C H A P T E R T H I RT Y-S I X

H EAT R EJECTION C ONDENSERS , C OOLING T OWERS , H EAT P UMPS AND H EAT R ECOVERY

eat absorbed in the refrigeration cycle, including both the heat extracted in the evaporator and the energy used to drive the cycle (i.e., work of compression), must be rejected to the outside environment. The heat exchanger that rejects heat from condensing refrigerant to an external medium is known as the condenser. This is sometimes referred to as the hot-, high- (pressure) or discharge-side of the cycle. The heat rejection may occur directly from the condenser to ambient air, as is the case with an air-cooled condenser, or indirectly through a cooling tower or dry cooler. For large facilities, cooling towers are often used to reject heat absorbed in the condenser to the ambient environment. They use the evaporative cooling process discussed in Chapter 34 and condenser water as the heat rejection medium. The condenser is a heat source, and this heat must be rejected in order to complete the refrigeration cycle. When there is no practical use for the condenser heat, either because of condition (i.e., temperature or quantity) or the time when it is available, it must be rejected to the ambient environment. When this condenser heat is productively used, the refrigeration system may be considered a heat pump. Refrigeration-cycle systems can be, in fact, very efficient heaters, sometimes generating four to five times the energy in the form of heat as they require as input. Some refrigeration-cycle systems reverse their cycles to deliver either heating or cooling, while others are used only for heating. Some can do both simultaneously, by directing the rejected heat to a productive use while in the cooling mode. These systems may be considered a type of heat recovery heat pump. They recover refrigeration cyclegenerated heat, normally rejected to the outside environment, for productive use, such as hot water for reheat or domestic use. This chapter provides a detailed discussion of refrigeration cycle heat rejection processes. This includes a presentation of key system components, namely condensers and cooling towers, with details on both energy and water use associated with their operation. This is followed by a discussion of heat pumps and heat recovery systems that

allow heat rejected from refrigeration cycles to be used productively.

CONDENSERS
EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATIONS
Air-cooled condensers, comprising a finned-tube coil located in a stream of ambient air, are generally the least expensive type of condenser. When ambient dry-bulb temperatures are sufficiently low, air-cooled condensers can allow the cooling system to operate efficiently. However, when ambient temperature is high, the resulting high condensing temperature can significantly reduce refrigeration system performance. This is particularly problematic for facilities, operating under demand-sensitive electric rates, that have electric-driven units serving air conditioning applications. This is because peak electric load usually occurs under design conditions at high outdoor ambient temperatures. Applications for air-cooled condensers are also limited by size. In mechanical compression systems, maximum capacity is generally about 400 tons (1,400 kWr ). When used for absorption chillers, they are typically limited to very small applications due to the high rate of heat rejection of absorption cycles. Air-cooled condensers require less routine maintenance than alternative types. However, significant reductions in performance often occur over time due to fouling of coils exposed to unfiltered outdoor air, and service life is typically shorter than with water-cooled systems due to coil degradation. Air-cooled systems have no water treatment requirements and low incidence of freeze-ups during cold weather operation temperatures. Figure 36-1 illustrates an air-cooled condenser featuring dual fans. Capacity is controlled by modulating the airflow rate across the coil based on condensing pressure. One fan is cycled while airflow across the other is controlled by damper modulation, according to the following control sequence: at 170 psi (11.7 bar) condensing pressure, the damper blades begin to open; at 225 psi (15.5 bar), the controlled fan is started; and at 255 psi (17.6 bar), the damper blades are fully open. The process is

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

Cycled Fan

Dampered Fan Open 255# Damper Fan ON 225#

170# Closed 150# Off Coil

Fig. 36-1 Illustration of Dual-Fan, Air-Cooled Condenser. Source: The Trane Company

reversed as condensing temperature falls, with the lead fan stopped at 150 psi (10.3 bar). Water-cooled condensers are classified as either shell-and-tube or tube-in-tube. In both, warm refrigerant vapor enters the top of the condenser and flows over the outside of the water tubes. As heat is transferred to the water, the refrigerant condenses and falls to the bottom of the condenser. A water regulating valve sometimes controls water flow in response to refrigerant pressure. A cooling tower is the most commonly used device to cool the leaving condenser water in recirculating systems. Oncethrough cooling can be provided by city water or water pumped from another external source. Figure 36-2 is a cutaway drawing of a water-cooled condenser used with a centrifugal chiller system. The refrigerant is forced to travel a serpentine course on the shell side counter to the flow of the water in the tubes. Notice the marine water box and the thermal economizer,

or subcooler, a circuit in which some of the tubes in the first water pass are below refrigerant liquid level. In vapor compression systems, subcooling increases cycle efficiency by reducing total flow of refrigerant through the system. In low-temperature applications, subcoolers are generally not used, due to the possibility of water freezing in the subcooler tubes on failure of the condenser water pump. Evaporative condensers (Figure 36-3) are similar to air-cooled units, but include a water spray to cool the external surfaces of condenser coils and reduce condensing temperature. Ambient air passing over the coils evaporates a small amount of water, absorbing heat from the air stream and refrigerant coils. Condensing refrigerant drains into a liquid receiver at the bottom of the condenser. Nonevaporated water drains into a sump at the bottom of the unit and is then pumped along with required makeup water to spray nozzles above the coils.

Fan

Sprays

Refrigerant Vapor Condenser Coil

Sump Liquid Receiver Liquid Fig. 36-3 Illustration of Evaporative Condenser. Source: The Trane Company Subcooler Pump

CONDENSING METHOD SELECTION

The choice of condensing methods is influenced by several factors, including water quality, water acquisition and treatment cost, energy cost, system capacity and load factor, sound emissions and space considerations, and ambient air quality. Table 36-1 shows typical condensing temperatures achievable under design conditions with alternative condensing methods, in F (C).

CONDENSER LOAD
Refrigeration system heat rejection, typically expressed in Btu/ton-h (kWhh/kWhr), depends on the amount of heat absorbed (or the refrigeration effect) and the thermal or mechanical energy input to the refrigera672
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Fig. 36-2 Condenser for Centrifugal Chiller. Source: Carrier Corp.

