C H A P T E R T W E LV E

Combined and Steam Injection Cycles

ombined cycles and steam injection cycles are important enhancements to conventional prime mover simple cycles. They can conserve energy by converting rejected heat into additional power production and they reduce air emissions per unit of power generated. Whereas cogeneration cycles involve the use of recovered heat to serve thermal processes, combined and steam injection cycles use recovered heat in the form of highpressure steam to produce additional power. As such, the techniques are important alternatives in applications where process uses for cogenerated thermal energy are either not available or somewhat limited. A combined cycle is the sequential linking of any topping and bottoming cycle, or two simple cycles. Typically, a gas turbine or reciprocating engine is used to generate shaft power at the top of the cycle, with steam generated from turbine or engine exhaust heat. The steam is then passed through a steam turbine to generate additional power at the bottom of the cycle. With gas-turbine systems, an alternative to adding a bottoming cycle is to use the steam injection cycle (also known by trade names as STIG or Cheng cycles), in which recovered heat is used to generate additional power by injecting steam directly into the gas turbine. It is similar in concept to a combined cycle in that increased mass flow is passed through a turbine to produce more power. The difference is that the increased mass flow is injected into the same (gas) turbine (operating on an open Brayton cycle), as opposed to a different (steam) turbine (operating on a closed Rankine cycle).

relatively elevated temperature, is well suited for the steam-turbine cycle. A fundamental limitation on thermal efficiency of combustion engine cycles is the high exit temperature, typically in the range of 900 to 1,200F (482 to 649C). The exhaust stream has a high energy level that is wasted if heat recovery applications are not available. Generally, the basic gas turbine design (i.e., no aftercoolers or recuperators) provides a good exhaust temperature for steam turbine power generating efficiency. Increases in exhaust gas temperatures of a few hundred degrees, via supplementary firing, may further optimize HRSG and steam turbine performance. These factors allow the use of basic gas turbines in high thermal-efficiency combinedcycle plants. Thermal efficiency of a combined-cycle plant, assuming no firing in the HRSG, is the ratio of total power output (combustion engine and steam turbine) to the combustion engine energy input. This can be expressed as:
th

(WCE + WST ) QCE

(12-1)

Where: WCE = Work produced by combustion engine (e.g., gas turbine or reciprocating engine) WST = Work produced by steam turbine QCE = Heat energy input to combustion engine If additional heat is added via after-firing or supplemental firing in the HRSG, thermal efficiency can be expressed as:
th

COMBINED-CYCLE SYSTEMS
Figures 12-1a and b show a simple combined-cycle system featuring a gas turbine-generator with a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) and a steam turbine-generator, condenser, and auxiliary system. In this case, the HRSG is the heat exchanger that links the two cycles together by transferring the exhaust energy from the gasturbine topping cycle to the steam-turbine bottoming cycle. The benefit of combining these cycles is that combustion engine cycles are well suited for high-temperature operation, and the rejected heat of those cycles, still at a

(WCE + WST ) (QCE + QHRSG)

(12-2)

In a cogeneration application in which a portion of the recovered heat is passed on to process (Q P), either directly from the HRSG or via extraction from the steam turbine, efficiency can be expressed as:
th

(WCE + WST + QP ) QTotal input

(12-3)

The net fuel rate, or FCP equation, (developed in Chapter 2) applied to a combined-cycle cogeneration type system can be expressed as:

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

Figs. 12-1a and b Simplified Combined-Cycle Schematics. Source: Babcock & Wilcox

temperatures and various pressure ratios. In contrast to simple-cycle efficiency, where high pressure ratios are desirable, (WCE + WST WAUX ) this figure indicates that more moderate pressure ratios may produce higher combined-cycle efficiency. Gas turbines feaWhere: Fuel credit = The avoided fuel use associated with the turing higher pressures can still produce very high efficienrecovery of energy from the steam turbine cies in combined-cycle operation, depending on the design = Auxiliary power requirements and system configuration. WAux A significant difference between simple-cycle gas-turCost chargeable-to-power (CCP) in combined-cycle bine operation and combined-cycle operation is the effect cogeneration applications can be expressed as: of increased ambient air temperature. As shown in Total energy cost Energy cost credit + O & M cost Chapter 10, increased ambient air temperature derates gas CCP = TC power output + BC power output Aux. power input turbine output and thermal efficiency due to reduced density and, therefore, reduced mass flow and pressure ratio. (12-5) However, in the combined cycle, the increase in ambient Where: TC is topping cycle and BC is bottoming cycle. air temperature raises the temperature of the exhaust gas Figure 12-2 shows thermal efficiency and specific out- stream and, therefore, increases the thermal efficiency of put of gas-turbine combined cycles at different firing the steam process. This lessens the relative importance of FCP = (Total fuel Fuel credit ) (12-4)

