
pertionship indicate that the minimum cardinality is one mandertary entity

(10)

Relationship degree
The relationship degree indicates the no.of associated entities or types with the
relationship.There are 3 of relationship

1- unary (Reairsive)

This is the relationship between the same entity class or type.

Binary Relationship

This is a relationship between 2 different entity types.

 Ternary Relationship
This is a relationship between 3 entity type & it is a simaltion rishipamong 3 entity
types at the same time.

Find 5 types of unary , Binary, ternary relationship

Unary

Person Talk Child

Play

Deal Company
Customer moni
s
tor

Individual Cons
ult

Turnary
11
1. Note book

pen
write
 person

2. Student

Text book

Study

Teacher

(12)

3. Company

Staff
Neeal
 Customer

4.
Bank

Individual
Need

Money

(13)

Binary
*
1.
Person Language
Communicat

* Food
2 Individual
eat
3. Country *
District
Have

Company *
4
Staff
Have

5, *
Student Subject
Study

Weak Entity
Weak entity is one that needs e following conditions.

1- It cannot exist without e entity with witch have e relationship.

2- - It has a primary key that is partially or to fally dependent rom e parent entity
relationship.
Data models
The evaluation of data model.
Request for better data management has lot to do with several different models.That attempt
to resolve & file system problems. The mager data models are
1- hierarchical model
2- - Network model
3- Relational model
(14)

Hierchocl model.

This was e 1st database model interduced in mid 1960’s & was based on e hierarchical model.
Which assumes that all data relationship can be structured as hierarchical.

The hierchieal data model uses a simple approche where e relationship between entities are
always 1:M, This forms a simple one parent record abcord above it & many child record
below it.

* *
Customer Invoice Invoice line
 This digram illustrate how can make a hierrchi showing e relationship between customer
invoice & Showing e relationship between customer more invoice line A Cuctomer can own
one or more invoice lines. In hierarchical database model these file would be tide together to
e physical point.
Al Pointer is a physical address which identify where a rewrd can be found on a
disribed.

Disadvantages.
- Large amount of data is stored
- There is only one path to access data item
- Difficult in the real world.
- Difficult to perform ad-hos quries

Network Model
The Network model was created to represent complex data relationship more effectively than
e hierarchical model. In e network model any record main have many immediate parent
records as well as many child records. The network model is able to model greater number of
real world situation. The network model build around e concepts of “Set”.
In a network Data base model a relationship is called set (There are 1:M relationship
between e owner & e member)

Each set is composed of atleaset 2 record type whwre e owner = hierarchical parent record &
e member record = The hierarchical child record. The differents between e night inelude a
than one set. In other words a member can have several owners.

(15)

Supplier

m
1
Ubrary
m Staff

1
m m
Library item
m 1 Member 1 m Fine

1
 m
Reterence

Disadvantages
- When compare to hierarchical structure the network strueture is more complicated by
the set concepts
- The hos quries are difficult to execute
- The programmer should know the structure as well as set type which makes of the
networking before processing is done.

Relational Model
Relational model user the table from of data collection, which is similler to hles. Tables
within the relational model are known as relations.
The records in the table are known as “tuples” in a relational model a relational or table
consist of a series of rows the columns. A column is known as field where a row is to tuple
STUDENT Field= Couumns
Primary Reg No St Name St Add Tel
key
00106 Krishi Col-06 2361742

Rg.No
Record/ Tuple/ Row

Stude Paym
Course code Payment Amt Reg No

HND 10,000 00106

Forein key

Relations can be related to each other by sharing common entity caracteristies. The common
link between student & payment tables enable us to connect the student to the payment table.
Even though their details are stored in seperrate tables this is done by the use of payment key
– foreign key concept.

This relational model contains 3 relation type normally 1-1:1 2-1:M 3- M:M

A relational schema is a visul representation of the relational entities if attritutes of those

entity & relationship.

Advantages of relational model.

 - Essy to understand the concept users are able to interaet with the relational DB very
easily since the familier to everyone.
- No physical pointers when compared to previous model.
- Easy setup & change can be done with minimal effort.
- Logical & physical independent.

Relational Data Base Model Keys

1- Primary Key- A Primary key is a attribute that can uniquely inentity given row.
2- Eg.In student table primary key can be taken as “Reg No”

2.- Composit key – Aprimary key can a single attribute or commpersision of several
attributes. Which can be used to uniquely identify a row or tuple. A unique identifier cabn be
made up of mony attributes & that is call a composite primarykey.

Compsit key
Eg: Reg No, Course Code STUDENT

Course code
Reg No

0001 HND
0001 Multi
0001 C++

3- Foreign key – An attribute (or combination of attributes) in one table whose values
match the primary key in another table is called as foreign key. Foreign key is an
attribute whose values match primary key values in the related table.

STUDENT PAYMENT
Reg No RegNo**

4- Candidate key – We can identify a candidate key an attribute or combination of

attributes that cmiquely identify a new in a table. A relation can have more than one
candidate key among, among the one will be choosen as the primary key.

Eg.
Person ID Project ID Supervisor ID Time spent

0001 01 0002 50 hrs

0001 02 0002
Candidate key – 1 – Person ID, Project ID
2- Person ID, supervisor ID

Reg no Name Dob

001 Krishi 22.10.96

002 Krishi 19.11.96
003 Renu 22.10.96

Candidate key- 1- Reg No, DOB

2- Name , Reg No

Relational Data Base Integrity Rules.

1. Entity Tntegrity
Specially all primary key entries are unique & no part of a primary key may be null. This is
to gurante that each entity will have a unique identity and ensure that foreign key values can
be properly identified .