Heat Rejection Condensers, Cooling Towers, Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery

Table 361 Condensing Temperature, F (C) vs. Condensing Media Source: Carrier Corp.
Condensing Media City Water Cooling Tower 75-78F (24-25.5C) WB Evaporative Condenser 75-78F (24-25.5C) WB 78-80F (25.5-27C) WB Air-Cooled Inlet Temperature F (C) 75 80 85 95 110 (24) (27) (29) (36) (44) Temperature Rise F (C) 20 (11) 20 (11) 10 13 13 (6) (7) (7) Outlet Temperature F (C) 95 (35) 100 (38) 95 (35) 105 110 108 123 (41) (44) (43) (51) Leaving Differential F (C) 10 (6) 10 (6) 10 (6) Condensing Temperature F (C) 105 (41) 110 (44) 105 (41)

12 (7) 12 (7)

120 (50) 135 (58)

tion cycle. For vapor compression systems, the driving energy to the compressor can be supplied by an electric motor or a prime mover. In a hermetically sealed electricdrive unit (motor contained in compressor housing), the heat of compression as well as motor heat losses are included in the condenser load. If, for example, a hermetic unit requires a driving energy input of 0.63 kW/ton (0.18 kWe /kWr ), the total heat rejection in English units would be:

0.63 kW/ton x 3,413 Btu/kWh + 12,000 Btu/ton-h = 14,151 Btu/ton-h

In SI units, the heat rejection would be: 0.18 kWhe /kWhr + 1 kWhh /kWhe = 1.18 kWhh /kWhr where the full electric energy input, expressed in kWhe, is converted to rejected heat, expressed as kWhh. In an open-drive unit, the heat associated with motor efficiency losses is dissipated to ambient air and is not rejected directly to the condenser. For example, if the motor efficiency is 93% (0.93), the total heat rejection in English units would be: 0.63 kW/ton x 0.93 x 3,413 Btu/kWh + 12,000 Btu/ton-h = 14,000 Btu/ton-h In SI units, the heat rejection would be: 0.18 kWhe /kWhr x 0.93 + 1 kWhh /kWhe = 1.17 kWhh /kWhr In the case of a reciprocating engine-driven compressor, an additional heat rejection load may be present. When the heat that must be rejected from the engine cooling system cannot be used productively, it may be

rejected by integrating it into the cooling tower loop or dissipating it separately through a dump radiator. In the case of a condensing steam turbine, the cooling load required for steam condensation may also be passed to the refrigeration condenser water loop. Water-cooled surface condensers are the most commonly applied technology. Alternatives include direct contact condensers that spray cooling water directly into the steam flow, and aircooled condensers, which may be applied when cooling water is not readily available or cooling tower operation is not acceptable. In absorption chillers, the heat energy is input to the generator cycle in the form of direct-fired fuel, steam, hot water, or high-temperature exhaust gas. The full energy input minus the energy of exhausted combustion gas or condensate return must be removed from the tube bundle to the cooling tower or other heat sink. Total absorption heat rejection will vary widely, depending on the performance of the cycle. Typically, input energy ranges from 9,000 to 18,000 Btu/ton-h (0.75 to 1.50 kWhh/kWhr), bringing total heat rejection (condenser load) to between 21,000 and 30,000 Btu/ton-h (1.75 to 2.50 kWhh/kWhr). If, for example, the total generator energy input to a direct-fired, double-effect absorption chiller is 12,000 Btu/ton-h (1.0 kWhh/kWhr) and the fuel combustion efficiency is 82%, total system heat rejection would be: 12,000 Btu/ton-h x 0.82 + 12,000 Btu/ton-h = 21,840 Btu/ton-h In SI units, the heat rejection would be: 1.0 kWhh /kWhr x 0.82 + 1 kWhh /kWhr = 1.82 kWhh /kWhr

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

COOLING TOWERS
EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATIONS
Evaporative cooling towers are the most commonly applied heat rejection technology for large refrigerationcycle systems. In a typical cooling tower, a pump delivers water to the top of the tower where it is sprayed, or cascaded, over a series of baffles and agitated by contact with moving air. As a small portion of the water evaporates, it cools the air and the remaining water. The water then collects in a sump at the bottom of the tower and returns to the refrigeration or process heat exchanger for reuse. Often, fan controls regulate airflow to maintain leaving water at the required temperature set point under varying load and ambient conditions. A controlled source of makeup water is also required to offset the evaporation and other losses. Figure 36-4 illustrates basic cooling tower operation.

Cooling towers may be designed to use natural draft or mechanical draft. Small, inexpensive natural draft towers (Figure 36-5) induce airflow using pressurized water spray. Larger units, such as the hyperbolic natural draft towers (Figures 36-6 and 36-7), sometimes used for large electric generation facilities, produce airflow as a result of the density differential between the heated air inside the stack and the cooler air outside the tower. Mechanical draft towers use one or more fans to produce the required airflow. Mechanical draft units, the most common systems used in air conditioning and process refrigeration applications, allow stability in changing conditions and provide a means of regulating airflow to respond to varying load conditions. Two mechanical draft configurations exist: 1. In forced draft towers (Figure 36-8), the fan is located

Fan

Sprays

Sump Supply
Fig. 36-4 Basic Cooling Tower Operation Illustration. Source: The Trane Company

Return
Fig. 36-6 Hyperbolic Counterflow Natural-Draft Type Tower. Source: Marley Tower Company

Fig. 36-5 Atmospheric Cooling Tower. Source: Marley Tower Company

Fig. 36-7 Hyperbolic Natural Draft Cooling Tower Serving Large Power Plant. Source: Marley Tower Company

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Heat Rejection Condensers, Cooling Towers, Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery

in the ambient air stream entering the tower. Forced draft towers are characterized by high entrance velocities and low exit air velocities. They are susceptible to recirculation, in which a portion of the tower's moist discharge air re-enters the tower, elevating the average entering wet-bulb temperature. They are also susceptible to icing when moving air is laden with either natural or recirculated moisture. Typically, centrifugal fans are used. While these usually require more power than propeller fans, they are able to operate against the high static pressure associated with ductwork and can, therefore, be installed indoors or within enclosures that can provide sufficient separation between intake and discharge locations to minimize recirculation. They also offer low sound emission levels.

Fig. 36-9 Induced Draft Cooling Tower. Source: Marley Tower Company

Fig. 36-8 Forced Draft Cooling Tower. Source: Marley Tower Company

Fig. 36-10 Crossflow Cooling Tower. Source: Marley Tower Company

2. In induced draft towers (Figure 36-9), the fan is located in the exiting air stream. The air discharge velocity is several times greater than the air entrance velocity, limiting the potential for recirculation and icing. Axial fans are typically used and power requirements are less than with forced draft towers. The units exhibit higher sound emission levels than forced draft towers in most applications and sound emission reduction is difficult due to the fan location. Hybrid draft, or fan assisted, towers use a combination of natural and mechanical draft. They are designed to minimize the power required for air movement while limiting the overall size and cost of the tower. Often, the fan is only required during peak periods. Cooling towers may also be classified as crossflow (Figures 36-10 and 36-11) or counterflow (Figure 3612). In crossflow towers, air flows horizontally across the

Fig. 36-11 Crossflow Cooling Tower Featuring PVC Film Fill. Source: Marley Tower Company

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

downward fall of water. In a typical crossflow unit, water is delivered to elevated basins and distributed to heat transfer surfaces (or fill) through metering orifices in the floor of the basins. In counterflow towers, water is sprayed downward over the fill, while airflow is upward, with a forced draft or induced draft fan. In smaller units, the counterflow design requires more pumping head and fan power, as well as greater tower height, than the crossflow design.