Fig. 12-2 Combined Cycle Gas Turbine Thermodynamics. Source: General Electric Company

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Combined and Steam Injection Cycles

ambient air temperature and somewhat reduces the need for inlet air-cooling. The most basic configuration for a combined-cycle plant is a single-pressure system. This typically consists of a gas turbine (or reciprocating engine), a single-pressure HRSG, and a condensing turbine. Multiple gas turbines and, in some cases, multiple steam turbines may be used. A typical 100 MW (100,000 kW) combined-cycle system might consist of 68 MW output from the gas turbine, 33 MW output from the steam turbine, and 1.5 MW auxiliary input requirement. If the heat rate of the gas turbine is about 11,010 Btu/kWh (11,611 kJ/kWh), which corresponds to a thermal fuel efficiency of 31% (LHV basis), then the entire process has a heat rate of 7,518 Btu/kWh (7,929 kJ/kWh). The thermal efficiency of this combined-cycle plant, in which work rate is expressed in kW and energy use in Btu, is:
th

(68 MWGT + 33 MWST 1.5 MWAUX ) x 3,413 MBtu/MWh 11,010 MBtu/MWhGT x 68 MWGT x 100% = 45.4%

In the most basic design, extraction steam from the steam turbine is used to provide feedwater preheating. Overall thermal efficiency can be improved by a few percent by using a preheating loop with the lowest temperature HRSG exhaust gas. This improves heat recovery effectiveness and slightly raises power output by increasing steam generation capacity. With a reciprocating engine-based combined-cycle system, similar overall thermal fuel efficiencies can be achieved as with gas turbine systems, though the recipro-

cating engine contributes a higher percentage of overall power output. Natural gas spark-ignited, Otto-cycle engines are particularly well suited for combined-cycle operation due to a high exhaust temperature and quantity relative to Diesel-cycle engines, though Diesel-cycle and dual-fuel engines are also effectively applied in combinedcycle applications. Figure 12-3 is a line diagram of a combined-cycle system featuring a gas-fired reciprocating engine and steam turbine. All exhaust gas heat can be used for power generation at the turbine. Overall system thermal efficiency is further optimized when engine coolant heat is used for pre-heating, deaerating, etc., in the steam cycle or for space heating, absorption cooling, or process use in a cogeneration-type application. With a spark-ignited gas engine, featuring a simplecycle efficiency of 39% (LHV basis) for example, exhaust temperatures in excess of 750F (399C) can be produced. At an exhaust temperature of 788F (420C), for example, superheated steam at about 145 psig (11 bar) and 715F (380C) can be generated, allowing for a thermally efficient steam cycle. Engine coolant heat recovery can be used for feedwater heating to further enhance overall system performance. With larger systems, it might be economical to raise steam from the coolant system for use in a low-pressure condensing turbine. In a gas turbine-based combined-cycle system (without supplementary firing), the ratio of power output of the gas turbine to the steam turbine may be 2:1. Alternatively, with a reciprocating engine-based system, the ratio of power output of the reciprocating engine to the steam turbine may be 4:1 or 5:1. Overall, however,

Fig. 12-3 Line Diagram of Combined-Cycle System Featuring Spark-Ignited Reciprocating Engine. Source: Wartsila Diesel

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

similar combined-cycle thermal fuel efficiencies can be achieved due to increased heat recovery steam generation from gas turbine exhaust.

MULTIPLE-PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Steam turbine Rankine efficiency is improved when the heat drop across the turbine is increased. Therefore, since the exit condition is set by ambient temperature (and cost considerations related to the condenser, final pressure, etc.), efficiency can be improved by operating the steam generator at higher temperature and pressure. With combined-cycle operation, a balance must be struck between gas turbine (or reciprocating engine), HRSG, and steam turbine efficiency. As HRSG temperature and pressure are increased, the rate of exhaust gas heat energy utilization is decreased. Conversely, lower steam pressure and lower exhaust gas exit temperature increase the overall utilization of the exhaust gas heat. An effective way to incorporate higher steam pressures and temperatures into combined-cycle systems is to use a multi-pressure HRSG. This requires a steam turbine with two or more steam admissions: one at high pressure and one or more at lower pressures. These configurations allow for greater thermodynamic efficiency of the steam turbine because higher-pressure steam can be used in the first stage without compromising HRSG efficiency. For example, with a multiple-pressure system that produces 39 MW from the steam turbine, overall net thermal efficiency would be increased from 45.4% singlepressure efficiency to 48.1% (LHV) and heat rate would be reduced to 7,096 Btu/kWh (7,483 kJ/kWh). The thermal efficiency of this combined-cycle plant is:
th