Eg:
No invoice can have a duplicate number as well as it cannot be null. All invoices uniquely
identified by their invoice number.

11. Referential Integrity

A foregn key may have either a null value as long as it is not part of its tables primery key or
an entry that matches a primary key value in a table to Which it is related. This is to make. It
possible for a attributes not to have a corresponding value but it should be impossible to have
invalid entry .
Eg: 1 M
Teacher Student
TEACHER Teach

* Techer ID TName Qualification Course

001 Mary Bsc Dip.Ict

002 Ann Msc HND
STUDENT

StReg No Name DOB Course Teacher ID

PG 0001 Jack 25.02.80 HND

PG 0002 Tom 08.11.86 Dip.ICT 001

1 *
1- Employee
Supervision Superviser

Supervisor

SupID SName Add Department Tel

001 Amal Col-3 1A 256742

002 Kamal Col-4 2A 232786

EmployeeNo EName Department SupID

001 Rohan 1A Null

002 Shovon 2A 002
We don’t need details about supervisor ID in a Employee table.

2.
Bank Account Have Customer

Bank Account

Bank Type Intrest Rate

Saving 0.05
Current 0.15

3-
Movie Star

Movie

MID MName Language Date

123 Star Tamil 1/1/2000
456 Moon Tamil 22/2/2000

Star

StarID SName Salary MName MID

001 Ananda 10,000 Star 123

002 Nalanda 150,00 Moon 456

We Need to identify about the movie ID in a star table

iii.- Domain Integrity

This concerns the values which are stored in a particular columns of a table.

Relational Database operators (Relational Algebra) manupilahng tables and its contents using
8 relational operators. 1- Union
2- Intersect
3- Difference
 4- Product
5- Select
6- Project
7- Join
8- Divide

Union
This combines all the rows from 2 tables. The tables must have the some attributes to be used
in the union.

Stno
Name Add Tel Stno Name Add Tell

+ 2222 DD Col-4 2234415

1111 AA Col-3 234567 4444 EE Col-6 5432167
3333 BB Col-5 543211 6666 FF Col-7 5762134
5555 CC Col-7 2113441

StNo Name Add Tel

1111 AA Col-3 234567

3333 BB Col-5 543211
5555 CC Col-7 21`13441
2222 DD Col-4 2234415
4444 EE Col-6 5432167
6666 FF Col-7 5762134

Intersect

Intersct output only the rows apperar in both tables. In this case the tables must be union
compatible to produce a valid result. You cannot use intersect if one of the ottributes is
numeric & the other is character base.

Difference

Production Production Product

Soap
Soap Morgarine Noodles
Noodles Bread oil
Oil Margarine
Bread
Product
Product outputs all possible pairs of rows from 2 tables. If one table has four rows & the
other table has 3 rows a product output is a list of components of 4x3=12 rows.

Itcode Itdes ItQty

X ItPrice Itrecord OrdNo
001 AA 10
002 BB 20 100 2 111
50 5 222

Itcode Itdes Itprice Itrecord Ord No

001 AA 10 100 111

001 AA 10 50 222
002 BB 20 100 111
002 BB 20 50 222

Select
Select output values for nall rowsfound in table. Select can be used to list either all of the row
values or it can output only. Those row values that match a specified criteria, In other words
select outputs a horizontal substraction of a table.

Name Item ID Descriptin Qty

Output will be same as Item Table
0001 AA Shoe 20
0002 BB Noodles 30
003 CC Bread 400
 Eg: 1- Select * from Item

Eg: 2- Select * from Item where ItemID =”0001”

ItemID Name Description Qty

0001 AA Shoe 20

Project
Project outputs all values for selected fields. In other words project outputs a vertical
substraction of a table.
Item 1
ItemID Name Description Qty
0001 AA Shoe 20
0002 BB Noodle 30
0003 CC Bread 40

Item 1

Item ID Name Description Qty

0001 AA Shoe 20
0002 BB Noodle 30
0003 CC Bread 40

Eg: 2- Project ItemID, Name from Item

Item 2
Item ID Name
0001 AA
0002 BB
0003 CC

Divide
Divide requires the use of one single column. Table 1 two column table
A B Divide A/B

IT ode
ITcode Description 0001 Description
0003 AA
0001 AA 0007
0002 BB CC
0008
0003 CC
0004 DD
Eg:2 Divide Code Loc No
Code Loc No A 5
A 5 B
A 7
B 5
B 6
B 3

Q Table-1 Table - 2
Reg No Name Add Tel No Reg Course
0001 AA Col-3 1111 No Name Add Tel No Name
0002 BB Col-4 2222 0005 EF Nuge 5555 HND
0003 CC Col-5 3333 0006 GH Maha 6666 NCC
0004 DD Col-6 4444 0007 HI Kirula 7777 BIT
0008 JK Katta 8888 ICT
0003 CC Col-5 3333 HND

1- Union

Reg No Name Add Tel No

0001 AA Col-3 1111
0002 BB Col-4 2222
0003 CC Col-5 3333
0004 DD Col-6 4444
0005 EF Nuge 5555
0006 EH Maha 6666
0007 HI Kirula 7777
0008 JK Kotta 8888
2- Intersect