Fig. 36-13 Three Packaged Cooling Towers. Source: Marley Cooling Tower Company

COOLING TOWER SIZING

AND

PERFORMANCE

Fig. 36-12 Counterflow Cooling Tower. Source: Marley Tower Company

Towers may be field-erected or factory-assembled. Larger towers are commonly shipped with prefabricated components for field erection. Factory-assembled towers are shipped either intact in smaller sizes or in as few sections as possible, depending on the mode of transportation. Figure 36-13 shows three packaged cooling towers featuring a low-profile design. For a given capacity requirement, tower selection is based on several factors, including: Logistical factors, such as available space, structural support enclosure requirements, and aesthetics. Climate and annual operating duty, including freeze protection if needed. Permitting limitations, including sound emissions levels and proximity to other equipment or structures. Economic performance analyses, focusing on the balance between capital cost and operating cost among available options.

The cooling effect of evaporation is about 1,000 Btu/lbm (0.65 kWh h /kg) of water evaporated. Cooling towers optimize evaporation by providing the maximum transient water surface and airflow rate. Figure 36-14 shows a typical cooling tower performance curve, graphing leaving (cold) water temperature versus wet-bulb temperature. Figures 36-15 and 36-16 illustrate the process. In this example, the wet-bulb temperature remains unchanged across the cooling tower at 65F (18C), while the dry-bulb temperature drops from 100 to 70F (38 to 21C). Water temperature falls from 95 to 85F (35 to 29C) across the tower.

Cold Water Temperature F

90

80

70

60

40

50

60

70

80

Wet Bulb Temperature F

Fig. 36-14 Typical Cooling Tower Performance Curve Cold Water Temperature vs. Wet-Bulb Temperature.

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Heat Rejection Condensers, Cooling Towers, Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery

AIR FLOW 100F DB 65F WB 40F DP WATER SPRAY 40 70 F 100 F SPRAY HEADS 70 F DB 65 F WB 62 F DP 62

65

EVAPORATIVE COOLING
Fig. 36-15 Evaporative Cooling Process. Source: Carrier Corp.

Fig. 36-16 Cooling Tower Process. Source: Carrier Corp.

The design conditions used in specifying a cooling tower include water flow rate, hot (entering) water temperature, cold (leaving) water temperature, and ambient wet-bulb temperature. The load served at a given flow rate and temperature differential is determined using the following equation in English units: Btu/h (36-1) 8.33 lbm/gal x 60 min/h x T x SG x Cp and in SI units: gpm = 1 kg/liter x 60 min/h x T x SG x Cp Where: SG = Specific gravity of fluid Cp = Specific heat of fluid, in Btu/lbm F, kJ/kg C, or kWhh /kg C Possible temperature and flow rate combinations are dictated by the load and by hydraulic and temperature lpm = kWr (36-2)

requirements of the process being served. As the temperature difference is increased and flow rate reduced, tower size and cost are generally reduced. Trade-offs between cooling tower and refrigeration (or process) system performance are commonly considered. A common design for conventional electric-driven refrigeration machines is based on a 10F (6C) differential, with 85F (29C) entering and 95F (35C) leaving condenser water. Required flow rate is 3 gpm/ton (3.2 lpm/kWr) to reject about 15,000 Btuh/ton (1.25 kWh /kWr). A greater water temperature differential is sometimes used to reduce condenser water pumping and tower capacity requirements, although refrigeration system performance is reduced somewhat as a result. A 15F (9C) differential, from 85 to 100F (29 to 38C), is often used with absorption chiller systems, due to their very high heat rejection rate. For example, when a double-effect absorption chiller is designed for a 10F differential, required condenser water flow rate is typically 4.5 gpm/ton (4.8 lpm/kWr ) to reject about 22,000 Btuh/ton (1.83 kWh /kWr ). Using a 15F (9C) differential allows the absorption unit to operate at 3 gpm/ton (3.2 lpm/kWr ). This can be particularly valuable in retrofit applications where vapor compression systems are being replaced with absorption systems, because it may eliminate the need to replace the existing condenser water pumps. As shown in Figure 36-17, the approach is the difference between the cold water temperature and the ambient wet-bulb temperature. The approach is set by the size and effectiveness of the tower relative to the total heat load, with larger, more-efficient towers able to operate with a smaller approach. Figure 36-18 shows the effect of the chosen approach on tower size at fixed head, load, water flow rate, and wet-bulb temperature. The relationship of required cooling tower fan power to ambient wet-bulb temperature is shown in Figure 36-19. Figure 36-20 illustrates the effect of fan operation on tower performance for a three-cell tower. As ambient wet-bulb temperature increases, successive fans must be brought on-line. There are several ways to improve cooling tower performance. One method is to increase the height of the tower, thereby increasing the contact time between air and water. Contact time can also be increased by using a fill that impedes the progress of the falling water, although increased fan power would typically result.

WATER TREATMENT
Cooling towers are very efficient air washers the air

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

85F

Hot Water to Tower

Cooling Range

70F Approach

Cold Water from Tower

65F

Wet-Bulb Temperature

Fig. 36-17 Illustration of Approach Temperature. Fig. 36-20 Tower Performance as Function of Fan Power (with Single-Speed Motors). Source: Marley Tower Company

Fig. 36-18 Tower Size Factor vs. Approach. Source: Marley Tower Company

Fig. 36-19 Relationship of Fan Power Requirement to Wet-Bulb Temperature. Source: Marley Tower Company

exiting the tower is much cleaner than the air entering the tower. Air washing, plus the presence of dissolved solids in entering makeup water, continuously contaminates

recirculated cooling tower water. Contaminant concentration levels are referred to as total dissolved solids (TDS). Blowdown is the controlled discharge of a limited amount of tower water to regulate the concentration of impurities and is a necessary part of most cooling tower systems. In addition, chemical, electrostatic, or electronic water treatment is often required due to a number of potentially damaging conditions: Scale deposits occur due to the presence of calcium and other ions in cooling water. The maximum amount of calcium carbonate that can be held in solution depends on the water temperature and the amount of free carbon dioxide. An increase in water temperature or a decrease in free carbon dioxide beyond the point of equilibrium will result in scale deposition. Various chemical compounds are used to keep scale-forming solids in solution. Biological growth, such as slime and algae, may develop in towers and impede performance. Chlorine compounds are most commonly used as algaecides and slimicides. Because excess chlorine can damage wood and other organic tower materials, it is often used only intermittently as shock treatment. Corrosion can be a problem even with highly resistant metals. Corrosion may result from low PH, high oxygen content, carbon dioxide, or contact between dissimilar metals. An increase in the dissolved solids may promote corrosion, since electrolytic action increases with increased conductivity. Plastic components and an array of sophisticated metals are commonly used to avoid corrosion. Once present, various treatment compounds are used as inhibitors.