turbine features a 30:1 pressure ratio, which is unusually high for such an efficient combined-cycle system. The steam turbine is part of the single power train, with the common generator located in the middle. The three variable stators at the compressor inlet allow the gas turbine to be operated with a relatively flat efficiency curve in the part-load range in combined-cycle operation. By adjusting the stators, the mass flow is reduced linearly to 60% of the full-load figure, allowing the turbine exhaust to be maintained at almost its design point of about 1,130F (610C). Figure 12-5 shows a basic heat balance for a 254 MW system featuring a Siemens 170 MW gas turbine. The common hydrogen-cooled generator is solidly coupled to the gas turbine, with a synchronous clutch used for the steam turbine connection. The two-casing steam turbine features a high-pressure turbine and a combined intermediate- and low-pressure turbine with an axial exhaust to the condenser. The gas turbine features a pressure ratio of 16.6:1 and an exhaust flow of 3,600,000 lbm/h (454 kg/sec) at a temperature of 1,004F (562C).

COMBINED-CYCLE COGENERATION SYSTEMS

If a given facility has a large low-pressure steam load (and some high-pressure steam load), it may make sense to employ a combined cycle that provides usable thermal energy to process. In this case, high-pressure steam is made in the HRSG, and a back-pressure or extraction steam turbine functions as a pressure-reducing valve (PRV), in addition to producing shaft power. Even if steam of pressures up to a few hundred psi (20 bar) are required for process, the gas turbine exhaust (often with supplementary firing) can normally make sufficiently high pressure steam that an intermediate steam turbine stage can be used. Figure 12-6 is a schematic representation of a combined-cycle cogeneration system featuring a gas turbine, HRSG, and steam turbine. There are many variations on the cogeneration design with combined-cycle plants. Some divert a portion of the thermal energy directly from the HRSG over a wide range of pressures. Systems may feature gas turbines or reciprocating engines with a back-pressure or extraction steam turbine serving process loads. A combination of condensing and back-pressure turbines can also be used. Multi-stage extraction turbines are often used, because they can exhaust steam at varying pressures and quantities, while condensing the rest of the steam in the power generation process. These types of configurations are discussed in greater detail in the chapters in Section VI covering electric power cogeneration applications. In addition to electric power generation, the steam

(68 MWGT + 39 MWST 1.5 MW AUX ) x 3,413 MBtu/MWh 11,010 MBtu/MWhGT x 68MWGT

x 100% = 48.1%

Todays larger capacity combined-cycles featuring high-efficiency gas turbines and triple-pressure steam cycles can achieve total thermal fuel efficiencies in excess of 50% (LHV basis). Figures 12-4 and 12-5 show combined-cycle power generation systems with capacities of about 250 MW. Both feature gas turbines, triple-pressure steam cycles, and single-shaft power blocks. Both systems guarantee NOX emissions of below 25 ppm when operating on natural gas and are believed capable of achieving single-digit ppm NOX emissions levels. Figure 12-4 shows a labeled layout of a 251 MW system featuring a 160 MW ABB sequential combustion gas turbine, with dual combustion chambers. The gas

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Combined and Steam Injection Cycles

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Gas turbine Generator Clutch Steam turbine Condenser HRSG Air intake Stack Auxiliary block, GT Generator bus duct Generator breaker Fuel oil block Fuel gas block Main transformer Auxiliary transformer Lube oil system Feedwater tank Electric and Control modules

Fig. 12-4 Layout of 251 MW Combined-Cycle System with Single-Shaft Design and TriplePressure Steam Cycle. Source: ABB

summer load with condensing steam turbine-driven chillers, or a combination of back-pressure driven chillers and absorption chillers, is a way to level loads and create a more optimal combined-cycle load profile.
Stack Heat-Recovery Boiler Gas Turbine Generator Steam Turbine

4 bar/235C (58 psia/455F) 30 bar/320C (435 psia/610F) 110 bar/540C (1600 psia/1004F) Air V84.3 Electric Power 28 bar 540C (405 psia 1004F)

turbine or combustion engine can be used for mechanical drive service. This is more prevalent in the smaller capacity applications. Many facility plants or district heating/cooling plants that have been built around the use of steam turbines to drive chillers, pumps, etc., have been retrofitted with gas turbines upstream of the existing plant and have become combined-cycle plants. Building

LP
Stack Exhaust

IP

HP

GT

HP

IP

LP

Exhaust Gas

Fuel Oil

Gas

Plant Gross Output = 253.8 MW Plant Gross Efficiency = 57.9%

Fig. 12-5 Basic Heat Balance for 254 MW Combined-Cycle System with Single-Shaft Design and Triple-Pressure Steam Cycle. Source: Siemens Power Corp.