Reg No Name Add Tel

0003 Cc Col-5 3333

3- Product
Reg No Reg No Name Add TelNo Name Add Tel No Course
Name
0001 AA 1111 00005 EF Nuge 5555 HND
0001 AA 1111 00006 GH Maha 6666 NCC
0001 AA 1111 00007 HI Kirula 7777 BIT
0001 AA 1111 00008 JK Kotta 8888 ICT
0001 AA 1111 0003 CC Col-5 3333 HND
0002 BB 2222 0005 EF Nuge 5555 HND
0002 BB 2222 0006 GH Maha 6666 NCC
0002 BB 2222 0007 HI Kirula 7777 BIT
0002 BB 2222 0008 JK Katta 8888 ICT
0002 BB 2222 0003 CC Col-5 3333 HND
0003 CC 3333 0005 EF Nuge 5555 HND
0003 CC 3333 0006 GH Maha 6666 NCC
0003 CC 3333 0007 HI Kirula 7777 BIT
0003 CC 3333 0008 JK Katta 8888 ICT
0003 CC 3333 0003 CE Col-5 3333 HND
0004 DD 4444 0005 EF Nuge 5555 HND
0004 DD 4444 0006 GH Maha 6666 NCC
0004 DD 4444 0007 HI Kirula 7777 BIT
0004 DD 4444 0008 JK Katta 8888 ICT
0004 DD 4444 0003 CC Col-5 3333 HND

4-Difference
Reg No Name Add Tel No
0005 EF Nuge 5555
0006 GH Maha 6666
0007 HI Kirula 7777
0008 JK Katta 8888

5-Select Name from Table 2

Name
EF
GH
HI
JK
 6-Select * (All) From Table 2 Where Add ≠ Col-5

Reg.No Name Add Tel No

0005 EF Nuge 5555
0006 GH Maha 6666
0007 HI Kirula 7777
0008 JK Katta 8888

7- Project Table over Reg No, Name

Reg No Name
0001 AA
0002 BB
0003 CC
0004 DD

Join
Join allows us to combine information from 2 or more tables. Join has power for relational
Databases alliwing to use of independent tabales to linked by the common attributes.

Join is a result of 3 stages.

Stage 1- The product operation is applied stage 2- select operation is applied stage 3- A
Prosect operation is applied.

CUSTOMER AGENT
Code CName CAdd ACode
0001 A Col-3 2002
0002 B Col-4 1001
0003 C Col-5 2002
A Code AArea ATel
0005 D Col-6 3003
1001 Kirula 2222
2002 Moha 3333
3003 Kohu 4444

Product

C code Cname CAdd Acode Acode Aarea ATel

0001 A Col-3 2002 1001 Kirula 2222
0001 A Col-3 2002 2002 Maha 3333
0001 A Col-3 2002 3003 Kohu 4444
0002 B Col-4 1001 1001 Kirula 2222
0002 B Col-4 1001 2002 Moha 3333
0002 B Col-4 1001 3003 Kohu 4444
0003 C Col-5 2002 1001 Kirula 2222
0003 C Col-5 2002 2002 Maha 3333
0003 C Col-5 2002 3003 Kohu 4444
0004 D Col-6 3003 1001 Kirula 2222
0004 D Col-6 3003 2002 Maha 3333
0004 D Col-6 3003 3003 Kohu 4444

Per form the select condition where customer Acode = Agent Acod

TABVLE – 1

Ccode Cname CAdd Acode Acode Area Atel

0001 A Col-3 2002 2002 Maha 3333
0002 B Col-4 1001 1001 Kirula 2222
0003 C Col-5 2002 2002 Maha 3333
0004 D Col-6 3003 3003 Kohu 4444

Project Table-1 over Acode

Ccode CName CAdd ACode A Add A Tel
0001 A Col-3 2002 Maha 3333
2222 B Col-4 1001 Kirula 2222
3333 C Col-5 2002 Maha 3333
4444 D Col-6 3003 Kohu 4444

Q.
SNo SName Course CAdd
1111 AA HND L11
2222 BB BIT L12
3333 CC VOW L11 ACode AAdd ATel
4444 DD Multi L12 L11 AB A
Model L12 BC B
L13 DE C
L15 FG D

Product
Sno Sname Course Lecid Lecid Lecname LecQual
1111 AA HND L11 L11 AB A
1111 AA HND L11 L12 BC B
1111 AA HND L11 L13 DE C
1111 AA HND L11 L15 FG D
2222 BB BIT L12 L11 AB A
2222 BB BIT L12 L12 BC B
2222 BB BIT L12 L13 DE C
2222 BB BIT L12 L15 FG D
3333 CC VOW L11 L11 AB A
3333 CC VOW L11 L12 BC B
3333 CC VOW L11 L13 DE C
3333 CC VOW L11 L15 FG D
4444 DD Multi Mid L12 L11 AB A
4444 DD Multi Mid L12 L12 BC B
4444 DD Multi Mid L12 L13 DE C
4444 DD Multi Mid L12 L15 FG D

Select Table .LECID = TABLE 2. LECID

Table -3

SNO SNAME COURSE CECID LECID LECNAME LECQUAC

1111 AA HND L11 L11 AB A
2222 BB BIT L12 L12 BC B
3333 CC VOW L11 L11 AB A
4444 DD Multi Mid L12 L12 BC B

Project Table 3 over LECID

Sno Sname Course Lecid Lecname LecQual
1111 AA HND L11 AB A
2222 BB BIT L12 BC B
3333 CC Vow L11 AB A
4444 DD Multi mid L12 BC B

Relational Analysis
There are 2 ways of describing relational model. One method uses the tearms relation,
attributes & tuples. The other method describes the model using more familier tearms that is
table, field, record/ row.

The relational model describes the data as a set of relations & table. Each relational table has
a table name with set a attributes & each attribute having a unique name.

The relation attributes are same as table columns or fields. Each relation has set of tuples/
records in a table.
There is a close crospondence between the ER model & Relational model.