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Foaming can be caused by certain combinations of dissolved solids or other forms of contamination. If blowdown is insufficient for control, foam depressant chemicals must be added to the system. Suspended solids can best be removed by continuous filtration. Oils and fats, which will reduce tower performance and can even be a fire hazard, can be eliminated with the use of a skimmer. Many non-dissolved solids tend to settle out in low-velocity areas of the system, such as the tower basin. These areas can become a breeding ground for bacteria and can degrade tower performance and increase chemical treatment costs. A system designed to filter the cooling basin water at a rate of about 5% of the total circulating water can effectively control particulate levels. Ozone systems are being increasingly used to reduce blowdown and chemical treatment requirements. Ozone is triatomic oxygen (O3), which has very high oxidizing power. It is a colorless gas produced from oxygen in air by electric discharge. An ozone generator produces ozone, which an in-line mixer injects directly into the tower water system. Ozone is an effective method of controlling all microbiological organisms (including Legionella) and biofouling. By destroying slime-forming bacteria, calcium carbonate deposits are freed from heat exchange surfaces, allowing crystals to be deposited in the quiescent areas of the cooling towers basin whenever solubility in water is exceeded. Ozone discharge itself does not produce any harmful by-products. However, due to capital cost considerations and some remaining uncertainty about effectiveness, ozone systems are still not yet widely applied.

In SI units, the evaporation rate, in lpm, would be: E= (kWr x kWhh /kWhr ) (0.646 kWhh /kg x 1 kg/l x 60 min/hr)

If, for example, the heat rejection is 15,000 Btu/ton-h (1.25 kWh h/kWhr), the evaporation rate for a 4,000 ton (14,064 kW r) system is: E= (4,000 tons x 15,000 Btu/ton) (1,000 Btu/lbm x 8.34 lbm/gal x 60 min/hr) = 120 g pm (454 lpm)

If the actual load is not known, the evaporation rate can be approximated based on the condenser water flow rate and temperature differential. A commonly used formula for estimating the evaporation rate, in English units, is: E = flow rate x T x 0.0008 (36-4)

Dissolved and suspended solids entering the system are not removed in the process of evaporation; therefore, the concentration of these impurities can rapidly increase in operating cooling towers. Blowdown requirements for a given system are based on maintaining the concentration of contaminants below maximum acceptable levels. The ratio of allowable concentration of impurities to the concentration existing in entering makeup water is referred to as cycles of concentration (C). Excluding consideration of drift, required blowdown rates can be determined by the following formula: B= E C1 (36-5)

WATER USAGE
The total water makeup rate (WMR) requirement for a cooling tower is the sum of losses from evaporation (E), blowdown (B), and drift (D), a term that refers to liquid droplets entrained in the exhaust air stream. All of the lost and removed water must be replenished with fresh makeup water. Using 1,000 Btu/lbm (0.646 kWhh/kg) as the amount of heat absorbed in the evaporation of water, evaporation rate, in gpm, can be calculated as: E= (Tons x Btu heat rejection per ton) (1,000 Btu/lbm x 8.34 lbm/gal x 60 min/hr) (36-3)

Drift reduces the blowdown requirement because it continually takes with it the elevated levels of total dissolved solids (TDS). If not known, drift may be approximated, in English units, as: D = flow rate x 0.0002 (36-6)

Including drift, the blowdown rate can be expressed as: (36-7) (C-1) If, for example, the flow rate is 10,000 gpm, the water temperature differential is 15F, and the desired concentration ratio is 5, the required blowdown rate would be: B= E [(C-1) x D]

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

B = (10,000 x 15 x 0.0008) [(5 1) x (10,000 x 0.0002)] (5-1) = 28 gpm (106 lpm)

Blowdown requirements resulting from air washing are generally not calculated, but are determined empirically based on field monitoring results. Annual water use can be estimated based on the WMR in gpm (lpm) and an estimate of equivalent fullload hours (EFLH). This is calculated as: WMR x 60 min/h x EFLH= gallons/yr (liters/yr) (36-8)

In the example considered above, WMR is estimated at 152 gpm (575 lpm), including 120 gpm evaporation, 28 gpm blowdown, and 4 gpm drift. Assuming the system runs 1,500 EFLH per year, total water usage based on Equation 36-8, is: 152 gpm x 60 min/h x 1,500 EFLH 1,000 gal/kgal = 13,680 kgal/yr (52,460 kl/yr) If the cost of water is $2.50 per kgal, the annual water cost is: 13,680 kgal x $2.50/kgal = $34,200 Water usage is often measured in hundred cubic feet (Ccf ) or cubic meters (m3) for water utility billing. Since there are approximately 748 gallons per Ccf, kgal can be converted to Ccf by dividing by 0.748. Thus: (36-9) Commonly, water utility billing consists of a water charge and a sewer charge, with charges for both based on metered city water flow. A facility can sometimes petition for a sewer charge abatement when metering is installed for cooling tower makeup water, since evaporation does not add to city sewer load. Blowdown may or may not be metered in such cases.

tower and inversely with the heat load and with the amount of water flowing over the fill. Freeze protection can be achieved using air-side or water-side control, with heating elements and bypass systems used to protect towers during shut-down periods. Mechanical draft towers can sometimes utilize air-side control, depending on the number of fans and the ability to vary fan speed. For example, multiple- or variable-speed fans can be automatically modulated to reduce the amount of cold air coming into contact with the circulating water. In a multi-cell cooling tower, freezing potential is reduced by running all fans at low speed rather than shutting off one or more cells. Natural draft towers do not have the potential for air-side control. Large towers employ water-side control by increasing the concentration of flowing water nearest the tower air intakes. This places the greatest heat load closest to the coldest air. The resulting rapid increase in intake air temperature precludes freezing within the fill, and the flow of warm water protects the most vulnerable areas. Heating systems and bypass circulation can offer protection when towers are shut down. Electric heaters, direct steam injection, or closed-loop steam or hot water systems are used with heating elements immersed in the cold water basin. Heating is not required when all tower water drains by gravity into an indoor sump. During startup, automatic controls allow water to be bypassed directly into the cold water basin until the required temperature is reached usually about 80F (30C).