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

Because a condensing turbine produces more power than a non-condensing turbine, a combined-cycle cogeneration configuration using a non-condensing turbine has a lower power generating thermal efficiency than a condensing application. However, the total system efficiency and fuel chargeable-to-power (FCP) will be higher when
Fuel Combustor

Figure 12-7 shows, schematically, a large 199 MW combined-cycle cogeneration system using a three-pressure waste heat boiler (WHB) at pressures of 1400, 450, and 5 psig (97.6, 32.0, and 1.4 bar), with gas-turbine steam injection. In this case, the steam turbine comprises 20% of the total system capacity.

COMBINED-CYCLE APPLICATIONS
The primary use of conventional combined-cycle generation in the United States today is in medium- and large-scale power plants Compressor Turbine Generator ranging from 100 MW to greater than 1,000 MW. In most discussions of future utility, nonGenerator Turbine utility, or independent power producer power Air in Heat Recovery plants, the gas-powered combined-cycle plant is Process Steam Generator LP Steam considered state-of-the-art technology. This is to Stack Condenser due to the high efficiency of combined-cycle plants versus conventional power plants and the Fig. 12-6 Combined-Cycle Cogeneration System. reduced societal cost resulting from pollution and other damaging externalities. In particular, steam energy that is passed on to process is credited to the low emission characteristics are typically associated with the energy input in the calculations. types of fuels used in combined cycle plants (i.e., natural gas While an extremely efficient combined-cycle plant and lighter oils). can reach thermal efficiencies in excess of 50% (LHV), Until recently, combustion turbines were used by electric combined-cycle cogeneration plants can achieve net ther- utilities, mostly as peaking plants. Applications were designed mal fuel efficiencies higher than 80%. Consider the sys- for a limited number of run hours due to the higher cost of tem described in the previous examples, except that 12 gas and oil fuels compared with coal, and to the relative inefMW is produced from the steam turbine (with a reduced ficiency of simple-cycle combustion turbines. Simple-cycle auxiliary requirement) and 360,000 MBtu/h (379,764 combustion gas turbines were not operationally cost-competMJ/h) is passed on to process. In this case, the net heat rate, itive with large coal plants for serving baseloads. or FCP , is calculated as follows: However, simple-cycle gas turbines continue to serve as effective peaking plants because, with limited hours of (68 MWGT x 11.3 MMBtu/MWh) (360 MMBtu/h 0.83 B ) use, fuel cost does not significantly impact life-cycle costs. FCP = (68 MW GT + 12 MW ST 0.75 MW AUX ) The low installed cost, easy dispatchability, and short construction lead time were the dominant factors leading to = 4,223 MBtu/MW their selection for peaking plant applications. The relative values of achieving more power output or more thermal output will be a function of real market costs for power and fuel, as well as the particular plant configuration. While the net thermal fuel efficiency in the example above is 81% and FCP is 4,223 Btu/kWh (4,455 kJ/kWh), the simple power generating efficiency is only 35% and the heat rate is 9,696 Btu/kWh (10,228 Fig. 12-7 199 MW Combined-Cycle Cogeneration Plant. Source: Cogen Designs, Inc. kJ/kWh).
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Combined and Steam Injection Cycles