ER View

Employee Project

*
Employee Project Assignment Project

EmpNo ProNo

Employee
Empno Name Add Tel
1111 AA Col-3 1234
2222 BB Col-4 1235
3333 CC Col-5 1236
4444 DD Col-6 1237

Project

Prono Protitle Duration Budget

001 6 month 20,000/=
002 12 Month 80,000/=
003 8 Month 35,000/=
004 6 Month 25,000/=

Emp no Pro no Time spent

In relational analysis the notation we would use is as follows.

Employee (Empno) Name, Add, Tel No)

Project ( Prono, Pro title, Duration, Budget)
Project Assignment (prono) ,Empno, Time spent)
In this notation each relation is represented by one line. Each relation is represented by one
line. Each line starts with the relational name & it is followed by the names of the relational
attributes with in the brackets. The under- lined lined attribute 9s) is the relations,s keys
(primary keeys)
If you can organize data into set of such relation then we can gurantee a good DB design. A
Number of normal forms have been defined to eliminate duplications in relations. They are
commonly known as
- 1st Normal Form (INF)
- 2nd Normal Form (2NF)
- 3rd Normal Form (3NF)
- Boyce code Normal Form (BCNF)

Normalization
What is Normalization is a formal process for designg which attributes should be grouped
together in a relation. Before proceding with the physical design we need a method to
validate the logical design to this point. Normalization is a tool to validate & improve a
logical design. It needs to satisfy some constrain.

Such avoide unnecessary duplicateting data normalizations is a process of decomposing

relations with anomalies to produce small well structured relations. Normal form are the
ruled for structuring relations these were indroduced by E.F.Cood. Later Dr.Cood proposed
another normal form call boyce could normal form (BCNF)

Reason for normalization data structure to avoid data redundancy – If a creting fields occurs
in DB several times errors can are 3 types of anomalies exist

1- Insertion Anomaly
2- Deletion Anomaly
3- Updation Anomaly

Insertion Anomaly
Employee
Empno C-ID CName Dura Price
Empno Name Add -------
E100 Smith Col-1 E100 D-100 DICS 5m 65000
E150 James Col-2 E100 D-1100 IAD 1yr 10900
E300 Ann Col-4 E300 D-25 BSC 7yr 12500
E350 David Kandy E100 M-100 MCSE 5yr 15000
 Supose that we need to add new course details to EMP_ course table where the PK is
EMPNo, C-ID. To insert a new row the user must supply the values for both empNo & C_ID.
This is an anomaly since the user should be able toenter the course details without supplying
the EMPNo.

Deletion Anomaly
Suporse that the data for EMPNO E100 is deleted from the table this will result in loosing the
information to the course name,IAD ,DICS,MCSE

To voide these anomalies we can apply normalization process for the data.

Unnrmalization Tables with repeating

form groups

Remove repeation

1st normal form

Remove partial dependencies

2nd Normal form

Remove transitive dependencies

3rd Normal form

Remove remaining anomalies

Boyce code
Determinency & Dependency

During normalization logical assouations between data items are identified & represented in
the DB Design without any file maintenance anomalise. Identitifycation of logical
associations between data items is important in normalization & DB design. Such
associations between data items are calle determinency & dependency relationship .
Eg:
If we can difermine a specific valie of data item “V” If we know the data item determinant &
Data item V set to be the dependent.

Therw are 2 types of deteminency dependency relatitionship

1- Functional dependenty
2- Non functional dependency

Functional dependency
Normalization is based on the analysis of functional dependency, A functional dependency is
a relationship between 2 attributes
Eg: - A relation “R” has an attribute A for every value instance of A this is value of a uniquely
determines the value of B for a give.

Non Funtional dependency

For a given data item if we can find several value of other data item then there is a non
functional dependency between 2 data items

Eg::- A student No can have several subjects related.

Candidate key
This is a determinant that can uniquy identified non key attribute are functionally dependent
on part of the primary key.
Eg:- Emp Course (EmpID,Name CName, CDuration)
Course name & Duration depends on parts of the primary key that is empid the other part
will be linked by CID.

Moltivalued dependency
This is a type of dependence of exist where there are atleast 3 attributes in a relation
Eg: A,B,C,Relation

Each value of a there is a well defined value for B & well defined value for C But the set of
values of B indepennent of C
Eg:
Subject Teacher Tex Book
DBD AA Text 1
DBD BB Text 1

Transitive dependency
This is funtionnal dependency between 2 or more “non key” “Attributes in a relation.
Eg: Consider thye following relation
Eg: Consider the following relation
Sales (CNo,Name, Sales person, region)
In the above relation each sales person is asigened to a unique region
We can identify that functional dependence exist in tne sales relation

i- Customer No Name
Sales person
Region

2- Sales person region

The region is functionally dependent on sales person & sales person is functionally depend
on CNo, AS a result there are update anoma lies in the sales relation.
Eg: We can,t add new sales person to a new region without a customer.
If we delete a customer we,ll loose the sales person information aswell.

3- If a salesperson is transferred to a new region then the several rows must be changed.

Rules of Data Normalization.

1- INF- Elemunate repeating groups-

Make a Elemunate repreating groups-
Make a separate table for each set of related attributes & give each table a primary key.

2- 3NF- Eleminate columns not depend on key- If attribute do not contribute to the
description of key remove that to a separate table.

3- BCNF- This is Boyce codd Normal dependency between candidate key attribute
sdperte them to different table.

Eliminate repesting Groups.

In the original member list,each member name is followed by any database that the mwmber
has experience with . some might know many, & others might not know any. To answer the
 question, who knows DB2? “we need to perform an awkward DB2?” we need to perform an
awkward scan of the list looking for reerence to BB2.This is inefficient & extremely. Untidy
way to store information.