HEAT PUMPS SYSTEMS

AND

HEAT RECOVERY

Cooling Tower Freeze Protection

Freeze protection is essential for towers that operate in cold weather, particularly during free-cooling operation or low-load periods. Thin ice that forms on the louvers or intake structure presents no problems and can actually be beneficial by retarding airflow. However, significant ice formation on the fill or in tower support regions may cause serious structural damage. The potential for ice formation varies directly with the airflow rate through the

All systems operating on refrigeration cycles are essentially pumping heat they extract heat from one medium (a source) and transfer it, along with the driving energy input to the system, to another medium (a sink) at a higher temperature. In most cases, the primary purpose of such systems is to cool a space or process medium by removing heat. The heat is, thus, a waste product that must be rejected. In cases where systems are specifically designed to absorb heat and transfer it to serve a heat requirement, they are commonly referred to as heat pumps. Heat pumps can provide heating only, simultaneous heating and cooling, or alternate heating and cooling. Refrigeration cycle heat recovery systems recover the heat that would otherwise be rejected through the condenser system or heat sink, and transfer it to serve a heat

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Heat Rejection Condensers, Cooling Towers, Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery

load. These systems operate only when there is a simultaneous cooling load to serve.

HEAT PUMPS
There are numerous types of heat pump system designs and various heat source and heat sink media used. Some systems reverse their cycles to deliver both heating and cooling, while others are used only for heating. Common to all is the same basic operating principle extract heat from one medium and deliver to another. As a means of understanding the basic operation of a heat pump cycle, consider the operation of a simple air-to-air reverse flow direct expansion (DX) heat pump. As shown in Figure 36-21, with a basic DX type heat pump operating in the cooling mode, heat from the inside conditioned space is absorbed by the vaporizing refrigerant in the indoor coil. The heat-laden refrigerant is pumped outdoors by the compressor, where the heat is rejected by the outdoor coil. The refrigerant is then condensed and pumped back to the indoor coil, where the cycle is repeated. As shown in Figure 36-22, when the unit is operating in heating mode, a reversing valve changes position to reverse the refrigerant flow. The heat is absorbed into the system by the outdoor coil as the low-pressure liquid refrigerant becomes a low-pressure vapor. It then flows to the compressor and is discharged to the indoor coil as a high-temperature vapor. The heat pick-up from the outdoor coil plus the heat of compression is released from the refrigerant in the indoor coil, directly or indirectly, to the conditioned space.

Fig. 36-22 Heat Pump Operating in Heating Mode. Source: Carrier Corp.

TYPES

OF

HEAT SOURCE

AND

HEAT SINK MEDIA

Numerous heat sources and distribution fluids can be used with heat pumps and there are many variations on the basic system design. Following are brief descriptions of commonly used heat source and heat sink media.

Air
Outdoor air represents a virtually unlimited heat source and heat sink medium for heat pumps and is widely used in small-capacity systems. Other sources of air for heat pumps include air from internal spaces and air from process or HVAC exhaust systems. Since air is a relatively inefficient heat transfer medium, a large surface area is required for heat exchange coils. Since outside air temperature fluctuates so widely, set point design is a critical task. As the outdoor temperature decreases, heating capacity and efficiency of an air source heat pump decreases rapidly. Supplemental heating sources are generally required in colder climate regions. As outdoor air temperature increases, capacity and efficiency in cooling mode decreases. Air source heat pumps also require defrosting capability and are subject to degraded performance due to frost build-up. Exhaust air is usually a better heat source than outdoor air, but is usually an inferior heat sink due to relatively higher temperatures. It also has a low variation in temperature, which is advantageous. Disadvantages are limited load capability, compared with outside air, and, in cases where the exhaust stream contains dirt, grease, or other impurities, the potential for coil degradation.

Fig. 36-21 Heat Pump Operating in Cooling Mode. Source: Carrier Corp.

Water
There are many types of water sources that can serve
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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

as heat source and heat sink for heat pumps, including various types of ground (well) water and surface water from lakes, ponds, oceans, and rivers. Other potentially usable sources include municipal water supply, cooling tower water, and various types of waste water or fluid, such as sanitary sewage or discarded process water. Temperature will be a function of climate and source depth. Ground water is especially effective because of its relatively high and constant temperature. Heat exchangers can also be submerged in surface water sources, though the temperature drop across the evaporator in winter may need to be limited to prevent freeze-up. Water quality should be analyzed for the potential of scale formation and corrosion. In some cases, it may be necessary to separate the water fluid from the equipment with an additional heat exchanger. Water-to-refrigerant heat exchangers are usually DX or flooded-water cooler types.

Ground (Earth)
The ground is commonly used as a heat source and heat sink medium, with heat transfer occurring through buried coils. Heat can be transferred directly with the refrigerant in the buried coil or indirectly through a secondary loop in which heat is transferred between a circulating brine and the ground. While suitability as a heat source and heat sink varies depending on soil composition, the ground exhibits relatively low temperature variation.

Solar Energy
Solar energy can be an effective heat pump heat source. When available, it provides heat at a higher temperature than other conventional sources, which produces a greater heating COP. The advantage of using solar as a heat pump heat source instead of directly for heating is that collector efficiency and capacity is increased due to a lower temperature requirement.

TYPES

OF

HEAT PUMPS

The air-to-air system with a refrigerant changeover system described above is one of several types of commercially available heat pumps. Following are descriptions of various heat pump system designs.

As an alternative to the refrigerant changeover design discussed and shown graphically above, the thermal cycle change can also be done with an air changeover. In this type of design, one heat exchanger coil is always the evaporator and the other is always the condenser. The positioning of the dampers causes the change from cooling to heating. Thus, instead of reversing the refrigerant flow, the indoor and outdoor airflows are redirected to accomplish the same ends. This is usually the least costly type of heat pump. As with any air-cooled system, heat transfer is not as efficient as with water systems. At low ambient air temperature conditions, less heat is available and/or energy must be supplied to defrost the coil. While an air-to-air unit is in heating mode, the outdoor air passes over the outdoor coil. A typical temperature reduction of about 10F (5.6C) occurs as the outdoor air gives up heat to the refrigerant. Extended-surface forced-convection heat transfer coils are most commonly used to transfer heat between the air and the refrigerant. Typically, the surface area of the outdoor coil will be 50 to 100% larger than the indoor coil. When the air temperature is reduced below the atmospheric freezing temperature of water, moisture contained in the air will freeze and form frost on the surface of the outdoor coil. This frost will continue to form, thereby increasingly degrading heat transfer performance. When the coil is sufficiently iced over, it will render the system completely ineffective unless some means of removing the ice is provided. There are numerous methods used to defrost the unit. One method is the use of a resistance heater on the outdoor coil to melt the ice. Another method is to reverse the refrigerant flow, thereby putting the unit back in the cooling mode. The outdoor coil again becomes the condenser and hot refrigerant gas melts the frost buildup. To maintain indoor and conditioned space temperature during this period, when the unit is temporarily operating in cooling mode, a supplemental heat source may be required.