Over the past couple of decades, power plant construction by independent power producers (IPPs) in the United States has been dominated by the following configurations: 1) Cogeneration plants in which recovered heat served some type of industrial steam host or a district heating/cooling system 2) Various waste-to-energy type plants 3) Combined-cycle power plants With these technologies, IPPs have consistently demonstrated superior cost-efficiency in power production compared with utility generation plants. Currently, the climate in the power generation industry is one of free-market competition. This climate is partially the result of advances in smaller-scale power production technology that reversed the economy-of-scale tradition that led utilities to build larger and larger plants. The low capital cost and high thermal fuel efficiency of combined-cycle plants, plus changes in federal legislation and the overall energy market, have all contributed to the current conditions. As discussed in Section V, the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct 92) infuses competition into the electric generation industry by unbundling the electric generation function from the transmission and distribution functions. Furthermore, EPAct 92 imposes regulatory pressure for utility least-cost planning, including consideration of environmental and other external factors in the utility resource evaluation process. As a result, utilities are moving swiftly in the use of combined-cycle power plants to serve their current and future capacity needs in a costcompetitive and socially beneficial manner. The trend toward combined-cycle plants has been further fueled by the planning concept of building smaller modular plants of 50 to 300 MW, rather than traditional, much larger steam plants. The primary factors contributing to combined-cycle market penetration are: Low air emissions High thermal efficiency Dispatchability Reliability Low construction cost Lower risk Short construction lead time In addition to central power plant applications, combined-cycle power plants can be effective in capacities well below 100 MW. In fact, variations on the combined-cycle theme may have widespread implications for systems ranging

down to only a few MW. Reciprocating engine-based combined-cycle systems and combined-cycle cogeneration systems also merit consideration for industrial plant operations.

STEAM INJECTION CYCLES

Steam injection-cycle systems augment gas turbine power output by increasing mass flow. As discussed in Chapter 10, the gas turbine compressor section typically requires about two-thirds of turbine power output, and simply increasing the size of the system increases power output only one-third as fast as mass flow. However, increasing mass flow downstream of the compressor by direct injection of high- or intermediate-pressure steam produces a direct increase in power output. Figure 12-8 shows steam injection locations for the GE LM2500 STIG-cycle gas turbine. Figure 12-9 is a steam balance and system layout diagram of a system featuring the LM5000, showing HRSG functionality and steam injection locations. Steam injection-cycle systems follow operating strategies that are similar to combined-cycle systems. Recovered heatgenerated steam is superheated and injected through the turbine, where the added mass flow can increase power output by as much as 50%. As with combined-cycle operation, steam injection dramatically lowers the overall power cycle heat rate. Table 12-1 shows the performance enhancement achieved with two GE STIG models. Table 12-2 shows the steam injection capability for various GE models, showing the steam flows and enhanced capacities and thermal efficiencies. As shown in Figure 12-7, steam injection can also be used in gas turbines serving combined-cycle systems. Usually, the resulting increase in the gas turbine output is greater than the corresponding decrease in steam turbine output. However, there will also usually be a slight decrease in overall thermal efficiency. When limited steam
Standard Base Load, Sea Level, 60% RH, Natural Gas 60 Hertz 4 in. (102mm) Inlet/10 in. (254mm) Exhaust Loss Average Engine at the Generator Terminals*

Model LM1600 LM2500

Dry % Thermal Rating Efficiency STIG Rating (MWe) (LHV) (MWe) 13.3 22.2 35 35 16 27.4

% Thermal Efficiency (LHV) 37 39

*3% margin on Eff. Included Table 12-1 Performance Enhancement Achieved with Two GE Steam Injection Models. Source: General Electric Company

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

Standard Base Load, Sea Level, 60% RH, Natural Gas 60 Hertz 4 in. (102mm) Inlet/10 in. (254mm) Exhaust Loss 25 PPM NOx Model LM1600 LM2500 LM2500+ LM6000 Rating (MWe)* 16 27.4 32.5 42.3 % Thermal Efficiency (LHV)* 37 39 40 41.1 Steam Flows lb/hr (kg/hr) Compressor Fuel Nozzle Discharge 11540 (5235) 9840 (4463) 18300 (8301) 31700 (14379) 23700 (10750) 28720 (13027)

HP Steam to combustor for NOx abatement

HP Steam for power augmentation

*Average Engine at Generator Terminals (2.5% on LM1600 Gen, 2.0% on all others Gen, 1.5% GB included)

Table 12-2 Capacity, Performance and Steam Flows of Various GE Steam Injection Cycle Models: Source: General Electric Company.

injection is provided to reduce NOX emissions, the changes in performance are fairly small. Chapter 17 provides a discussion of steam injection for NOX control. Steam injection can provide the flexibility to operate effectively under an extremely wide range of varying load and energy cost conditions. Steam injection in combinedcycle systems can reduce condenser load, allowing steam turbine and auxiliary equipment capacities to be reduced. Major disadvantages are that more water is required because steam is used in an open cycle, extensive boiler water treatment is required to avoid fouling of the gas turbine, and there is a tendency for increased production of CO emissions. Some turbines can accept both high- and low-pressure steam, while others can accept only high-pressure steam.