Moving the known DB into a separate table helps a lot. Sepatating the repeating groups of
DBS from the member information results in INF. The member ID in the Database table
matches The PK in the 2 tables with a join operation. Now we can answer the question by
looking in the database table for “DB2” & getting the list of member.

DataBase Table
Member list
Member DID MID Database
1. Jojn SmithAccess DB2 table 1 1 Access
FoxPro MID Name 2 1 DB2
2. Dave jones dBase,Clipper 1. 3 1 Foxpro
3. Mike Beach Johnsmith 4 2 dBase
4. Jerry Miller DB2, Oracle 2. David 5 2 clipper
5. Benstuary Oracle, Sybase Jones 6 4 DB2
6. Fred Flint Informix 3Mile 7 4 Oracle
7. Joe Blow Beach 8 5 Oracle
8. Greg brown Access , Missq 4.Jerry 9 5 Sybase
Server Miller 10 6 Infomix
9. Doughope 5. Benstuart 11 8 Access
6. Fred 12 8 Mssqlserver
Flint
7. Joe Blow
8. Gre
Brows
9.
Dougltope

2. Eliminate Redundant Data

 3. In the DB Table, & PK is made up of the member ID & Databade ID. This makes
scnse for other attributes like “ where learned” & “Skill level” attributes, since they
will be different for every member/ database combination. But the database name
depends only on the Database. The same database under different IDs. This is an
update anomaly.

Or suppose the last member listing a particular database leaves the group. This records will
be removed from the system, & the data base will not be stored anywhere . This is a delete
anomaly. To avoid these proplems, we need 2NF.

To Achieve this ,separate the attributes deperching on both parts of the key from those
depending only on the Database ID. This results in 2 tables: “ database” Which gives the
name for each database ID , and “Member database” which list the databases for each
member.

Now we can recassfica database in a single operation: look up

The database ID in the ‘ Database’ table & change its name. The result will instantly be
available throught the application.

Member Table Member

Database Table
MID Name Database Table
1 MID DID
DID MID Database
2 1 1
1 1 Access
3 1 2
2 1 DB2
4 1 3
3 1 Foxpro
4 2 dbase 5 2 4
5 2 Clipper 6 2 5
6 4 DB2 7 4 2
7 4 Oracle 8 4 6
8 5 Oracle 9 5 6
9 5 Sybase 5 7
10 6 Informax 6 8
11 8 Access 8 1
12 8 Mssqlserren 8 9
Database Table
DID Database
1 Access
2 DB2
3 FoxPro
5 dBase
6 Clipper
7
8
9
 3 Elimnate columns not Dependent on key

The member table satisfies INF – It contains no repeating groups. It satisfies NF – since it
does’t have a multivalued key. But the key is member ID,& the company name & location
describe only a company, not a member. To achieve 3 NF, They must be moved in to a
separate table. Since they describe a company, company code becomes the key for the new
“company” table.
The motivation for this is the same for 1NE : we want to avoid update & the IBM were
currently stored no members from the previous design, there would be no record to its
existence, even though 20 past members were from IBM:

Member Table

MID Name Company Com Loc

1 Johnsmrth ABC Alabama
2 Dave Jones MC1 Florida
3 Mike Beach IBM Delaware
4 Jerry Miller MCI Flnda
5 Ben Stuart AIC Nebraska
6 Fred Flint ABC Alahama
7 Joe Blow RuNuts Iowa
8 Gerg Brown XYZ Now York
9 Doug Hope IBM Delawre

Member Table Company table

MID Name CID CID Name Loc
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 2 4
5 4 5
6 1 6
7 5
8 6
9 3
BCNF
Boyce – code Normal 1 form states mathematically that A relation R is said to be in BCNF if
whenever X->A holds in R ,and A is not in X, then X is candidate key for R.

BCNF covers very specific situations where 3 NF misses inter- dependencies between non-
key (but candidate key) attributes. Typically, any relation that is in 3 NF is also in BCNF if
(a) there are multiple candidate keys, (b) the keys are composed of multiple attributes & (c)
there are common attributes between the keys.

Eg:

Class Enrolment
Classcode Class Discription Student No Name
503 Mgt Info 0001 AA
0003 BB
0005 CC
540 Maths 0002 DD
0004 EE

1- Convert into INF

2- Repealing group exist within this data each class code have any no. of student init, so
the student information makes the repeating groups.

Data cannot be stored or processed in a database when it this from. What we musthave is one
record containing all the data for each student.

INF

Class code Class discription Student No Name

503 Mgt Info 0001 AA
503 Mgt Info 0003 BB
503 Mgt Info 0005 CC
540 Maths 0002 DD
540 Maths 0004 EE

Enrolled in a class, there can be no “gaps” in the data when stored in a file
The above table is in the INF no repeating data & no gaps.
To take the table to the 2NF we would have to remove partial dependency.
Class Information Student Info
Class code Class
Discription
503 Mgt Info
540 Maths Class code Student No Name
503 0001 AA
503 0003 BB
503 0005 CC
540 0002 CC
540 0004 EE

Non loss decomposition

This is the process of transforming an unnormalized data set in to a fully normalized
database.
Relational/ Bracketing nitation
If we are going to represent all normalized table within the system it’ll become very
complexed, to avoid this , we can use the bracketingnotalion which can represent table by on
statement. It’ll start with a table name followed by the key (s) attributes are separated with
commas as well as primary keys are underlined & the foreign key shown with**

Emergence of the DBMS

Enter the database management system the simple approohe open data file for input soon
became fraught to be addressed. Computer system vendors needed to be able to support the
critical needd of a growing & evolving market palce that supported the data processing needs
of organization in all fields of human endevaour.