Water-to-Water
This type of system uses water as the heat source and heat sink for both heating and cooling. Water, waste water, or process effluent streams serve to treat the outdoor coil and also to treat water at the indoor coil. Heating-to-cooling changeover can be done in the refrigerant circuit or by switching in the water circuit. The water source may be directly admitted to the evaporator (similar to direct free cooling systems) or passed through a heat exchanger to avoid the potential for contamination

Air-to-Air
During heating, this type of system operates by removing heat from the outside air (heat source) by evaporating refrigerant in the outdoor coil. Refrigerant temperature in the coil is below the temperature of the outside air, which causes heat to flow from the air to the refrigerant. This heat is then transferred to the indoor space.

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(similar to indirect free cooling systems). Another alternative is to use a closed-circuit condenser water system. Water-to-water heat pumps are very efficient compared to other types, but have high capital cost and require a substantial amount of maintenance.

Water-to-Air
This type of system uses water in the outdoor coil as the heat source and air to treat the indoor coil to transmit heat to or from the conditioned space. The outdoor coil can be served by the same types of water sources as the water-to-water heat pump. Air passes through a DX indoor coil, where it is cooled and dehumidified. This type of unit has a lower capital cost than a water-to-water heat pump and the indoor coil requires less maintenance.

Air-to-Water
This type of system is the reverse of the water-to-air heat pump. Air is used to treat the outdoor coil, as in the air-to-air system, and water is used in the indoor coil.

Ground (Earth)-Coupled
These types of systems can use direct expansion of the refrigerant in a buried coil of five or more feet underground. More commonly, they are designed to operate indirectly through a secondary loop in which heat is transferred between a circulating brine and the ground. In either case, heat is extracted from the ground, which remains at a fairly constant temperature all year. These units are usually not highly efficient and can be costly to repair if leaks or other problems occur in the buried coil. However, significant maintenance, repair, and replacement savings can be achieved in cases where coil degradation associated with corrosive air or water conditions is avoided.

refrigeration cycle cooling, supplying air to the individual zone and rejecting the heat removed to the two-pipe system. When heat is required in certain zones, the individual units switch into heating mode, usually by means of a refrigerant-reversing valve. Figure 36-23 shows a water source two-pipe heat pump loop system consisting of a series of independently controlled units served by a central boiler and cooling tower. The heat that is rejected to the water loop from spaces requiring cooling is transferred to spaces or zones requiring immediate or after-hours heating. Under peak cooling conditions, excess heat that is rejected to the loop can be used to serve additional loads, such as domestic water preheating, or can be stored for later use. Under peak heating conditions, the central water heater adds heat to the system whenever the water loop temperature falls below an established set point. Since the heat of compression contributes heat to the system, the boiler can be sized smaller than a conventional system. Figure 36-24 shows a geothermal heat pump loop system application. Instead of the cooling tower, the earth serves as the heat sink for cooling, and instead of the boiler, the earth also serves as the heat source for heating.

ABSORPTION CYCLE HEAT PUMPS

AND

ENGINE-DRIVEN

While almost all of the heat pumps currently in commercial operation use electric motor-driven vapor compression systems, the compressor itself is indifferent

Cooling Tower

Solar-Assisted
These types of systems use relatively low temperature solar heat as the heat source. They may be configured as water-to-air or other types depending on the type of solar collector and HVAC distribution system used. Systems can be designed with the evaporator coils directly in the solar collector, or with a secondary medium, such as air or water, bringing the heat from the collector to the coil.

Return Water WSHP Cooling WSHP Cooling WSHP Heating

WSHP Cooling

WSHP Cooling

WSHP Heating

Expansion Tank

WSHP Main Cooling System Pump

WSHP Cooling Supply Water

WSHP Heating

Water-Loop (Load Transfer) Systems

These types of systems are designed to transfer internal load from one zone to another, with multiple waterto-air heat pump units connected hydraulically with a common two-pipe system. Each unit uses conventional

Boiler Standby System Pump

Fig. 36-23 Water Source Two-Pipe Heat Pump Loop System with Cooling Tower and Boiler. Source: The Trane Company

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

WSHP

WSHP

WSHP

WSHP

WSHP

WSHP

WSHP

WSHP

WSHP

Main System Pump

Ground Line Standby System Pump

Fig. 36-24 Geothermal Heat Pump Loop System. Source: The Trane Company

NH3-H2O based GAX cycle, which are discussed in Chapter 38. While the basic GAX cycle is an excellent heat producer, it is not as thermally efficient in the cooling mode as other cooling system alternatives. The advanced GAX-cycle machines, however, are expected to improve the cooling-side efficiency. Under standard ARI conditions, this unit is expected to achieve a cooling COP of 0.95 and a heating COP of 1.55. These COP figures are particularly impressive because these are air source heat pumps operating through a much wider temperature range than can be achieved with conventional absorption cycle machines.

to its driver and may be driven with any type of prime mover. Figure 36-25 shows a series of small-capacity gasfired reciprocating engine-driven heat pumps applied in a manufacturing plant. In contrast to traditional electricdriven heat pump systems, these units can use heat recovered from the engine to meet peak heating requirements instead of relying upon inefficient electric resistance heat. Figure 36-26 is a schematic diagram of an engine-driven heat pump. Included is a heat exchanger to provide for domestic hot water heating and a gas-fired auxiliary heater. The absorption cycle may also be used for heat pump applications. Currently, there are numerous types of absorption cycle heat pump systems under prototype development. Many of these are based on variations of the conventional LiBr-based absorption cycle or the

HEAT PUMP PERFORMANCE

In contrast to the ideal COP for a conventional refrigeration cycle, which is expressed as: TL COPc = (36-10) (TH TL )

Refrigerant
Cooling Mode Heating Mode

Water
Air Handler

Domestic Hot Water Heater Exchanger (Option) Auxiliary Heater Gas

Indoor Section Outdoor Section

Compressor Engine/ Coolant System

Fig. 36-25 Series of Small-Capacity Gas Engine-Driven Traithlon Heat Pumps. Source: York International and The American Gas Cooling Center