Fig. 12-8 Steam Injection Ports for LM2500 Gas Turbine. Source: General Electric Company

Steam can be injected at multiple pressures and temperatures, at multiple points in the cycle, and at varying rates, depending on power and thermal load requirements. Since steam from HRSGs can produce pressures well above those needed for injection, steam turbine extraction steam or multiple pressure HRSGs can be used. For many stationary gas turbines, operation with steam injection rates that are equal to more than a few percent of the total air mass flow requires modifications, particularly in the compressor. Aeroderivative gas turbines are generally more compatible with large-scale steam injection. Three common types of steam injection are NOX control steam, compressor discharge port (CDP) steam, and low-pressure (LP) steam. NOX control steam may be injected into the fuel, combustion air, or directly into the combustion chamber. High-pressure CDP steam is injected at a pressure above the compressor discharge pressure, depending on the pressure ratio. In practice, high-pressure steam produces roughly three to four Fig. 12-9 Heat Balance and System Layout Diagram of STIG- Cycle System Featuring LM5000 Gas Turbine. Source: Stewart and Stevenson times more power augmen-

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Combined and Steam Injection Cycles

tation than does low-pressure steam, since it passes through both the compressor drive turbine and the power turbine. Low-pressure steam is injected into the power turbine only and may be introduced at different points in the turbine section.

Fig. 12-11 Capacity as a Function of Steam Injection Rate and Ambient Temperature. Source: Cogen Designs, Inc.

Fig. 12-10 Representative Steam Injection Performance Curves. Source: Cogen Designs, Inc.

Figure 12-10 shows capacity versus steam injection for NOX, CDP, and LP steam for a steam injection gas turbine. In this graphic, NOX control steam is the first to be introduced. It is added up to about 30,000 lbm/h (13,600 kg/h). CDP steam is then added up to about 32,000 lbm/h (14,500 kg/h). At that point, capacity has increased to about 45 MW and LP steam can be added, along with some additional CDP steam. This brings the maximum capacity of the turbine to about 50.5 MW at a total injection rate of 120 Mlbm/h (54,400 kg/h). The top line in the figure (filled squares) is the sum of the NOX (32 Mlbm/h), CDP (45 Mlbm/h), and LP (43 Mlbm/h) steam. The incremental power production is fairly linear with steam injection, but the slope of the curve depends on the type of steam introduced. Notice NOX and CDP steam show far greater capacity enhancement and efficiency than LP steam. In this case, the LP steam is introduced part way down the power turbine. Since it is not condensed, it is used inefficiently, relative to the performance achievable in a condensing steam turbine. Figure 12-11 shows the capacity of this same turbine as a function of steam injection rate and ambient temperature. More steam always produces more power, but the increase is greatest around 59F (15C). The curves labeled 42 ppm and 25 ppm NOX represent the steam injection rates that achieve these levels of NOX in the exhaust gases. The other curves represent the steam injection rates in Mlbm/h, of high-pressure (625 psig) and

lower-pressure (225 psig) steam. The performance of an Allison 501 KH Cheng cycle system is illustrated in Figure 12-12. In this example, the gas turbine produces 3,587 kW at sea level and 59F (15C), with a fuel input of 50.7 MMBtu/h (53,478 MJ/h) on an HHV basis. Steam production, at a condition of 450 psig/550F (32 bar/288C), is 21,340 lbm/h (9,679 kg/h) and the simple-cycle heat rate is 14,142 Btu/kWh (14,917 kJ/kWh). The FCP is 7,736 Btu/kWh (8,160 kJ/kWh).

Fig. 12-12 Capacity and Heat Rate of Allison 501 KH vs. Ambient Temperature at Various Steam Injection Rates. Source: Cogen Designs, Inc.

As shown, injecting 18,000 lbm/h (8,165 kg/h) of steam increases power output to 5,374 kW and the fuel input rate to 56.5 MMBtu/h (59,600 MJ/h), for a heat rate of 10,513 Btu/kWh (11,089 kJ/kWh). If the maximum desired power output was constant at 3,587 kW, any excess steam could be injected back into the turbine, resulting in reduced turbine fuel requirements. Alternatively, 21,340 lbm/h (9,680 kg/h) steam

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

production and 3,587 kW power output can also be accomplished with 36.8 MMBtu/h (38,817 MJ/h) gas turbine fuel input, 10.6 MMBtu/h (11,181 MJ/h) HRSG supplemental firing, and 18,000 lbm/h (8,165 kg/h) steam injection. The ability to produce the same power output at two different firing rates provides great operational flexibility, but makes steam injection cycle optimization analytically challenging.