Thhe first DBMS appeared during the 1960’s at a time in human history where projects of
momentous scale were being contemplated planned engineeed never before had such large
data problems on the flow where identified & solutions were researched & develop ofen in
real time
The BBMS became necessare because the data was for more volatile than had earlier been
planed & because there was still major limiting factors in the cost associated with data
storage media. Data grew as a detailed transations by transation levels In the 1980’s all the
major vendors of hardware system large enough to support the e volving need of evolving
computerized . record keeping systems of large oranizations bundle some from of DBMS
with their system solution.

The 1st DBMS species were thus very much vendor specific. IBM as usual let the field but
there were a growing no of competes and cloneds whose DB solution offered varing entry
points in to the bandwagon of computerized record keeping system.

Through this time the specifc nature of the problems being resolved & were around from the
perspective of IT management were evolving with the teahnology & the no of main frame &
mini computer hardware vendors in creased & the no of pheriperal types & their vendors also
increased. The bundeling of DB operational sevices such as the ability to perform &
Schedule data backup became routine. The IT operational environment at this
time was categorized with a collection of system house keeping task with major emhersis on
organization produetion DB backup. File recoranization & reindex ation of data were also
standard but mainly manual system house keeping system task. Other tasks incude storage
media arehival management of document & records or business perticilarly those relste to
finance record keeping.

MedPix medical image database uses helthy dos of foss MedPix is a sprawling online
medicimages DB & diagnostic tool that’s used around The wirld by radiologist, nurses,
physicians & medical students & the whole system is powered by linux & open source
software.

MedPix is hosted by the US federal government’s helth sciences university, the uniformed
services university in Bethesda, Maryland. It ‘ s the brainchild of JamesG. Smirniotopoulos,
M.D., a USU professor of Radiology, Neurology & Biomedical informatics & clinical
sciences chair of it’s Department of Radiology & Radiological sciences.

Exploiting the DBMS (Selecting a DBMS)

The DSMS is a software application system that used to create, maintain & provide control
to create, maintain & provide control to user database
Eg: It provides a user interface to the data base system.

Data management layer

The ANS1 / SPARC architechture
A DBMS works as an interface between application progras of the users & the data base. The
American National standard institute standard planning & requirements comitte propose a 3
level architecture for this interface such as.

External/ User view

This level describes The user application programa viwew of the database several users can
share the same view.

Conceptual/ l0gical view

This describes overall data requirementd as a detailed technology ideperdent speafication of
the over all structure of a database.Entity- Relatiorship modeling & object – Oriented
modeling are 2 diffw\erent graphical notations used for presenting the comceptual notation
used for presenting the conceptual mobbed.

Physical / Internal view

This describes in which the data is stored & data is accessed
The above 3 layer of architecture create independence of data at 2 level.

Logical Data independence

This refers to the ability of changes to the external Without
Eg:- Phys any influence to the external cchema.

Physical Data independence

This refers to the ability of introduang changes to the physical sohema without any influence
to the logical schema

Eg: Chaging the storage structure of data without any influence to the wonceptial Schema.

Toolkit
Interface

The DBMS Consist of 3 parts.

1. kernel (core- central point0
2. Interface
3. toolket

Kernel.
The DBMS kernel is the central ergine which handles the rain data management functions.
Most DBMS are installed on thetop of some operating systems. Therefore DBMS needs to
interact with operating systems to implement & access the data & system calalogece which
are usually stored on harddisk. Therefore they interact with some of the operting system
elements such as i.- file manager which translate between the data structures manipulated by
the DBMS & the files on the harddisk.

ii. acces mechanism – the file manager doesnal manage the physical input & output of data
directly . It interact with appropriate access mechnisum established for different physical
structures.
System buffer – The reading & writing data is normaly stored in the system buffer of the
operating system.

Functions of DBMS.
- the DBMS must be able to create, retrieve, update, delete the data from the data base
(CRUD Function)

- Data Integrity & data seairity

- Data Communication

- Conarrency cCntrol

- Data recovery & backups

- Query optimization

- Managing transaction

- Scheduline transaction

- Data Dictionary

Software components available in DBMS.

- DDL Compilers

DDL Compiler

Data dictioraiyment

Query processor & runtime processor User Queries

Query

Runtime Processor
 Pre- compiler

Application programs

Precompiler

DML Host lang

Compiler

DML Compiler

Host Language Compiler

Data dictionary manager

Data base features

Data independence
The srperation of data descriptions/ definitions from the applications that uses the data In a
relational model the logical independence & physical independence is achieved by allowing
changes to the physical storage or the application programs to take place without the user
being aware of the changes.

Data abstraction
Data abstraction is the process by which a data base attempts to represent properties of
objects in the real world. A database records. The relevant details required to support some
organizational activities & it does not record all the details. The database is an abstraction of
the real world. The abstraction level varies according to the different commercial databases.

Data Security
Data security is the process of protecting the data from external thrects. Data is key resource
for organization. Loss of data , Privacy , integrity, availability etc are issues that cost an
organization in financial terms.

Data Interation
A data base should be a collection of data which at last has no redundant data. The aim is to
hare 1 database storing 1 logical item of data in one place which can be accessed by a range
of information systems.
Eg: Replacing several departmental data base in one company with one data base system that
can be nade accessible to several departments.

Physical Data base design.

The process of physical database design is to translate the logical description of data in to the
technical specification for retieving & storing data, the goal is to create the required
performance & ensure the database integrity, security & recoverability.