Fig. 36-26 Schematic Diagram of an Engine-Driven Heat Pump. Source: GRI

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Heat Rejection Condensers, Cooling Towers, Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery

the ideal COP of a heat pump is expressed as: TH COPh = (TH TL )

(36-11)

where all temperatures are in absolute units and subscripts h and c refer to heating and cooling COP, respectively. Whereas, with the conventional refrigeration cycle, COPc represents the ratio of cooling effect to energy input, with a heat pump cycle, COPh represents the ratio of heat output to energy input. What can be seen from the ideal COP expression is that the heat pump can be a very efficient heater. The energy available for heating duty includes the heat normally rejected in conventional refrigeration cycles the heat associated with the refrigeration effect, i.e., 12,000 Btu/ton-h (1 kWhh/kWhr) plus the driving energy input that would normally be rejected through the condenser to the outside environment. The heat available (HA) can thus be expressed as: HA = Refrigeration effect + Driving energy input (36-12) The driving energy input refers to the portion of the heat imparted on the system that must also be rejected to the condenser. In the case of vapor compression systems, it is the heat of compression. In absorption systems, it is the heat duty of the generator. This is roughly equivalent to the heat input that is not otherwise rejected (i.e., in the form of steam condensate, return water, or exhaust gas). The practical equation for heating COP is the HA divided by the driving heat input (HI). Consider, for example, an electric-driven air-cooled vapor compression system with a 100,000 Btu/h (29.3 kW) heating capacity and an electricity input of 10 kW. In heating mode, the COP would be: 100,000 Btu/h COPh = = 2.93 10 kW x 3,413 Btu/kWh In SI units, this would be: 29.3 kW = 2.93 10 kW In practice, most heat pumps operate as efficient heaters in moderate temperatures, i.e., above 40F (4.4C). However, as the ambient temperature approaches freezing, capacity and efficiency fall off dramatically, and eventually the system must use an additional heat source to maintain heating capacity. To determine the seasonal heating COP, performance would have to be calculated over the full operating regime and then averaged. COPh =

Generally, in smaller conventional systems, the supplemental heat source is electric resistance heating, which is considered highly inefficient. In electric resistance heating mode, the heating COP would approach 1.0. In some cases, conventional fuel-fired furnaces are used in a hybrid system configuration. These systems are both more thermally efficient in use of source energy and more costly to install than electric resistance supplemental systems. When comparing performance for systems that use electricity as opposed to fuel or systems that use a combination of electricity and fuel, it is understood that a direct comparison of COPs can provide misleading results. More valid comparisons would be based on source energy usage (considering the source fuel efficiency of electricity production) or, more directly, on economic performance. Another concern with air-to-air heat pumps is frosting. As discussed above, when ambient temperatures reach 40F (4C) or below, the temperature of the air passing over the coil is reduced below freezing, causing frost buildup on the surface of the outdoor coil. This necessitates the use of some type of defrosting method. Energy used for defrosting should also be considered in the determination of the seasonal heating COP.

REFRIGERATION CYCLE HEAT RECOVERY

Any type of refrigeration cycle system that transfers heat for beneficial purposes may be considered a heat pump. Refrigeration cycle systems that provide cooling but also recover heat rejected from the refrigerant to provide useful heating may be considered a type of heat recovery heat pump. These are differentiated from reverse cycle systems in that when they operate, they always provide cooling with conventional cycle operation. An additional feature is that they recover refrigeration cycle-generated heat, normally rejected to the outside environment, for productive use. With refrigeration cycle heat recovery systems, there is a net gain in thermodynamic efficiency when the relatively low temperature typically, but not always, lower than 130F (54C) recovered heat can be used. Since there is 12,000 Btu/ton-h (1 kWhh /kWhr) of heat rejection, plus a portion of the cycle driving energy input to the system that also must be rejected, heat recovery can result in extremely efficient refrigeration cycle system energy utilization. Heat recovery can be applied to almost any type of refrigeration cycle system, limited chiefly by the economic viability of using a relatively low-temperature heat source. The underlying theory is that the energy rejected

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Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

from refrigeration cycles contains available thermal energy that can be recovered for productive use. Applications that heat or preheat relatively cold water (as in domestic water heating), for example, are more likely to be cost-effective. Principle obstacles are capital and operating costs associated with recovery of any relatively low-temperature energy stream, potentially negative impacts on cooling system performance resulting from installation and operation of heat recovery components, design complications associated with non-concurrence of cooling and heating loads, and potentially unstable chiller operation under low-load conditions. Refrigeration cycle heat recovery systems typically use desuperheaters and condensers or auxiliary condensers. These are discussed below. Desuperheaters, which are commonly used in smaller applications featuring air-cooled reciprocating and scroll compressors, function somewhat as auxiliary condensers. As shown in Figure 36-27, the desuperheater is usually connected to the system between the compressor discharge and the condenser. Heat is transferred from the hot refrigerant to the water being heated. The desuperheated refrigerant then flows through the condenser. The temperature of the water leaving the desuperheater is dependent on the cooling (refrigeration) loads. Typically, water temperature gain ranges from 5 to 40F (3 to 22C). Two important application considerations are sizing and avoiding contamination of the heating loop by the refrigerant charge. If the desuperheater is undersized, it restricts the refrigerant charge line, causing the compressor to operate inefficiently against excessive refrigerant head pressure. An oversized unit may result in insufficient discharge refrigerant gas velocities, which in turn can result in oil trapping and insufficient oil to the compressor. Condenser heat recovery systems are typically used for larger systems featuring centrifugal or screw compressors. These systems may feature either a single condenser or a dual-condenser configuration with a dedicated heat recovery condenser. In applications in which the heating load exceeds the cooling load at all times, the chiller essentially functions as a heat pump with all of the rejected heat from the condenser serving the heating load. In applications in which the cooling load exceeds the heat recovery requirement, typical heat rejection apparatus (i.e., a cooling tower or other heat sink) is required. In the simplest arrangement, the condenser is sized for a relatively large peak temperature differential of 30F (17C) or more. The hot water exiting the condenser is passed through a filter to the heat recovery (heat exchang-

Water Source

T 5-40F

Hot Water

Condenser

Desuperheater

Compressor Water Heater Water Chiller

Fig. 36-27 Small-Capacity Heat Recovery System Featuring Desuperheater. Source: The Trane Company

er) unit and then on to the cooling tower (heat sink). To limit heat exchanger fouling and the risk of contamination by cooling tower water (or other source, such as river water), a second separate condenser is commonly used, which establishes a separate heat recovery circuit. The separate condenser is sized in accordance with the portion of the available heat energy targeted for recovery. Dual-condenser systems, shown in Figure 36-28, operate on the principle that refrigerant will migrate to the coldest point in the system. Raising the temperature of one condenser thus forces heat rejection to the other. By modulating the flow to the heat recovery condenser or the temperature of the tower water loop, the temperature of the standard condenser and the heat rejection to the heat recovery condenser can be controlled. With centrifugal

Cooling Tower Heating Condenser

Heating Load

Cooling Condenser Condenser Water Pump Chilled Water Pump

Heating Water Pump

Evaporator

Cooling Load

Fig. 36-28 Dual-Condenser Heat Recovery System. Source: The Trane Company

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Heat Rejection Condensers, Cooling Towers, Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery

chillers, care must be taken to avoid unstable operation under low load conditions, given the high head pressure imposed on the system.

HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

As with heat pumps, the energy available to a heat recovery system consists of the refrigeration (or cooling) effect, plus the driving energy input. In English units, when driver energy for a vapor compression system is measured in hp, the heat available from a system can be expressed as: HA = [12,000 Btu/ton-hcooling effect + hp/ton x 2,545 Btu/hp-hcompression ] x tons capacity (36-13) When driver energy is measured in kW, the equation becomes: HA = [12,000 Btu/ton-hcooling effect + (kW/ton x 3,413 Btu/kWh)compression ] x tons capacity (36-14) In SI units, this can be expressed as: HA = [1 kWhh /kWhr cooling effect + (kWhm /kWhr )compression ] x kWr capacity (36-15)

In this equation, subscript h refers to the heat energy rejected and subscript m refers to mechanical energy input. It is understood that the mechanical energy input is converted to heat as a result of the compression process. Total system performance includes the cooling benefit of the refrigeration effect and the heating benefit of the refrigeration effect plus the driving energy input. Combined, the total useful energy output usually reflects a very efficient use of the energy input. However, a principle disadvantage is the chiller capacity and efficiency penalty associated with the higher pressure differential against which the compressor must work. This particularly affects summer energy consumption, because the compressor speed is optimized for the high-head duty through selection of gear ratio and/or impeller duty. Annual performance is increasingly degraded by increasing elevated leaving condenser hot water temperature. This penalty increases as the hot water temperatures produced increase and may exceed 25% of the total chiller energy input. As a result, the energy saved by utilizing heat recovery is partially offset by the additional energy required per unit of cooling output. Table 36-2 provides a representative comparison of two heat recovery system design set points. In winter, leaving condenser temperature is 100F (38C) in one unit

and 105F (41C) in the other. In both cases, through high gear ratio, leaving condenser water temperature is 95F (35C) in summer. This example is based on a constant leaving chilled water temperature of 44F (7C). In addition to minimizing leaving condenser water temperature, chilled water reset can be used to minimize performance degradation. This is accomplished by allowing the leaving chilled water temperature to be raised to the maximum temperature that will still satisfy the cooling load. This reduces peak compressor pressure requirements during winter operation (or cooler ambient temperature periods) when lower humidity levels and cooling capacity requirements allow for elevated (or reset) chilled water temperatures. The economic performance of heat recovery systems is a function of the achievable net energy cost savings and the cost of the heat recovery equipment and any design modifications necessary for the distribution and use of relatively low-temperature hot water. As with any lowtemperature heat recovery system, capital costs are negatively impacted by the need to increase distribution system size. If, for example, the hot water is used for space heating, the capital cost penalty includes larger size pipes, pumps, and coils. Pump energy use is also increased. Selection of distribution temperature must balance these factors with the desire to minimize leaving condenser water temperatures to minimize the system performance penalty. A key operating factor to system economic performance is the concurrence of heating and cooling loads. When there is insufficient cooling load to support the heating requirement, a false cooling load must be applied to the chiller in order to generate the required heat rejection, rendering the system highly inefficient. An alternative to this operating mode is the provision of heat from a supplemental source. When operating in cooling only mode, with a lower pressure differential, the chillers can
Operating Mode Base 100 F Temp. Summer Winter 105 F Temp. Summer 95 0.88 7% Winter 105 0.98 20% Table 36-2 Comparison of Heat Recovery Design Set Points. 95 100 0.86 0.89 4% 9% Leaving CWT (F) 95 HP per Ton 0.82 Performance Penalty Base

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achieve full capacity and improved efficiency. However, efficiency will always remain lower than a comparable chiller system designed for a lower lift requirement. A variation of this applied chiller heat-recovery technology involves the use of two interrelated systems. One system functions at typical temperatures and efficiencies with, for example, a condenser water rise of 85 to 95F (29 to 35C). In such a system, the 95F (35C) exiting condenser water bypasses the cooling tower and enters the second system where it is cooled by refrigerant and returned at 85F (29C). To accomplish this, the compressor work is relatively low. The refrigerant in the second system is then condensed, giving off its heat to the heating loop. Thus, 12,000 Btu/ton-h (1 kWhh/kWhr) plus the heat of compression from both systems compressors are passed to the heating loop. When heating requirements are lower than the heat energy made available by the cooling process, it is bypassed to the tower.

Absorption Cycle Heat Recovery

Though not commonly used in heat recovery applications, absorption cycle systems provide abundant quantities of low-temperature heat. While a single-stage LiBr absorption chiller with a COP of 0.66 is considered a very inefficient refrigeration machine, it is an extremely efficient heat-producing machine. While 1 Btu (or kWh) of heat input produces only 0.66 Btu (or kWh) of refrigeration effect, it produces 1.66 Btu (or kWh) of rejected heat (this should

not be confused with the absorption heating cycle). While more efficient in providing cooling than a single-effect absorption chiller, a double-effect LiBr absorption machine with a COP of 1.0 is also a good heat producer, as it rejects about 2.0 Btu (or kWh) of heat per Btu (or kWh) energy input. Hence, by combining the beneficial use of the cooling effect and the recovered heat, the absorption machines can operate at an extremely high performance rate. However, as with vapor compressions systems, the heat product is at a relatively low temperature, which requires large pipe and pump sizes, and there is also an efficiency penalty for elevating the temperature of the recovered heat. Generally, the limit on using full heat rejection of absorption chilling machines is about 100F (38C). This is usually the maximum temperature of the combined condenser and absorber cooling water circuits. By targeting only the absorber cooling water circuit, heat can be recovered at substantially higher temperatures in LiBr machines. The amount of recoverable heat will be proportional to the driving energy input to the generator. With ammonia-based machines, heat recovery potential is greatly increased due to increased absorber operating temperatures. Due to the large temperature glide, absorber temperatures can exceed 180F (82C), allowing for relatively high temperature heat recovery. This opens up a wider range of useful applications and reduces pump and pipe size requirements.

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