SUPPLEMENTARY-FIRED SYSTEMS
As discussed in Chapter 8, supplementary firing of gas turbine or reciprocating engine exhaust can be used to efficiently increase thermal output. Because a relatively small portion of the oxygen in an open gas cycle is used for combustion, the remainder can be used for supplementary firing in the exhaust duct or the HRSG. Increasing exhaust gas temperatures can improve steam turbine cycle efficiencies, depending on engine and system type. Also, since the capacity of the gas turbine or reciprocating engine can be reduced relative to total plant output, overall project costs may be reduced. Another important potential benefit of supplementary firing is that it can allow a facility to be more flexible in responding to varying load conditions. In plants that either buy or sell power under differentiated electric rate periods, it may be advantageous to increase power output with supplementary firing in the higher cost rate periods. In cogeneration-type plants that have varying thermal loads, the gas turbine (or reciprocating engine) exhaust can be baseloaded and supplementary firing can be used to meet thermal load peaks. Supplementary-fired units can be classified into two broad categories: those with limited supplementary firing and those with maximum supplementary firing. Limited supplementary firing is typically used to heat the exhaust gases to 1,200 to 1,700F (649 to 927C). At temperatures above 1,400F (760C), some type of combustion chamber cooling may be

Fig. 12-13 Typical Arrangement of Cheng Cycle Package. Source: United States Turbine Corp.

Figure 12-13 shows a typical arrangement of a packaged steam injection-cycle system. Shown are locations of the gas turbine generator set enclosure and the HRSG, including the location of the natural gas duct burner. Notice the narrow footprint as compared with the length and height of the entire system. Figure 12-14 shows a steam injection-cycle package applied in a university medical center. The system features two Allison 501-KH Cheng-cycle steam-injected gas turbines, Coen duct burners, Abco high-pressure HRSGs, and Ideal 4,160 volt electric generators with Westech parallel shaft gearboxes. The system generates high-pressure steam for both steam injection and process use, and provides 80% of the electrical and 100% of the steam requirements of the medical center.

Fig. 12-14 Cheng Cycle Package Applied in University Medical Center. Source: United States Turbine Corp.

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required. The efficiency of steam production increases until fresh air must be added to increase oxygen for efficient combustion. Natural gas is particularly attractive for limited supplementary firing because it can be burned easily without combustion chamber cooling. There are several conditions in which maximum-fired systems may be cost-effective. The installation of a gas turbine in a conventional utility or other large plant might be compatible with this practice. If costs for supplementaryfired fuels are lower than gas turbine fuels, as would be the case with coal, it could be economical to use a relatively small gas turbine and introduce the gas turbine exhaust directly into the coal-fired boiler (hot windbox firing) instead of a conventional HRSG. Industrial plants that seek to match power output to internal power requirements might also use maximum supplementaryfiring, passing a large portion of the thermal output to process. However, thermal efficiency is reduced due to the additional combustion air requirement and the plant will consume more resources, including peripheral resources such as water. Pollution is increased due to the use of more polluting fuel and because of the higher heat rates. Figure 12-15 shows a gas turbine applied in a combined-cycle cogeneration system featuring a fired boiler. The gas turbine produces only 12% of the total system output in the form of power output and functions as an add-on to the boiler-fired steam-turbine cogeneration system. In this application, heat recovered from the gas turbine exhaust is used for boiler water preheating.

accomplished by injecting a mist of atomized water into the high-pressure (and in some cases also the low-pressure) compressor inlets. Spray intercooling increases mass flow by cooling the air during the compression process. The LM6000 gas turbine, shown in Chapter 10, has been effectively configured for spray injection. This LM6000 Spray Inter-cooled Turbine (Sprint) uses bleed air from the 8th stage of the high-pressure compressor to atomize water into tiny droplets, from injection through nozzles, as a mist. Manufacturers data indicates an increase of more than 8% in power output at 59F (15C) with virtually no change in heat rate and a 30% increase at 90F (32C) ambient condition, with a heat rate improvement of 2%. Exhaust mass flows are increased slightly and temperature is elevated, allowing for increased heat recovery and, therefore, greater total thermal efficiency.