Physical database design must be performed carefully since the decisions made during this
stage have major impact on data accessibility , response time , security , user friendliness ,
ect.

Physical database design doses not include implementing database but it produice a technical
specification that programmers & others involved in information system construction

There are 3 major inputs to physical database design

Logical database structure that were developed during logical design. This structure may be
expressed in itierarachical, Network, relational object oriented & definition for each attribute.

User processing requirements that were identified during requirement definition including
sign , when data is used & where response time , time , data ,security , backup & recovery ,
integrity & retention of data.

Description of technology used for omplemnting the databases (DBMS0

There are several critical decisions that ‘ll affect the integrity & performance of the
applications system. These key decisions are
- data volume analysis
- transaction / usage analysis
- Contro & security analiysis
- Destribution analysis
- Integrity analysis

Integrity Analysis
Tntegrity defines the business rules or constraints that should apply on the data. There are 4
basic types of integrity rules.

Entity Integrity
This define that each and every entity should have a unique identifier a primary key and it
cannot be null.
Referential Tntegrity
This refers to the rules concerining the relationship between the 2 entity types (1e) by
defining foregn key relational data model.

Domain integrity
This refers to the eonstraction valid values for attributes. We can achieve the domain integrity
for an attribute by specifying the following.
- The type of the attribute
- The length
- Format range
- Allowed values
- Null support or Not
- Check constraints

Triggerring Operations
All the other business rules that protect the validity of an attribute value defined as a tribber
A trigger is a program / proceduire which is aulmatically executed due to an event. An event
can be either Insevetion , deletion / updation.
User Rule: check with drawal amount <Balance Available – 100

Event : Update
Ntity : Customer
Condition : W – Amt <B – Avl – 100
Action : display blance Available to withdraw.

The out put of the physical database design is the implementation plain for the physical
database. It’ll consists of tbhe following elements
- Data structures given in DDL
- Indexes declared on the data structures
- Clustering data
- A set of integrity constraints
- Distribution strategy of the data base
- A set of users
- A Plan for data seairity

Implementation
For database implantation, we use output of physical design to construct the database system
using the mechanisms or features of the selected DBMS. It includes coding & testing
database processing programs completing data base documentation & training materials
installing database , converting data of the implementation we accept a functioning system
that meet the user information requirements. After that the system’ll be put into production
use.

Clustering data
Setn up integrity constant expressed in some data definition language and set of a additional
interity constraints expressed in some data interity language

A set of distribution strategies

A set of defined users
A plan for securing data

Database Implementation decision

5 options are available to the relationan DB developers in fine tuning the application to
increase the performance of the application.
Establishing the storage structure the associated mechanisms
Adding Indexes
Denormalization
Exploiting the DBMS
Implementing integrity constraints

Establishing the storage structure & Access mechanisms.

The criteria that are normally important in selecting the storage structure are

Fast access for retrieval

High throughput for processing transcaction
Effective use of storage space
Protection from failures
Minimizing the need for reorganization
Accommodating a growth
Securing from unaithorised MSE.

The designeres must select the file organization tha provides areasonable balancing among
the criteria withing the resource available
Mechanisms available for storing data in a relational system are
Sequeritial files
Hash files
Clustering files
Indexed sequential files.

Adding Index
Index is a table or other data structure that is used to determine the location of the row in a
table that satisfies the condition. Indeex may be defined on both primary key value or non
key attribute value.(Secondary Index)

Indexing improves the access performance but if reduces the update performance because
every time we add a record to a table, each index on that table has to be update, we always
index on primary key & foreign key but sometimes we index on other nonkey attributes of a
table when they are extremely important in the running of some reports.
De – Normarisation
The main problem with fully normalized database is it usually made up of many tables. To
perform queries , such tables have to be reconstructed using join operations. There fore some
database developers occasionally choose to implement a relational database that purposely
violation the principles of normalization. Their goal is to reduce the no.of physical database
tables that must be accessed to retrieve the desired data by needd. But denormalization leade
& it increases the change of errors and inconsistercies.

Situations in which you should consider to denormalise are

2 Entities with a 1-1 relationship. If one of the entity’s is an optional participant. If the
matching entity exist most of the time, then it may be advisable to combine the 2 entities in
to one table.

Many – many relationshop with a non key attribute – rather than combining 3 tabless to
extract the data from the 2 entities in a relationship , if may be advisable to combine the
columns from 1 of the entities in to the tables representing the M-M relationship which
avoids 1 joins in many queries.

Reference Data – If exists in an entity on the 1 side of 1 – M relationship & this entity
participates in no other data relationship , then wer can consider of mering these two entities.
Integrity constraints
There are 3 main ways of implementing constraints.

Inherently – We should at leaset be able to specify entity , referentoral & domain integrity.

Procedural – Constraints occus outside the data model. Most existing data model. Most
existing application programs that interface with database implements the constraints
procedurally.

Nonm – procedural – constructing the constraints by implementing triggers & stored

procedures.

Transaction management & concurrency control what is transaction.

Transaction management & concurrency control what is transaction.

In database term a transaction is any action that read from db or write on db. Transaction may
consist of a simple select statement to gwnerate list of table contains. If may consist of a
serious of insert statements to add rows to , or moretables or if may consist of combination of
select , update , insert statements.

Transaction management with SQL Amaerican national standard Institude (ANSI) has
defined standards that Govern SQL DB tranactions. The transaction support is provide by the
SQL statement commit & roll back.
Commit
A commit statement is reached in which case all changes are permanently recored with the
DB> The commit statement automatically ends the SQL statement.