COMPARISON OF COMBINED-CYCLE INJECTION SYSTEMS

AND

STEAM

SPRAY INJECTION TECHNOLOGY

Whereas historically water injection was used only for NOX emissions control, water spray injection is now used for capacity and performance enhancement. This is
15% 968F (520C) 527F (275C) Process Industry 62% 62% Fuel 122F (50C) Steam Turbine 11%

Conventional combined cycles and steam injection systems offer similar performance and operating flexibility in responding to power and thermal load variations. Supplementary firing can be used with either type of system. Critical differences are: Combined-cycle systems generally have a higher capital cost than steam injection-cycle systems due to the addition of the steam turbine, condenser, and cooling tower. They also usually offer superior heat rates due to the low exhaust pressure achieved in a condensing steam turbine (a steam injection-cycle gas turbine exhausts at atmospheric pressure). Combined-cycle systems also do not require abundant use of treated water because steam is condensed in a closed cycle. Generally, combined cycles are suited for high-load factor applications where water and fuel costs are high. An additional consideration is that the steam

Boiler 15% Heat Recovery Unit Gas Turbine

12% 32% Fuel

Fig. 12-15 Gas Turbine Applied to Combined-Cycle System with Fired Boiler.

Fig. 12-16 Heat and Material Balance for 50.4 MW Steam Injection System. Source: Cogen Designs, Inc.

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Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

same gas turbine in which both high- and low-pressure steam is sent to a steam turbine. Without steam injection, the turbine has a capacity of about 32.3 MW and a fuel input requirement of 346.9 MMBtu/h (365,910 MJ/h) on an HHV basis. The steam turbine adds an additional 10 MW of capacity, reducing the overall heat rate to 8,196 Btu/kWh (8,645 kJ/kWh). Comparison of these two designs shows greater capacity with the steam injection cycle, but a superior heat rate with the combined cycle. Figure 12-18 shows a combined cycle system configuration featuring the same gas turbine, but using supplementary firing to match the 50.4 MW capacity of the steam injection system. In this case, the supplementary firing results in a heat rate of 8,876 Btu/kWh (9,362 kJ/kWh), which is higher than the unfired combined-cycle, but still marginally superior to the steam injection-cycle system. However, if a larger, more costly gas turbine is used, the total capacity of the steam injection-cycle system could be matched without supplementary firing, at a superior heat rate of under 8,200 Btu/kWh (8,650 kJ/kWh). Both combined-cycle and steam injection-cycle systems can be viewed as adding peak shaving capability into an otherwise baseloaded electric cogeneration system. Varying electric and thermal loads, time-of-use and real-time pricing, and seasonal fuel cost fluctuations all figure heavily into cogeneration project economics. Both systems provide flexibility to operate effectively under a wide range of load and energy cost conditions. An ideal operating strategy uses either a combined-cycle or steam injection system with supplemental firing or a fuel-fired boiler. Gas turbine capacity is selected for baseload electric and steam loads. Supplementary firing is used as steam load increases, and combined-cycle or steam injectionFig. 12-17 Heat and Material Balance for 42.3 MW Combined-Cycle System. Source: Cogen Designs, Inc. cycle systems are brought on-line as electric load increases. By varying the levels of secondary combustion and secondary electric generation, a wide range of loads can be met. Microprocessor control is of great value in these types of applications. This simplified comparison shows the typical trade-off of lower capital cost for the steam injection system versus lower operating cost for the combined-cycle system. Conditions of high peak electric rates, inexpensive water, and lower load factor (low utilization of required capacity) would favor the steam injection cycle. Conditions of higher load factor and water costs and, to some extent, Fig. 12-18 Heat and Material Balance for 50.4 MW Combined-Cycle System with Supplementary Firing. Source: Cogen Designs, Inc. higher fuel costs would favor the combined-cycle. turbine can run independent of the prime mover, possibly reducing back-up requirements for facilities that have boilers for steam generation. Typically, steam injection-cycle systems produce greater capacity for a given turbine model without supplementary firing and does so at a lower capital cost. The steam injection-cycle system is also a less-complex system with lower space requirements. They do, however, require far more water and an extensive water treatment program due to steam loss in turbine exhaust. Steam injection provides some NOX emissions control, while the gas turbine in the combined-cycle system may require additional investment for NOX control. Steam injectioncycle systems are better suited for low load factor applications, particularly where peak electric rates are high. Figures 12-16, 12-17, and 12-18 provide comparisons of similar steam injection and combined-cycle systems. Figure 12-16 is a heat and material balance schematic of a steam injection-cycle system. Fuel input is 448.5 MMBtu/h (473,078 MJ/h), producing 50.4 MW of power at a heat rate of 8,895 Btu/kWh (9,382 kJ/kWh) on an HHV basis. Figure 12-17 is a combined-cycle system featuring the

Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.