Roll back
A roll back statement is reached in which case all the changes are dborted & DB is rolled
back to its previous constant state

Trasaction Lock
The DBMS uses a transaction lock to keep track of all transaction to update the DB.
Information stored in this lock’ll be used by the DBMS for recovery requirements though the
roll back statements. 1- A transaction lock stores a record for beginning of transaction

2- Each transaction component

3- The pending of the transaction

TRA TRA PRE TRA NEXT OPERA TABLES POW ATTR BE FOR AFTER
ID NO TRA TION ID IBUTES Value VALUE

341 101 Null 352 Start Start

354 101 341 363 Uptate Product 1558 Product 25 23
361 101 352 365 Update Customer 1001 Customer 525 615
365 101 303 Null Commit End of T/A

Concurrency Control
The condition of the simultaneous execution of transaction in multiuser DB system is known
as concurrency control. The objective of concurrency control is to ensure the serializability of
transaction in a multiuser DB environment conairrency control is important because the
simultanius execution of trasaction over shared DB can create several integrity & consistency
problems.

The 3 main problems are last update

Uncommitted dependency Inconsistance retrieval.

Last update
Most common problem that is encounted where multiple users attempt to update DB without
proper concurrency control.

Transation A Transaction B
Check balance (10,000) 10.00
10.05 Check balance (10,000)
Take (2000) 10,10
10,20 Take (7000)
Check balance (8000) 10,30
10,40
The effect of transation is lost due to interference during the transation.

Uncommitted dependency problem

Uncommitted dependency problem arise If 1 transation is allowed to retrieve a record that
has been update by another transaction but has not being committed by other transaction.

TransationA Transation B
(Check balance (500) 10,00
10.05 transafer 200
Take (1000) 10.10
10,15
Check balance (200) 10,20

Transaction A depends on an uncommitted transaction at 10,05 there fore the end result
transaction A is incorrect because an uncommitted value may be changed due to some
problem in the other transactions.

Inconsistency Analyst (inconsistence refrieval)

Inconsistency retrieval occur when transaction calculate some summary functions ahile other
transactions are updation the data. The problem is that the transaction might read some data
before they are changed & another data after they have changed this will result some
inconsistency data.

Trasaction A Transation B
Sam = 0 10,30

Open A C1
(Sum = sum +500

Open AC 2 10,30
(Sum = Sum +100) 10,36 transfer 50 from
AC2 to AC 3

Open AC 3
(Sum = Sum + 200)

AC1 AC2 AC3

50 100 250
Trasaction A should end up with an answer as 300 but the produced answer is 35. this is due
to transaction A has considered an inconsistent situation of the DB. There fore the transaction
has performed an inconsistent analyst.

Concurrency control with locking methods

Locking mechanisms are the common types of any data that is retrieved by a user for
updating must be locked or denied to other users until the update is completed.

Types of locks
Shared lock (slock/ Read Lock)
A transaction should place a shared lock on record who it’ll only read that record.
Shared lock allows other transactions to read a record
plaung an slock a record prevents another user from plaung an exolusn lock (updating, write)
on the record.

A S B

Exclusne lock (Write/ Lock)

Exculusive lock prevents another transaction from reading & there fore updating a record
until it is unlocked. A transaction should place an exlusive lock on a record when it is above
to update that record.
A Take B
Money Chek
money

Data
Read
Data lock
When 2 or more transaction have locked a common resource & each waits for other to unlock
that resource.

Database security
DB security refer to a process of protecting a ab against accidental or international losses or
misuse. A database administrator is responsible for the security of the db. The follwing are
the different types of threats available for the db.

1- possibilities of the it & frauds – the data related to an organization may be illegally
extracted without any permission by a hacker.
 2- Possibility of loss of confidentiality an unauthorises person or a hacker try to access
the corporate date available on the db.
3- Loss of Privaoy – An organization keeps data related to individual persons & viewing
The personal data by others,ll lead to loss of privay.
4- Loss of Integrity – The integrity may be lost due to not implementing the interity
rules properly due to hardware or software problems.
5- Loss of availability – The availability of the database may be lost due to different
reasons such as matural disasters floads, fire, bomb attack, virus attack.

The DBA is responsible for database security they secuirity measures on database can be
defined in 2 different ways
Computer based measurements
Non computer based.

Computer based Measures

Haring an authorization on the db system by the operating system on which it is running

(username, password os + DB)

Having an authorization strategy to grant privell ages to the userson

the DB tables.
- creating views on db tables & giving access to user to those views.

- taking backups of data in DB maintaining done on the db or to trace any changes

- Applying ercription strategy on more important data.

Non computer based measures.

- sperate the duties of the users on the D,
- Destroying the oopies of data without discarding them.
- Use the fire – pro of storage mechanisms for storing lockeyp oppies
- Apply physical access a secure environment.
- Eg- locking , Assigind asecirity quard

Database Administration
It is a technical function that is responsible for physical DB design & for decurity
enforcement, DB performance, backup & recovery In a large database system, DBA
functions is carried out bythe DB administration or DBA team
The DBA have the following core responsibilities.
Administration of the DB
The main activities of DBA in administrating the database the are physical design of the
implementation.

- Data standards & documentation

- Monitering data usage & tuning DB structures.
 - Data Archiving

- Data backup & recovery

Administration of the DBMS

The following are the main activities of a DBMS
- Installation of the DBMS
- Configuring the system
- Monitering the DBMS usage
- Turing the DBMS

The DB environment Administration

The following activities are invoived with the DB environment administration.

- Access control 1:- This is dealine with or ceting users, assigning passwords, gran
giving access to DBMS facilities
- Impact Assessment
- Privancy, security, Integrity control
- Education & training.